SE Amp CAD

SE Amp CAD

Single-Ended Amplifier Computer Aided Design Program for Windows Version 1

Virtual Oscilloscope

SE Amp CAD
File Tools Scenarios Results Schematic Curves Wave Forms Options Help
Circuit Setup
Tube
P.T.

150 mA

807
120 mA

Transformer
One Electron UBT 2

90 mA

Vin

35

mA

50

B+

456

Rk

734

Rt

455

Rl

4800

Logical Result Grouping

60 mA

30 mA

5 mA

0 20

Calculate Results

Vp= 449. v

100 v

200 v

Transfer Func. Plate Lines

300 v

400 v

500 v

600 v

Imax Wp Vmax

700 v

800 v

900 v

1 kv

Setup BMP

Vg= -38.1 v Ip= 75.0 ma P= 33.7 w gm= 5.17 ma/v mu= 7.83 rp= 1.52k

SE Amp CAD is the new Windows program that helps you design,
understand and modify single-ended amplifier output stages. Prior to the
arrival of this program, designing a single-ended amplifier required
breaking out old tube manuals, textbooks, ruler, calculator, and lots of
scratch paper. Now with SE Amp CAD, you can point and click to a new
output stage configuration in minutes. SE Amp CAD is a virtual
workbench for single-ended output stage design. True Curves is the
name of the new mathematical model used in SE Amp CAD. True Curves
knows how a 300B or an 845 really bends: how the plate current varies
with changes in grid to cathode voltage versus changes in plate voltages.
With the True Curves tube model in SE Amp CAD you can quickly and
easily model, evaluate, and understand a tube single-ended output stage.
SE Amp CAD holds 30 tube (triode and triode-connected pentodes)
models and over 100 output transformer profiles. The output data results,
the output circuit schematic, the tube's plate curves (grid voltage, plate
voltage, plate current, rp, mu, Gm), the input signal and the resulting
output signal all are displayed interactively by SE Amp CAD.

GlassWare
Minimum Requirements:

AUDIO DESIGN SOFTWARE

32 MB RAM
Windows 95/98/NT/Me/2000
CD ROM Drive
6 MB free hard disk space
Super VGA (256 colors)
100 MHz Pentium or better CPU

PO Box 231 Fenton MI 48430

www.gl ass-war e.com

All Rights
GlassReserved.
Ware
Copyright 1998-2001 GlassWare.

Large Tube Model Library

Live Schematic Updates

Live Curves

100+ Transformer Models

SE Amp CAD

DISCLAIMER
This program and user guide are intended for amusement and instructional purposes
solely. We at GlassWare assume no responsibility for the use of any of the information
provided. Much of what is detailed in the User Guide and program refers to potentially
lethal voltages. Always let an electronically trained person review what you are planning
on building and what you have built.

GlassWare 1998-2001

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be re-produced, transmitted, stored in a retrieval
system, or translated into any language by any means without the permission of GlassWare.
True Curves and SE Amp CAD are trademarks of GlassWare. Windows is a registered trademark of
Microsoft. Other products mentioned are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
companies.

GlassWare
PO Box 231
Fenton MI 48430
USA
www.glass-ware.com
E-mail: [email protected]

GlassWare

SE Amp CAD
INTRODUCTION

INSTALLATION
The SE Amp CAD program cannot be run from the diskette; it
must be installed to a hard drive. Furthermore, the installation
program and the program itself must be run under Windows 3.1
or better. A 1.44 Mb floppy drive and at least 2 megabytes
worth of free space are required to install SE Amp CAD.
Start by placing the floppy disk into its drive, either A or B;
then, under the File heading of Program Manager in Windows 3.1 or at the pressing of the Start button in Windows
95, select RUN. From there press the Browse button to bring
up the drive that contains the SE Amp CAD diskette. Once that
drive is highlighted, select Install.exe Press the OK button
and the installation program will come up.
The installation program will need to know where you wish to
copy SE Amp CAD on your hard drive, the default being a directory named Audio. It will further need to know if you
wish to make a program group to hold the SE Amp CAD icon.

