LESSON TWO: COMFORT, CLIMATE AND SOLAR DESIGN

HUMAN COMFORT RANGES AND ZONES:

Q1:
A1:

What is involved in determining human comfort ranges?

Human comfort zones vary depending on culture, recent exposure, health and age.

Q2:
A2:

How many Btuhs do humans generate?

Humans generate 450 Btuhs at rest and as much as 2500Btuh when very active.

Q3:
A3:

What happens when heat is not removed from a space?

Body temperatures begin to rise, which is uncomfortable at first but can become unhealthy and
even fatal in some cases.

Q4:
A4:

What thermal processes remove heat from a space and at what rate is it removed?
Radiation, conduction, evaporation and convection remove heat at a steady and rapid rate.

Q5:
A5:

What does the body do to limit heat loss?

It closes down the pores (reduced evaporation & latent heat transfer), raises goose bump and
contracts the capillaries which reduces the amount of blood flow near the skin

Q6:
A6:

What is caused by the reduction of skin surface temperature?

Reduction of the skin surface temperature reduces radiative loss and conductive loss through
the skin.

Q7:
A7:

What causes people to sweat and how does it occur?

Conduction, radiation and convection slow down and the pores open to release moisture. The
moisture evaporates, using up the latent heat of evaporation and removing it from the body.

Q8:
A8:

When does heat loss stop?

At 98.6F

Q9:
A9:

What happens when the air temperature surpasses 98.6F?

The direction of heat flow reverses. The only mechanism still removing heat from the body is
from the evaporation of sweat and of moisture from the lungs and sinuses. However, if the
relative humidity is already at 90%, the sweat will hardly evaporate.

THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Q1:
A1:

What is the psychrometric chart and what is it used for?

A graph that shows the air at different temperatures and humidities.

Q2:
A2:

What is enthalpy?
The combined storage of sensible heat and latent heat.

Q3:
A3:

How do you cool and dehumidify air?

Removing both sensible and latent heat.

Page 1 of 12

Q4:
A4:

What is wet bulb temperature? Why and how (with what) is it taken?
The temperature measured using a thermometer with a wet sock on the bulb (psychrometer) so
that the rate of evaporation is taken into account.

Q5:
A5:

What is a large wet bulb depression?

Dry air causes a large wet bulb depression because of the difference in the dry bulb and the wet
bulb temperature.

Q6:
A6:

What is a sling psychrometer?

A thermometer with a wet sock on the end that is swung around in the air manually to get air
movement.

Q7:
A7:

What is the amount of water contained by the air described as on a psychrometric chart?
It can be described as gains of moisture per pound of air, pounds of moisture per pound of air or
pounds of moisture per 1,000 cubic feet of air.

Q8:
A8:

What is relative humidity? How does it relate to comfort levels?

Relative humidity (RH) is the percentage of complete saturation in the air. If there is a higher
RH, the temperature must be lower for the space to be comfortable.

Q9:
A9:

What is saturation?
Saturation is how much water is held in the air at a given temperature compared to how much
water can be held in the air at that temperature.

Q10: When can air hold the most water?

A10: Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.
Q11:
A11:

Where should a vapor barrier be located in a wall? Why?

The vapor barrier should be located on the warm side (inside) of the insulation. If moist air is
allowed to pass through insulation, it will condense out with in the insulation, which will
reduce its resistance and cause the building materials to deteriorate.

Q12: What is the comfort range (comfort zone)?

A12: The range of combinations of temperatures and relative humidities which are comfortable for
most people outlined on a psychometric chart. USA: 65F to 78F and 25% RH to 75% RH.
The higher the relative humidity, the lower the temperature should be to remain in the zone.
Q13: What does effective temperature mean?
A13: A combination of the ambient air temperature (dry bulb) and the MRT (since mean radiant
temp. does not show up on the psychrometric chart). If the MRT is high, then the comfort zone
shifts to a lower ambient air temperature (and vise versa)
Q14: What effect does moving air have on the comfort zone?
A14: Moving air carries away heat and therefore makes it possible for higher temperatures to remain
in the comfort zone.

Page 2 of 12

SOLAR DESIGN- NEEDS FURTHER STUDY!!!

