Internet access

The Internet developed from the ARPANET, which was funded by the US government to support
projects within the government and at universities and research laboratories in the US but grew
over time to include most of the world's large universities and the research arms of many technology
companies.[2][3][4] Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the
Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted.[5]
In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from personal
computers and workstations directly connected to local area networks or from dial-up
connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s and
grew to support 100 and 1000 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 and 2400 bit/s in the
1980s, to 28 and 56 kbit/s by the mid to late 1990s. Initially dial-up connections were made
from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These
dial-up connections did not support end-to-end use of the Internet protocols and only provided
terminal to host connections. The introduction of network access servers (NASs) supporting
the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and later the point-to-point protocol (PPP) extended the
Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial-up users, subject only
to limitations imposed by the lower data rates available using dial-up.
Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband and also known as high-speed
Internet access, are services that provide bit-rates considerably higher than that available using a 56
kbit/s modem. In the US National Broadband Plan of 2009, the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) defined broadband access as "Internet access that is always on and faster than
the traditional dial-up access",[6] although the FCC has defined it differently through the years.[7] The
term broadband was originally a reference to multi-frequency communication, as opposed
to narrowband or baseband. Broadband is now a marketing term that telephone, cable, and other
companies use to sell their more expensive higher-data-rate products. [8] Broadband connections are
typically made using a computer's built in Ethernet networking capabilities, or by using
a NIC expansion card.
Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process
required, and it does not hog phone lines.[9] Broadband provides improved access to Internet
services such as:

Faster world wide web browsing

Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files

Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing

Virtual private networks and remote system administration

Online gaming, especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are
interaction-intensive

In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet
access a public policy issue.[10] In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up,
while many businesses and schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just
under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries [11] and fewer than 20 million
broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the
number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD countries,
over 90% of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than
300 million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million. [12]
The broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies
include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable
plants. Fibre-optic communication, while only recently being used in premises and to the
curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling broadband Internet access by making
transmission of information at very high data rates over longer distances much more cost-effective
than copper wire technology.
In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations and local governments are
installing Wi-Fi networks. Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or
other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available.
Newer technologies being deployed for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access
include WiMAX, LTE, and fixed wireless, e.g., Motorola Canopy.
Starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level
using "3G" and "4G" technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE.

Availability[edit]
In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace Internet access may be available
from public places such as libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections
are available. Some libraries provide stations for connecting users' laptops to local area
networks (LANs).
Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases
just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin operated computers.

Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and
"Web payphone". Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based.
Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer
networks, referred to as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as
a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot
need not be limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be
enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.
Additionally, Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital devices to connect to
the Internet from any location from which a mobile phone call can be made, subject to the
capabilities of that mobile network.

Speed[edit]
Data rate units (SI)
Unit

Symbol

Bits

Bytes

Kilobit per second

(103)

kbit/s

1,000 bit/s

125 B/s

Megabit/s

(106)

Mbit/s

1,000 kbit/s

125 kB/s

Gigabit/s

(109)

Gbit/s

1,000 Mbit/s

125 MB/s

Terabit/s

(1012)

Tbit/s

1,000 Gbit/s

125 GB/s

Petabit/s

(1015)

Pbit/s

1,000 Tbit/s

125 TB/s

Symbol

Bits

Bytes

Unit

Kilobyte per second

(103)

kB/s

8,000 bit/s

1,000 B/s

Megabyte/s

(106)

MB/s

8,000 kbit/s

1,000 kB/s

Gigabyte/s

(109)

GB/s

8,000 Mbit/s

1,000 MB/s

Terabyte/s

(1012)

TB/s

8,000 Gbit/s

1,000 GB/s

Petabyte/s

(1015)