TWO POINTS

Welcome to SE Amp CAD, the Windows program that helps

you design, understand and modify single-ended amplifiers.
Prior to the arrival of this program, only three ways realistically
presented themselves to the designing of a single-ended amplifier. The first was to break out old tube manuals (yes, old and
tube manual together is redundant), textbooks, ruler, calculator, and lots of scratch paper. The second to was just break out
the soldering iron and build and test and change components
and test until your design was vindicated or proven undesirable.
The last way was both the most high tech and the least realizable for most amateur constructorsnamely, learn to use one of
the many variations of SPICE and try to model the output tube
and transformer as well as you could to get a fair idea of how
the proposed amplifier would work in practice.
Admittedly, this last approach still holds the greatest potential
for revealing the unique behavior of a specific tube working
with a specific transformer in a time domain analysis; unfortunately, it also requires the biggest investment of time and intellectual energy. Furthermore, as no one yet has come up with a
SPICE model of the triode as accurate as the one used in SE
Amp CAD, let alone a program specific to SE amplifier design,
SE Amp CAD is the quickest, easiest way to model, evaluate,
and understand a tube SE output stage.
Why does SE Amp Cad just cover tube single-ended output
stages and not transistor or push-pull stages? And why not input
stages while youre at it? Paradoxically, the answer is the same
as why a home finance budget program doesn't do Macaulay's
duration of a cash flow stream: the more universal a program,
the less useful it will be to most people. SE Amp CADs only
concern is triode based (or triode connected pentodes) singleended tube output stages and is only useful to those who want to
understand and design single-ended amplifiers, but it is very
useful to them indeed.

ONE.
This program took lots of work and sweat and sacrifice to
create. It is very doubtful that the time that went into creating this program will ever be compensated by its sales. The
market for tube audio software is microscopic compared to virtually any other. It was written out of a love for vacuum tube
circuits. Consequently, please do not give copies of this program to your friends. Simply put: there are not that many
audiophiles left; you are one of them as are we at GlassWare; in
order to make a go of writing audio-related software there must
be honesty and consideration amongst ourselves.

TWO.
If you find something missing or wrong or troublesome, take
notes. Given enough interest, SE Amp CAD will evolve and
develop into something better in the future. We have several
ideas about what might be added to version two. You, the user,
know what would really excite you and, unlike so many programs that are written only to fill a marketing segment, we at
GlassWare believe in and design and build and use tube equipment exclusively. We, as much as anyone else, want to see SE
Amp CAD evolve into a better program that we can use ourselves. With your help, it will be even better still. So, please, let
us know what you think. If you have an improvement in mind
for SE Amp CAD, let us know what it is. A letter, post card or
e-mail would be great.

GlassWare

SE Amp CAD
SE AMP

HOW

Click the Curves menu

item to bring up the output
tube's plate and grid curves
display.

Click the Schematic menu

item to bring up the output circuit schematic display.

Click the Wave Forms

menu item to bring up the
oscilloscope like display of
the output stage's handling
of sine, square, and triangle
waves.

When a menu item is grayed it means that selection has already been made, in this example that the circuit schematic is
already in view. .

The hint line displayed in the black background changes to reflect where the mouse is positioned over the SE Amp CAD Program.

First, The Diode

The diode contains only a cathode and an anode. The cathode
and anode are similar in that they are simple conductive metal
structures, but the cathode differs from the anode in that the
cathode is coated with a substance that when heated emits electrons. The necessary heat can be derived either indirectly, by
wrapping the cathode around a heating element that does not
differ radically from the heater element in a toaster, or directly,
by passing a strong current through the cathode Vacuum Tube Diode Solid State Diode
itself. The anode can
+ anode
anode +
only receive electrons,
as only the cathode can
emit electrons. And the
cathode
cathode
anode can only receive
_
_
electrons from the cathode when it is more
positive than the cathode, as electrical current only flows from
negative to positive. This one-way function of the diode results
in there being only two useful means to control or adjust the
amount of current flowing through the diode: 1) reverse the
diode's connections to the power supply or 2) vary the voltage
potential across the diode.
current flow

Click the Results menu item

to bring up the output circuit's
AC and DC data display.