SOLAR ANGLES:
Q1:
A1:

What environmental factors must design respond to?

The sun and the climate.

Q2:
A2:

At what angle is the earth tilted and what are the effects of this tilt?
The earth is tilted at 23.5. This tilt of the earth with respect to the sun causes the four seasons.

Q3:
A3:

What is the declination angle and what does it tell us?

The tilt of the North Pole in relation to the position of the sun is called the declination angle ()

Q4A: When is the winter and summer solstice?

A4A: The winter solstice is on December 21, when the declination angle is at -23.5. The summer
solstice is on June 21 when the declination angle is at +23.5.
Q4B: When do the midway points occur and when are the equinoxes?
A4B: The midway points occur during the spring and fall ( = 0) and the equinoxes occur on March
and September 21.
Q5:
A5:

What are the altitude angle and the azimuth angle?

The altitude angle (ALT) describes the height of the sun in the sky and is always measured
straight up from the ground. The azimuth angle (AZ) describes the compass orientation of the
sun and is measured in reference to the suns position either east or west from due south.

Q6:
A6:
Q7:
A7:

What are the altitude angle and the azimuth angle used for?
They are used to describe the suns position relative to a site at a given time of day.
How does the sun arc in the Northern Hemisphere when rising and setting?
In winter, the sun rises south of due east, arcs low in the sky and sets south of due west. In
summer, it rises earlier, north of due east, rises higher and sets north of due west. The sun is
always due south at noon, no what the season.

Q8:
A8:

What is legislated time and sidereal time?

Legislated time is the time determined by the powers that be and sidereal time is the real or
solar time. They are the same only at the center of a time zone, but are otherwise earlier or
later than sidereal time.

Q9:
A9:

What facades get the most sun-light during winter months?

The south faade, and not much else because the sun is so low in the sky.

Q10: What gets the most light during summer months?

A10: There is a lot of sun on the east faade, roof, horizontal skylights and on the west faade during
summer months because the sun travels so high in the sky.
OVERHANGS:
Q1:
A1:

What windows should be protected by overhangs?

Windows facing the south should be protected by overhangs.

Page 3 of 12

Q2:
A2:

Where and how should overhangs be located?

They should be located according to the profile angle usually higher up the wall than the
window which will admit direct winter sun and block summer sun.

Q3:
A3:

What is the profile angle?

The angle of the shadow line cast by the sun is called the profile line (F) which coincides
directly with the altitude angle when the sun is directly facing the wall (perpendicular azimuth).

Q4:
A4:

How is the profile angle determined?

AT times when the angle is not directly facing the wall, it can be determined by the
interrelationship between azimuth and altitude angle, which varies by season.

FINS:
Q1:
A1:

What facade gets the most heat in temperate and hot climates?
The west facade gets the most heat in the afternoon when the outside temperature is the highest.

Q2:
A2:

What can be used as a substitute for horizontal glass (skylights) in warmer climates?
Clerestories and lantern or saw tooth roofs should be used instead of horizontal skylights.

Q3:
A3:

In which direction should a saw tooth roof face in cold climates? In warm climates?
A saw tooth roof should face south in colder climates and north in warm climates.

Q4:
A4:

How are vertical fins used on east and west facades?

They are pointed slightly south during winter months to admit the winter sun (the sun sets south
of west in the winter) and to reduce summer sun (the sun sets north of west in the summer).

SOLAR PLOT:
Q1:
A1:

What are the solar plot and the shadow mask?

The solar lot is the path of the sun plotted on a grid (circular or rectangular) and the shadow
mask is the representation of the shading device plotted on the same grid for comparison.

Q2:
A2:

In a solar plot, which months have an identical path of the sun and which are unique?
January & November, February & October, March & September all have identical solar plot
paths. December and June are unique.

Q3:
A3:

What does the shadow mask allow the designer to do?

The shadow mask allows the designer to check what time of day or year the sun will fall on the
window. This allows the designer to determine locations of trees and/or windows.

SOLAR INTENSITIES:
Q1:
A1:

What is the solar vector?

The solar vector is a line drawn directly to the suns position.

Q2:
A2:

What is the direct normal intensity?