PB/s

8,000 Tbit/s

1,000 TB/s

Main articles: Data rates, Bit rates, Bandwidth (computing) and Device data rates
The bit rates for dial-up modems range from as little as 110 bit/s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of
from 33 to 64 kbit/s (V.90 and V.92) in the late 1990s. Dial-up connections generally require the
dedicated use of a telephone line. Data compression can boost the effective bit rate for a dial-up
modem connection to from 220 (V.42bis) to 320 (V.44) kbit/s.[13] However, the effectiveness of data
compression is quite variable, depending on the type of data being sent, the condition of the
telephone line, and a number of other factors. In reality, the overall data rate rarely exceeds 150
kbit/s.[14]
Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial-up, generally without
disrupting regular telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been
used in definitions of broadband, ranging from 64 kbit/s up to 4.0 Mbit/s.[15] In 1988
theCCITT standards body defined "broadband service" as requiring transmission channels capable
of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s.[16]A
2006 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined broadband
as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s.[17] And in 2015 the
U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined "Basic Broadband" as data transmission
speeds of at least 25 Mbit/s downstream (from the Internet to the users computer) and 3 Mbit/s
upstream (from the users computer to the Internet).[18] The trend is to raise the threshold of the
broadband definition as higher data rate services become available. [19]
The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are "asymmetric"supporting
much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).
Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the
maximum or peak download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably
available to the customer.[20] Actual end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors.
[21]

Physical link quality can vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building

construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. Network bottlenecks
may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or service being
used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end-user.

Network congestion[edit]
Users may share access over a common network infrastructure. Since most users do not use their
full connection capacity all of the time, this aggregation strategy (known as contended service)
usually works well and users can burst to their full data rate at least for brief periods. However, peer-

to-peer (P2P) file sharing and high-quality streaming video can require high data-rates for extended
periods, which violates these assumptions and can cause a service to become oversubscribed,
resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes flow-control mechanisms
that automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network congestion.
This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can
be frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth
actually available may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video
conferencing or streaming live videoeffectively making the service unavailable.
When traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to
classes of users or for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can
ensure a better quality of service for time critical services even on extremely busy networks.
However, overuse can lead to concerns about fairness and network neutrality or even charges
of censorship, when some types of traffic are severely or completely blocked.

Outages[edit]
An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions. Disruptions
of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in
the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small
number of high-capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging
for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia.[22] Internet blackouts affecting
almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet censorship, as in the
blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93%[23] of networks were without access in
2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.[24]
On April 25, 1997, due to a combination of human error and software bug, an incorrect routing table
at MAI Network Service (a Virginia Internet Service Provider) propagated across backbone routers
and caused major disruption to Internet traffic for a few hours.[25]
See also: AS 7007 incident and List of web host service outages

Technologies[edit]
Access technologies generally use a modem, which converts digital data to analog for transmission
over analog networks such as the telephone and cablenetworks.[9]

Dial-up access[edit]
"Dial up modem noises"

MENU
0:00

Typical noises of a dial-up

modem while establishing
connection with a
local ISPin order to get
access to the Internet.

Problems playing this file? See media

help.

Dial-up Internet access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone
network(PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a
computer's digital signal into an analog signal that travels over a phone line's local loop until it
reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO) where it is switched to
another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection. [26]
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the
slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access available
in rural areas as it requires no new infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone network, to
connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up connections do not exceed a speed of 56 kbit/s, as they are
primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum data rate of 56 kbit/s downstream
(towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream (toward the global Internet). [9]

Local area networks[edit]

Local area networks (LANs) provide Internet access to computers and other devices in a limited area
such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building, via an upstream link to an Internet
service provider. The upstream links may be established by a variety of technologies, such as Pointto-point protocol over Ethernet. Although LANs may provide high data-rates that typically range from
10 to 1000 Mbit/s,[27] actual Internet access speed is limited by the upstream link. LANs may be wired
or wireless. Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies
used to build LANs today, but ARCNET,Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other technologies were
used in the past.

Most Internet access today is through a LAN [citation needed], often a very small LAN with just one or two
devices attached. And while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this raises the question
of how and at what data rate the LAN itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The
technologies described below are used to make these connections.