The intensity which is perpendicular to the solar vector (Idn)

Q3:
A3:

How does the direct normal intensity vary?

It varies with the time of day.
Page 4 of 12

Q4:
A4:

Why is the solar intensity lower in the morning?

The solar intensity is lower in the morning because the sun is lower in the sky and at a shallow
angle, it must pass through a lot more atmosphere which reduces the intensity available.

Q5:
A5:

What is the symbol for solar intensity and what causes its variation?
Solar intensity is known as Is or Sg and varies with the angular relationship between wall and
sun which depends on the suns orientation and the time of day.

CLIMATE:
Q1:
A1:

What is the best way to study climate?

The best way to study climate is to plot it on a psychrometric chart.

Q2:
A2:

What are four prototypical climate zones?

Four climate zones are cold, temperate, hot and arid and hot and humid.

COLD:
Q1:
A1:

In what area does a cold climate occur?

Alaska and in the North Central plains are the only areas in the US that may qualify as
cold climates.

Q2:
A2:

Why is there a plug sticking out of the grill of cars from colder climates?
It allows for the engine block to be plugged in so it will not freeze overnight.

Q3:
A3:

How does relative humidity (RH) and temperature relate to one other?
They are inversely proportional to each other. High temperatures cause low RH and low
temperatures cause high RH.

Q4:
A4:

What is the due point temperature?

The temperature at which the air is completely saturated (caused by the air temperature
dropping below the temperature at which saturation occurs)

Q5:
A5:

What are the best building solutions for cold climates?

Building forms that maximize the exposed surface area are best in cold climates (qc= U A DT)
Kitchen and storage on the north side and lots of windows on the south facade.

Q6:
A6:

Where and why should evergreen trees be planted in relation to a building?

Evergreen trees should be planted on the north or northwest side of building in cold climates to
block prevailing winter wind. A row of trees can shield objects downwind of them 3 to 5 times
their own height.

Q7:
A7:

What is a Salt Shaker house?

Salt Shaker homes are two stories on the south with a long sloping roof to the north, making the
north facade one story. Some chimneys are located in the middle or west end of the building.
The entry features an exterior or interior vestibule.
Page 5 of 12

Q8:
A8:

What is a vestibule used for?

Vestibules are used to keep all of the heat from escaping through the entrance as people pass
through. They are also known as known as airlocks.

TEMPERATE:
Q1:
A1:

What does temperate mean?

Temperate describes climates in which the temperatures are too cold in the winter, too hot in
the summer and shift through the comfort zones throughout the fall and spring.

Q2:
A2:

What are the problems with temperate climates and how can you solve their problems?
The problem is the large fluctuation in the solar plots. The problems can be solved by
determining from solar plots which months require what actions (shading and location of
openings) and good building design.

Q3:
A3:

What are the elements that compose a temperate farm house?

The building is stretched from the east to the west, making the south faced longer with porches
or awning over the windows on the south facade with large deciduous trees on the south and
west sides. Deciduous trees loose their leaves in the winter so they provide shade in the
summer but do not block the sun in the winter.

HOT HUMID:
Q1:
A1:

Why are hot humid climates usually outside the comfort zone?
Hot humid climates are usually outside the comfort zones because of the humidity.

Q2:
A2:

What are the elements of a tropical house?

Tropical homes are built to allow the passage of air through the building to dissipate heat. They
often have exterior passageways, balconies or breezeways. Walls are often replaced by privacy
shields. They are often elevated on poles to allow air to flow underneath and have ridge vents
at the gable of the roof.

Q3:
A3:

What is thermosiphoning?
A method which uses convection to suck fresh air through the building.

Q4:
A4:

Why are palm trees planted in tropical climates?

The palm tree is a natural parasol which does not impede breezes but still provides shade.

HOT ARID:
Q1:
A1:

What are the characteristics of hot arid climates?

Hot arid climates show the greatest daily variation in temperature and tend to have large
diurnal temperature swings. Arid climates usually have clear skies.

Q2:
A2:

What is diurnal?
Diurnal means day to night.

Page 6 of 12

Q3:
A3:

What is the advantage of large temperature swings?

If either extreme is within the comfort zone, it can be captured and stored by the building.

Q4:
A4:

How is water used in hot arid climates?

Since heat is used up be evaporation, water can be used in this climate to use up the heat and
the evaporation can bring the temperature down.

Q5:
A5:

What is the advantage of adobe?

Adobe has a high thermal mass resulting in its ability to store heat during the day to be used at
night and coolness throughout the night to be used during the day.

Q6:
A6:

What are the characteristics of a courtyard house?

Courtyard homes (such as the Spanish or Moorish atriums or courtyard) contain a courtyard in
the center with a fountain in the center. Windows are located on the outer walls are small and
occur high on the walls to allow heat to pass through them.

PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN PROTOTYPES:

Q1:
A1:

What is passive solar design?

Passive solar design uses the sun to heat the building without any moving parts. It also
involves proper design which takes building orientation and materials into account.

Q2:
A2:

What is a passive system?

A system in which the heat collector and storage device are one in the same.

Q3:
A3:

What is an active system?

A system in which the heat collector and storage device are separate.

DIRECT GAIN SPACE:

Q1:
A1:

What is a direct gain space? Where are direct gain spaces usually located?
A room in which the structure and thermal mass are in direct sunlight. They are usually located
in the southern rooms.

Q2:
A2:

What materials are usually used in direct gain spaces and why?
Concrete, stone, terrazzo and tile are usually used in these spaces because they store more heat.

MASS WALL:
Q1:
A1:

What are mass walls and where are they typically located?
A mass wall is a specially thickened wall placed directly in sunlight typically on the south
facade behind a large window or glass skin.

Q2:
A2:

What are mass walls used for?

Mass walls store incoming solar energy without increasing temperature rapidly and release the
heat when needed without dropping temperature very rapidly.

Q3:
A3:

What are the two types of mass walls?

The Trombe wall and Water wall are two types of mass walls.

Page 7 of 12

TROMBE WALL:
Q1:
A1:

What is a Trombe Wall? Who is it names after?

The Trombe Wall named after a Frenchman, Felix Trombe, uses convection to heat adjoining
spaces. Hot air is trapped between the glass and mass wall which has a one way vent at the top
which lets warm air into the room. There is another one way vent at the base of the wall that
lets the coolest air in room into the space, creating a convection loop.

Q2:
A2:

What is thermosiphoning?
A system that stirs the room air when the sun shines and shuts its self off when the sun does not
shine, like the Trombe Wall.

WATER WALL:
Q1:
A1:

What is a water wall? How does it work?

A water wall is a mass wall which is composed of large vertical tubes filled with water placed
next to a window and mitigates temperature fluctuations within the room.

Q2:
A2:

Why is water used?

What has a very high specific heat and can store about 5 times as much heat per degree change
per pound as concrete does.

Q3:
A3:

What is the difference about the water wall in comparison to other thermal mass materials?
This system allows some light in through the wall.

INDIRECT GAIN:
Q1:
A1:

What is an indirect gain space & where are they located?

The mass is not located directly in the path of sunlight but in a shaded portion of the room.

Q2:
A2:

How are indirect gain spaces similar to direct gain spaces?

The usual structural and finish materials have high thermal mass and can absorb and store great
amounts of heat without much temperature fluctuation.

Q3:
A3:

How is the thermal mass heated in an indirect gain space?

The thermal mass is heated indirectly by the reflected sun or by the heat in the room.

Q4:
A4:

Why is it appropriate to use diffusing glass?

Diffusing glass can redirect the sun to hit much of the mass directly.

Q5:
A5:

How much more thermal mass does an indirect gain space need?
Indirect gain spaces can take up to four times more thermal mass as a direct gain space.

GREENHOUSE:
Q1:
A1:

What is a greenhouse?
A greenhouse is a room clad in glass on all sides. Since glass has very high tranmissivity in the
visible spectrum, sunlight is transmitted through the glass into the building. This causes the
space inside to heat up but the reradiated heat can not escape through the glass because of its
low transmissivity in the infrared region. This trapped air can be redirected into another space
to heat it.
Page 8 of 12

Q2:
A2:

What is used in a greenhouse to redirect air?