Hardwired broadband access[edit]

The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate
access to the Internet. These technologies use wires or cables in contrast to wireless broadband
described later.
Multilink dial-up[edit]
Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by channel bonding multiple dial-up connections and
accessing them as a single data channel.[28] It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and dialup accounts, as well as an ISP that supports multilinking and of course any line and data charges
are also doubled. Thisinverse multiplexing option was briefly popular with some high-end users
before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available. Diamond and other vendors created
special modems to support multilinking.[29]
Integrated Services Digital Network[edit]
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a switched telephone service capable of transporting
voice and digital data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice,
video conferencing, and broadband data applications. ISDN was very popular in Europe, but less
common in North America. Its use peaked in the late 1990s before the availability of DSL and cable
modem technologies.[30]
Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "bearer" or "B" channels. These channels
can be used separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit/s service.
Multiple ISDN-BRI lines can be bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s. Primary rate
ISDN, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 bearer channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined data rate of
1.5 Mbit/s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard) line has 30 bearer channels and a
combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.
Leased lines[edit]
Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to
connect LANs and campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public
telephone network or other providers. Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are
used to provide Internet access directly as well as the building blocks from which several other forms
of Internet access are created.[31]
T-carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0) to
1.5 Mbit/s (DS1 or T1), to 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels (24

DS0s), so customers may use some channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24
channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28 DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1 lines
are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and 1,500 kbit/s. T-carrier
lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a router or
switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP.[32] In Japan the equivalent standard is
J1/J3. In Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels (64 kbit/s) on an
E1 (2.0 Mbit/s) and 512 user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit/s).
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH, in the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry highdata-rate digital bit-streams over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting
diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface.
The basic unit of framing is an OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c (electrical) which carries 155.520 Mbit/s.
Thus an OC-3c will carry three OC-1 (51.84 Mbit/s) payloads each of which has enough capacity to
include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC-3c multiples of four providing OC12c (622.080 Mbit/s), OC-48c (2.488 Gbit/s), OC-192c (9.953 Gbit/s), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s).
The "c" at the end of the OC labels stands for "concatenated" and indicates a single data stream
rather than several multiplexed data streams.[31]
The 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40/100 GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow
digital data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at
distances to 40 km.[33]
Cable Internet access[edit]
Cable Internet access or cable modem access provides Internet access via hybrid fiber
coaxial wiring originally developed to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper
cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a connection known as a cable drop. In
a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a neighborhood connect to a
cable company's central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then connects to the
Internet using a variety of means usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave
transmissions.[34] Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business
connections, and 250 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at
the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service
fewer business customers because existing television cable networks tend to service residential
buildings and commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial cable networks. [35] In
addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line, communications may be
intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption schemes for
data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted. [34]

Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)[edit]

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone
network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of
the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible)
frequencies of the line are left free for regular telephone communication.[9] These frequency bands
are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital
subscriber line is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most
commonly installed variety of DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges
from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL
technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In ADSL, the data throughput in the
upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower than that in the downstream
direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric.[36] With a symmetric digital
subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.[37]
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)[38] is a digital subscriber line
(DSL) standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s
upstream over copper wires[39] and up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream on coaxial cable.[40] VDSL is
capable of supporting applications such as high-definition television, as well as telephone services
(voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single physical connection.
VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second-generation version and an enhancement of VDSL. [41] Approved
in February 2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s simultaneously in both the
upstream and downstream directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of
about 300 meters and performance degrades as distance and loop attenuation increases.
DSL Rings[edit]
DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing
copper telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.[42]
Fiber to the home[edit]
Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-tothe-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-tothe-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN).[43] These methods all bring data closer to the end
user on optical fibers. The differences between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to
the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these delivery methods are similar tohybrid fibercoaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.

The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most highcapacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data
switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.[44]
Australia has already begun rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using
fiber-optic cables to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses. [45] Similar efforts are
underway in Italy, Canada, India, and many other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country).[46]
[47][48][49]

Power-line Internet[edit]
Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a
conductor that is also used for electric power transmission.[50]Because of the extensive power line
infrastructure already in place, this technology can provide people in rural and low population areas
access the Internet with little cost in terms of new transmission equipment, cables, or wires. Data
rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit/s to 2.7 Mbit/s.[51]
Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the-air
communication services, interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction of
power-line Internet systems. The IEEE P1901 standard specifies that all power-line protocols must
detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it. [51]
Power-line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference in
power system design philosophies. Data signals cannot pass through the step-down transformers
used and so a repeater must be installed on each transformer.[51] In the U.S. a transformer serves a
small cluster of from one to a few houses. In Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger
transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses. Thus a typical U.S. city requires an
order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city.[52]
ATM and Frame Relay[edit]
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide-area networking standards that can
be used to provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For
example many DSL implementations use an ATM layer over the low-level bitstream layer to enable a
number of different technologies over the same link. Customer LANs are typically connected to an
ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased lines at a wide range of data rates. [53][54]
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and broadband
services such as cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role
they once did.

Wireless broadband access[edit]

Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access.

Wi-Fi[edit]

Wi-Fi logo

Wi-Fi is a trade name for a wireless local area network (WLAN) that uses one of the IEEE
802.11 standards. It is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Individual homes and businesses often use
Wi-Fi to connect laptops and smart phones to the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found in coffee
shops and various other public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create campus-wide and citywide wireless networks.[55][56][57]
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called access points. "Ad hoc" computer
to computer Wi-Fi networks are also possible. The Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet
using DSL, cable modem, and other Internet access technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600
Mbit/s. Wi-Fi service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 m or from 65 to 820 feet. Both data rate
and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol, location, frequency, building
construction, and interference from other devices.[58] Using directional antennas and with careful
engineering Wi-Fi can be extended to operate over distances of up to several km, see "Wireless
ISP" below.
Wireless ISP[edit]
Wireless Internet service providers typically employ low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link
up remote locations over great distances (Long-range Wi-Fi), but may use other higher-power radio
communications systems as well.
Traditional 802.11b is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to span between 100 and 150
m (300 to 500 ft). By focusing the radio signal using adirectional antenna 802.11b can operate
reliably over a distance of many km(miles), although the technology's line-of-sight requirements
hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or heavily foliated terrain. In addition, compared to hard-wired
connectivity, there are security risks (unless robust security protocols are enabled); data rates are
significantly slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less stable, due to interference
from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight problems. [59]
Rural wireless-ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and are instead a patchwork of
systems built up by hobbyists mounting antennas on radio masts and towers, agricultural storage
silos, very tall trees, or whatever other tall objects are available. There are a number of companies
that provide this service.[60]

Motorola Canopy and other proprietary technologies offer wireless access to rural and other markets
that are hard to reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
WiMAX[edit]
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX ) is a set of interoperable implementations
of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX
enables "the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".
[61]

The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and

provided 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates.[62] Mobility support was added in 2005. A 2011
update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a metropolitan area
network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot)
wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate
building walls much more effectively than Wi-Fi.
Satellite broadband[edit]

Satellite Internet access via VSAT in Ghana

Satellite Internet service provides fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. It is among the most
expensive forms of broadband Internet access, but may be the only choice available in remote
areas.[63] Data rates range from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s
upstream. Satellite communication typically requires a clear line of sight, will not work well through
trees and other vegetation, is adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade),
and may require a fairly large, carefully aimed, directional antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position 35,786 km (22,236 miles)
above the earth's equator. Even at the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per
second), it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel from the earth to the satellite and
back. When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are doubled to allow for a
full round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when
compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2
seconds. Long latencies can make some applications, such as video conferencing, voice over IP,
multiplayer games, and remote control of equipment, that require a real-time response impracticable

via satellite. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration techniques can mitigate some of these problems.
GEO satellites do not cover the earth's polar regions. [64] HughesNet and ViaSat are GEO systems.
Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO,
between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower
altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies
and make real-time interactive Internet applications feasible. LEO systems
include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a
latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is
expected to have a latency of just 7 ms.
Mobile broadband[edit]