A fan is used to redirect air into an adjoining space.

Q3:
A3:

What happens when the room overheats?

When the room overheats, an exhaust fan will turn on to release air into an outside space.

SUPER INSULATED: What are the characteristics of a super insulated building?

A:

Very large amounts of insulation (R-20 in walls & R-30 at roof) and very carefully sealed
construction. No pipes or conduits in the exterior walls and wall switches are mounted on the
room surfaces.

DOUBLE ENVELOPE:
Q1:
A1:

What is double envelope construction?

Constructing a building within a building. The inner shell maintains the intended temperature
while the outer shell provides a mild and protective climate for the inner shell.

Q2:
A2:

What occurs in the system and what causes good performance?

The outer shell utilizes passive design with lots of southern glass and the inside shell uses
passive design with a backup heating system. The connection between the temperature
between the shells and the ground temperature under the building results in fairly good
performance.

EARTH SHELTERED:
Q1:
A1:

What is an earth sheltered building?

An earth sheltered building is partially sunken or bermed underground.

Q2:
A2:

What causes the thermal benefit?

The tremendous thermal mass which results in high storage and averaging effects.

Q3:
A3:

What are the other benefits?

Increased security, durability, privacy and decreased maintenance because of the lack of
painting and reproofing necessary are the benefits of earth sheltered structures.

Q4:
A4:

What are the drawbacks?

The drawbacks of earth sheltered homes are the increased structural cost and the need for
impermeable waterproofing.

OTHER PASSIVE TECHNIQUES:

Q1:
A1:

What is nighttime flushing?

Night time flushing consists of ventilating the building at night to cool it and closing it during
the day which can keep the building as much as 20 cooler than the daytime peak.

Q2:
A2:

What makes up a roof pond?

A roof pond is composed of sliding insulation panels over a pond or bag of water on the roof.

Q3:
A3:

How do roof ponds work on a winter day and summer night?

On a winter days and summer nights, the panels are left open so the water can store heat in the
winter and radiate heat in the summer.
Page 9 of 12

Q4:
A4:

How does roof pond work on a winter night and summer day?
On winter nights and summer days, the panels are closed to insulate heat on a winter night and
store heat that radiates from the space below on a summer day.

Q5:
A5:

What do the outside air conditions have to be like for a roof pond to work properly? Why?
The sky must be clear so the ground radiation is not reflected back down by cloud cover. The
climate must also be mild enough so the water heats up.

Q6:
A6:

Why is the water placed in black plastic bags?

The black bags, due to the color, increases absorption and emmissivity of heat.

Q7:
A7:

What thermal process is at work in the roof pond system?

Radiation is the thermal process at work in a roof pond system.

Q8:
A8:

What is a drain down system? How does it function?

The drain down system is one that solves the problem of freezing in cold snowy climates by
emptying the collector when the temperature drops to low. When the system senses that the
temperature differential and opens valves to drain the fluid down into a reservoir.

Q9:
A9:

What is a drain back system? How does it function?

The drain back system is a failsafe system in which the collector is only full while the pump is
running. The pump is set so that it only turns on when the temperature in the collector is higher
than in the storage.

Q10: What is a batch system and what is it also known as?

A10: A batch system (also know as a breadbox system) is a tank encased in an insulated box with a
folded insulated panel over the glass face of the box which is exposed to sun.
Q11:
A11:

What is a thermosiphon system? How does it function?

A system in which water circulates by convection rather than being pumped between a storage
tank which is higher than the collector and is most times adjacent to the storage tank. (note: if
the tank is outside the house, it must be well insulated)

SPACE HEATING: What is an air & rock bed system? How does the system work?
A:

An air & rock bed system is an active solar collector which is actually halfway between an
active and passive system. Heated air is blown through ducts to a large bin full of coarse gravel
(often under the house). The gravel stores the heat until the sun goes down. The heat is then
blown back through the ducts to heat parts of the house.

ABSORPTION & OTHER DISICCANT COOLING:

Q1:
A1:

What is a desiccant system? What is a desiccant?

The system uses two batches of desiccants, one for drying and one to be used up. This system
uses the sun to bake all the moisture out of a desiccant. Outside air is brought in to absorb the
moisture. The evaporation causes the temperature to drop.