Service mark for GSMA

Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone
towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and
other digital devices using portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to
be connected to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering. The
modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to
some devices using PC cards,USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or separate wireless
modems can be used.[65]
New mobile phone technology and infrastructure is introduced periodically and generally involves a
change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission
technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in
Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data
services became available during the second generation (2G).
Second generation (2G) from 1991:
Speeds in kbit/s

GSM CSD
CDPD

down and up

9.6 kbit/s
up to 19.2 kbit/s

 GSM GPRS (2.5G)

56 to 115 kbit/s

GSM EDGE (2.75G)

up to 237 kbit/s
Third generation (3G) from 2001:
Speeds in Mbit/s

down

UMTS W-CDMA

up

0.4 Mbit/s

UMTS HSPA

14.4

UMTS TDD

5.8
16 Mbit/s

CDMA2000 1xRTT

0.3

CDMA2000 EV-DO

2.54.9

GSM EDGE-Evolution

0.151.8
1.6

Fourth generation (4G) from 2006:

Speeds in Mbit/s

HSPA+

Mobile WiMAX (802.16)

LTE

LTE-Advanced:
moving at higher speeds

0.15

0.5

 not moving or moving at lower speeds

MBWA (802.20)

The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or
maximum rates and end users will typically experience lower data rates.
WiMAX was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added in
2005. CDPD, CDMA2000 EV-DO, and MBWA are no longer being actively developed.
In 2011, 90% of the world's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% lived in areas with
2G and 3G coverage.[66]
Local Multipoint Distribution Service[edit]
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses
microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz.[67]Originally designed for digital television
transmission (DTV), it is conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in
the last mile. Data rates range from 64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s.[68] Distance is typically limited to about 1.5
miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station are possible in some
circumstances.[69]
LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and WiMAX
standards.

Pricing and spending[edit]

Broadband affordability in 2011

This map presents an overview of broadband affordability, as the relationship between average yearly income per capita and the cost of a
broadband subscription (data referring to 2011). Source: Information Geographies at the Oxford Internet Institute. [70]

Internet access is limited by the relation between pricing and available resources to spend.
Regarding the latter, it is estimated that 40% of the world's population has less than US$20 per year
available to spend on information and communications technology (ICT).[71] In Mexico, the poorest
30% of the society counts with an estimated US$35 per year (US$3 per month) and in Brazil, the
poorest 22% of the population counts with merely US$9 per year to spend on ICT (US$0.75 per
month). From Latin America it is known that the borderline between ICT as anecessity good and ICT
as a luxury good is roughly around the magical number of US$10 per person per month, or
US$120 per year.[71] This is the amount of ICT spending people esteem to be a basic necessity.
Current Internet access prices exceed the available resources by large in many countries.
Dial-up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly
subscription fee, and may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect
time limits by their ISP. Though less common today than in the past, some dial-up access is offered
for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of the dial-up
service.NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free-nets are examples of services providing
free access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet
access.
Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited" or flat rate pricing model, with
price determined by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or
traffic based charge. Per minute and traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile
broadband Internet access.
Internet services like Facebook, Wikipedia and Google have built special programs to partner
with mobile network operators (MNO) to introduce zero-rating the cost for their data volumes as a
means to provide their service more broadly into developing markets. [72]
With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer
file sharing, demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing
model may become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 8090% of the
cost of providing broadband service, the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do
not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about
$0.03.[73]
Some ISPs estimate that a small number of their users consume a disproportionate portion of the
total bandwidth. In response some ISPs are considering, are experimenting with, or have
implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or "peak" and "off peak" pricing, and
bandwidth or traffic caps. Others claim that because the marginal cost of extra bandwidth is very
small with 80 to 90 percent of the costs fixed regardless of usage level, that such steps are

unnecessary or motivated by concerns other than the cost of delivering bandwidth to the end user.[74]
[75][76]

In Canada, Rogers Hi-Speed Internet and Bell Canada have imposed bandwidth caps.[74] In
2008 Time Warner began experimenting with usage-based pricing in Beaumont, Texas.[77] In 2009 an
effort by Time Warner to expand usage-based pricing into the Rochester, New York area met with
public resistance, however, and was abandoned.[78] On August 1, 2012 in Nashville, Tennessee and
on October 1, 2012 in Tucson, Arizona Comcast began tests that impose data caps on area
residents. In Nashville exceeding the 300 Gbyte cap, mandates a temporary purchase of 50 Gbytes
of additional data.[79]

Growth in number of users[edit]

Worldwide Internet users
2005

World population[80]

2010

2014a

6.5 billion

6.9 billion

7.2 billion

Not using the Internet

84%

70%

60%

Using the Internet

16%

30%

40%

Users in the developing world

8%

21%

32%

Users in the developed world

51%

67%

78%

Estimate.

Source: International Telecommunications Union.[81]

Internet users by region

2005

2010

2014a

Africa

2%

10%

19%

Americas

36%

49%

65%

Arab States

8%

26%

41%

Asia and Pacific

9%

23%

32%

Independent States

10%

34%

56%

Europe

46%

67%

75%

Commonwealth of

Estimate.

Source: International Telecommunications Union.[81]

Main article: Global Internet usage

Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in
1995, to 670 million in 2002, and to 2.7 billion in 2013.[82] With market saturation, growth in the
number of Internet users is slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia,[83] Africa, Latin
America, theCaribbean, and the Middle East.
There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband
subscribers in 2011.[84] In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile
broadband networks. In developing countries mobile broadband is often the only access method
available.[66]

Digital divide[edit]

Internet users in 2012 as a percentage of a country's population

Source: International Telecommunications Union.[85]

Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunications Union.[86]

Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunications Union.[87]

Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed equally within or between countries.
[88][89]

The digital divide refers to the gap between people with effective access to information and

communications technology (ICT), and those with very limited or no access. The gap between
people with Internet access and those without is one of many aspects of the digital divide. [90] Whether
someone has access to the Internet can depend greatly on financial status, geographical location as
well as government policies. Low-income, rural, and minority populations have received special
scrutiny as the technological "have-nots."[91]
Government policies play a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access for
underserved groups, regions, and countries. For example in Pakistan, which is pursuing an
aggressive IT policy aimed at boosting its drive for economic modernization, the number of Internet
users grew from 133,900 (0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31 million (17.6% of the population) in
2011.[92] In countries such as North Korea and Cuba there is relatively little access to the Internet due

to the governments' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access to the
global Internet.[93] The U.S. trade embargo is another barrier limiting Internet access in Cuba.[94]
In the United States, billions of dollars has been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and
bring Internet access to more people in low-income and rural areas of the United States. Internet
availability varies widely state by state in the U.S. In 2011 for example, 87.1% of all New
Hampshire residents lived in a household where Internet was available, ranking first in the nation.
[95]

Meanwhile 61.4% of all Mississippi residents lived in a household where Internet was available,

ranking last in the nation.[96] The Obama administration has continued this commitment to narrowing
the digital divide through the use of stimulus funding.[91] The National Center for Education
Statistics reported that 98% of all U.S. classroom computers had Internet access in 2008 with
roughly one computer with Internet access available for every three students. The percentage and
ratio of students to computers was the same for rural schools (98% and 1 computer for every 2.9
students).[97]
Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in
developing countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in
developed countries the figures were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet
access.[66] When buying computers was legalized in Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of
computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, a 23% increase
over 2007).[98][99]
Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of
peoples economic, political, and social lives. Providing Internet access to more people in the world
will allow them to take advantage of the political, social, economic, educational, and career
opportunities available over the Internet.[89] Several of the 67 principles adopted at theWorld Summit
on the Information Society convened by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the
digital divide.[100] To promote economic development and a reduction of thedigital divide, national
broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the availability of affordable highspeed Internet access throughout the world.