Page 10 of 12

Q2:
A2:

What is an absorption refrigeration cycle?

It is a fluid version of the desiccant system. The sun evaporates moisture out of the brine
solution lithium bromide instead of out of a desiccant.

Q3:
A3:

What is steam generation used for?

It is used to generate electricity but is not very efficient.

PHOTOVOLTAICS:
Q1:
A1:

What is photovoltaic conversion? How does it function?

The direct generation of electricity form sunlight is called photovoltaic conversion or solar
cells. Flat, very thin cells of semiconductors made form silicon create an electric charge when
exposed to light. This charge can be utilized by connecting wire to the ends of the cells which
creates the equivalent of a direct DC current.

Q2:
A2:

When are photovoltaic conversion systems used?

They are used in areas where there are no power poles or power lines already in place.

Q3:
A3:

What is a synchronous inverter?

It is a DC to AC convention system. AC current can be used to run household devices or sold
back to the utility company.

Q4:
A4:

What is the most common and inexpensive cell? What use to be used?
The amorphous silicon cell which is often found on solar calculators is the most common and
inexpensive. Crystalline silicon was used in the past.

WIND TURBINES:
Q1:
A1:

What wind speed is necessary for a windmill to work?

Wind speeds must reach an average of 10 mph or more for a wind turbine to be successful. An
average of 13mph can result in a steady profit from the sale of electricity to utility companies.

Q2:
A2:

What are the two types of wind turbines?

The vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) and the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT).

Q3:
A3:

What is a Savonius and what is its makeup? What are the draw backs & benefits?
The Savonius is a VAWT which is composed of two offset cups which spill into each other and
is self starting.

Q4:
A4:

What is a Darrieus and what is its makeup? What are the draw backs & benefits?
The Darrieus is a VAWT which resembles an egg beater in the ground. It is very effective but
will not start by itself, but once started, picks up speed well.

Q6:
A6:

Which is the more common type of wind turbine today?

The HAWT is the most commonly used wind turbine today.

Q7:
A7:

What are the blade configurations?

HAWT are available in leading (blades are upwind of the tower) and trailing (blades are
downwind of the tower) blade configurations.

Page 11 of 12

Q8:
A8:

What is required to keep the blades upwind (leading)?

Keeping the tail upwind requires a tail like a weather vane or some arrangement of gears and
motors which is attached to a smaller wind direction sensing device.

Q9:
A9:

What causes eccentric vibration?

The downwind (trailing) configuration causes eccentric vibration, which is the temporary
release of pressure on the blades as it passes through the downwind wind shadow of the
tower.

COMMUNITY SYSTEMS & ZONING:

Q1:
A1:

How can communities get involved in solar energy?

Through building renewable energy power plants or through enacting zoning laws.

Q2:
A2:

What is a power tower?

A Power tower is a stationary tower with a collection of solar panels or a tank on top. Rotating
mirrors are aim the suns reflection onto the tower, turning water to steam.

Q3:
A3:

What is Solar One and were is it located?

Solar One is a power tower located in Southern California which produced 10 megawatts of
power using a 72 acre field of mirrors.

Q4:
A4:

What is cogeneration?
A system which provides electricity and heat to large building complexes on site by heating
water to steam which drive steam turbine generators. The byproduct steam is used to heat the
buildings.

Q5:
A5:

What is a solar envelope?

A zoning restriction which requires that no building on the site may cast a shadow off the site
or shade anything 10 feet which is off the site. This protects the right of everyone to enjoy
sunlight.

REVIEW:
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART (2-4), COMFORT ZONE (2-6), SEASONS IN THE NORTHERN
HEMISPHERE (2-8), SUNS PATH (2-9), SOLAR PLOT (2-11), REGULAR SOLAR PLOT (2-12),
COLD CLIMATE PLOT 92-14)
OVERHANGS (2-10), HOME FORMS (2-15 to 18), TROMBE WALL (2-20), HEAT GAIN (2-21),
DOUBLE ENVELOPE (2-22), ROOF POND (2-23), TURBINES (2-28 & 29)

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