Rural access[edit]
Main article: Broadband universal service
One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is
to provide service to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers,
ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for a service
provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural customer may require expensive equipment to
get connected. While 66% of Americans had an Internet connection in 2010, that figure was only
50% in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.[101] Virgin Media advertised

over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from Cwmbranto Clydebank" that have access to their
100 Mbit/s service.[20]
Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for
rural areas.[102] The technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas
with hilly and heavily foliated terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote
Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a viable option. [103]
The Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative is the first program in North America to guarantee
access to "100% of civic addresses" in a region. It is based onMotorola Canopy technology. As of
November 2011, under 1000 households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell
network by one Canopy provider (Eastlink) was expected to provide the alternative of 3G/4G service,
possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to serve by Canopy.[104]
A rural broadband initiative in New Zealand is a joint project between Vodafone [105] and Chorus,
[106]

with Chorus providing the fibre infrastructure and Vodafone providing wireless broadband,

supported by the fibre backhaul.

Access as a civil or human right[edit]

Further information: Digital rights and Right to Internet access
The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion
that Internet access itself is or should become a civil or perhaps a human right. [107][108]
Several countries have adopted laws requiring the state to work to ensure that Internet access is
broadly available and/or preventing the state from unreasonably restricting an individual's access to
information and the Internet:

Costa Rica: A 30 July 2010 ruling by the Supreme Court of Costa Rica stated: "Without fear
of equivocation, it can be said that these technologies [information technology and
communication] have impacted the way humans communicate, facilitating the connection
between people and institutions worldwide and eliminating barriers of space and time. At this
time, access to these technologies becomes a basic tool to facilitate the exercise of fundamental
rights and democratic participation (e-democracy) and citizen control, education, freedom of
thought and expression, access to information and public services online, the right to
communicate with government electronically and administrative transparency, among others.
This includes the fundamental right of access to these technologies, in particular, the right of
access to the Internet or World Wide Web."[109]

Estonia: In 2000, the parliament launched a massive program to expand access to the
countryside. The Internet, the government argues, is essential for life in the 21st century.[110]

Finland: By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per
second broadband connection, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And
by 2015, access to a 100 Mbit/s connection.[111]

France: In June 2009, the Constitutional Council, France's highest court, declared access to
the Internet to be a basic human right in a strongly-worded decision that struck down portions of
the HADOPI law, a law that would have tracked abusers and without judicial review
automatically cut off network access to those who continued to download illicit material after two
warnings[112]

Greece: Article 5A of the Constitution of Greece states that all persons has a right to
participate in the Information Society and that the state has an obligation to facilitate the
production, exchange, diffusion, and access to electronically transmitted information. [113]

Spain: Starting in 2011, Telefnica, the former state monopoly that holds the country's
"universal service" contract, has to guarantee to offer "reasonably" priced broadband of at least
one megabyte per second throughout Spain.[114]

In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened under the
auspice of the United Nations. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil
society representatives the WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance
of the Information Society to maintaining and strengthening human rights:[100] [115]
1. We, the representatives of the peoples of the world, assembled in Geneva from 1012
December 2003 for the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, declare
our common desire and commitment to build a people-centred, inclusive and developmentoriented Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share
information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their
full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life,
premised on the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and respecting
fully and upholding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human
rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, as enshrined in
the Vienna Declaration. We also reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as good governance at all levels
are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further resolve to strengthen the rule of law
in international as in national affairs.
The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right
to freedom of expression in the "Information Society" in stating:

4. We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information Society, and as outlined in

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right
to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions
without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any
media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic
human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information
Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should
be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers."[115]
A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users, [116] conducted for
the BBC World Service between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that
almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the
Internet was a fundamental right.[117] 50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9%
somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion. [118]
The 88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and
protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to
the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly include several that
bear on the question of the right to Internet access: [119]
67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders.
By vastly expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and
expression, which is an enabler of other human rights, the Internet boosts economic, social
and political development, and contributes to the progress of humankind as a whole. In this
regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate holders to
engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.
78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the
Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The
Special Rapporteur considers cutting off users from Internet access, regardless of the
justification provided, including on the grounds of violating intellectual property rights law, to
be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
79. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained
at all times, including during times of political unrest.
85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human
rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring
universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State should thus
develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with individuals from all sections of

society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet
widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.

Network neutrality[edit]
Net neutrality

Topics and issues

Ba
ndwidth throttling

Da
ta discrimination

De
ep packet inspection

En
d-to-end principle

Int
ernet Protocol (IP)

Ne
t bias

Ne
t neutrality law

Se
arch neutrality

Tie
red Internet
By country or region

Br
azil

Ca
nada

Eu
ropean Union

Ind
ia

Ne
therlands

Phi
lippines

Un
ited States (FCC)

Internet portal

Main article: Net neutrality

Network neutrality (also net neutrality, Internet neutrality, or net equality)
is the principle that Internet service providers and governments should
treat all data on the Internet equally, not discriminating or charging
differentially by user, content, site, platform, application, type of
attached equipment, or mode of communication.[120][121][122][123] Advocates of
net neutrality have raised concerns about the ability of broadband
providers to use their last mile infrastructure to block Internet
applications and content (e.g. websites, services, and protocols), and
even to block out competitors.[124] Opponents claim net neutrality
regulations would deter investment into improving broadband
infrastructure and try to fix something that isn't broken. [125][126]

Natural disasters and access[edit]

Natural disasters disrupt internet access in profound ways. This is
importantnot only for telecommunication companies who own the
networks and the businesses who use them, but for emergency crew
and displaced citizens as well. The situation is worsened when
hospitals or other buildings necessary to disaster response lose their
connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions
by natural disasters could be put to use in planning or recovery.
Additionally, because of both natural and man-made disasters, studies
in network resiliency are now being conducted to prevent large-scale
outages.[127]

One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging

end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on
local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within
the storm coverage were unreachable.[128] At Hurricane Katrinas peak
intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without power,
while around 14% of Louisianas networks were disrupted.[129] Of those
unreachable subnets, 73% were disrupted for four weeks or longer and
57% were at network edges where important emergency organizations
such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located.
[128]

Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two

explanations for the long delay in returning service. [128] The company
Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a
truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency
responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.[130]
A second way natural disasters destroy internet connectivity is by
severing submarine cablesfiber-optic cables placed on the ocean
floor that provide international internet connection. The 2006 undersea
earthquake near Taiwan (Richter scale 7.2) cut six out of seven
international cables connected to that country and caused a tsunami
that wiped out one of its cable and landing stations.[131][132] The impact
slowed or disabled internet connection for five days within the AsiaPacific region as well as between the region and the United States and
Europe.[133]
With the rise in popularity of cloud computing, concern has grown over
access to cloud-hosted data in the event of a natural disaster. Amazon
Web Services (AWS) has been in the news for major network outages
in April 2011 and June 2012.[134][135] AWS, like other major cloud hosting
companies, prepares for typical outages and large-scale natural
disasters with backup power as well as backup data centers in other
locations. AWS divides the globe into five regions and then splits each
region into availability zones. A data center in one availability zone
should be backed up by a data center in a different availability zone.
Theoretically, a natural disaster would not affect more than one
availability zone.[136] This theory plays out as long as human error is not
added to the mix. The June 2012 major storm only disabled the primary
data center, but human error disabled the secondary and tertiary

backups, affecting companies such as Netflix, Pinterest, Reddit, and

Instagram.[137][138]

See also[edit]

Back-channel, a low bandwidth, or less-than-optimal, transmission

channel in the opposite direction to the main channel

Broadband mapping in the United States

Comparison of wireless data standards

Fiber-optic communication

Free-space optical communication, transmission in air or a vacuum

rather than in fiber optic cable

History of the Internet

IP over DVB, Internet access using MPEG data streams over a

digital television network

List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions

National broadband plans from around the world

Outernet

Packet radio and the AMateur Packet Radio Network (AMPRNet)

Project Loon, the Google Balloon Internet, a research and

development project to provide Internet access to rural and remote
areas

Public switched telephone network (PSTN)

Residential gateway

Telecommunications network

White Spaces Coalition, a group of technology companies working

to deliver broadband Internet access via unused analog television
frequencies