TRIODE WORKS

A vacuum tube is a multi-element electronic device that allows

for the conduction of current in only one direction: from cathode to anode (plate). Diodes, triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes are
all examples of vacuum tubes. They differ in the number of internal elements.

Clicking the outside (usually the

right button for right-handed users)
mouse button brings up the floating
menu displayed to the right. This
menu allows the user to quickly
bring up the various dialog boxes
and load and unload scenarios.

The static or idle current through each triode.

current flow

IN

This inflexibility of adjusting the current flow restricts the diode to the power supply portion of a tube audio amplifier. Here
the single direction of current flow allows the power supply to
convert the alternating current flow of the wall receptacle into
pulsating direct current conductions, whose energy is then
smoothed and stored as the direct current B+ voltage by the capacitors and chokes of the power supply.
The Grid
The triode adds a current control element called the grid. Physically, the grid is both an electrically conductive and an electrically porous structure that shrouds the cathode. Like the cathode in the diode, the triode's cathode is the only element that
emits electrons. Like the diode, the triode can only conduct in
one direction: from negative to positive, i.e. when the cathode is
negative relative to the anode or, phrased differently, when the
anode is more positive than the cathode. A triode is so much
like a diode that a diode can be made from a triode whose grid
is allowed to float, i.e. is not connected to the rest of the circuit.
V a cu um T u be T rio de But when the grid is connected to
the rest of the circuit, the triode is
an od e +
born and the business of amplifying begins.
grid
c ath od e
_

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c urre nt flo w

MOVING ABOUT

The grid not only surrounds the

cathode, but is much closer to it
than it is to the plate (anode). The

SE Amp CAD
HOW

TRIODE WORKS

grid controls the current flow: when negatively charged relative

to the cathode, the grid repels the electron stream that leaves the
cathode; and, when positively charged, attracts the electron
stream. The closer the grid is to the cathode, the more the grid
can control the current flowing through the tube. Remember,
electrons can only flow from negative to positive no matter
what the device: transistor, MOSFET, zener diode, LED, fuse,
resistor. Therefore, the grid's relative voltage charge to the cathode makes the grid either attractive or repellent to the flow of
electrons from the cathode. Once the grid was born, so was the
means to controlling the flow of current, which was the beginning of electronics and the beginning of audio amplifiers. So
the great irony is that at the end of our audio journey come to
the beginning, directly heated triodes, and know it for the first
time.
The three elements of the triode make it in many ways a complete and perfect amplifier. The triode is able to amplify a voltage signal because a small variation in grid voltage can result in
a large variation in plate current, which can yield a large variation in plate voltage. By placing an impedance or resistance in
series with the plate and the B+ point of the power supply, we
can convert the variation in current into voltage swing. The
greater the impedance, the greater the amplification of the triode in the circuit, to a point, that is. It turns out that the amount
of amplification a triode can yield flattens out as the plate load
impedance approaches some great value, beyond this value no
further increase in gain is realizable from the triode.
Amplification Factor
The limit to a tubes ability to amplify is the amplification factor or mu of the triode; it is the variation in plate voltage divided by the variation in grid voltage while the plate current is
held constant, for example by being loaded with a constant current source or a choke.
Mu = Vp / Vg
while the plate current is held constant.
For years the triodes upper limit of 140 (for normal audio use
tubes) was seen as one of the great liabilities of the triode. Today that same limit of potential gain is seen as an asset in quality audio application, i.e. applications that use little or no feedback. Here the consistent gain realizable from the triode means
that a circuit can be constructed that does not require feedback
to set the gain. In fact, if anything, the mu of most audio type
tubes is probably too high for most line level audio circuits. On
the other hand, for single ended amplifiers the mu limit of 140
is probably too low, as it would be great to have a single triode
stage that could drive the 400 volts of peak-to-peak swing
needed to make an 845 dance with only 1 volt of input voltage.
And a phono preamplifier could be made from a single triode
that had a mu of 1,000.
Plate Resistance
The second positive attribute of a triode is plate resistance or
rp, which ideally should have been called plate impedance. It
refers not to the static or DC idle current flowing through a tube

because of some fixed plate voltage, but to the change in plate

current as a result of a sudden variation in the plate voltage
while the both the grid and the cathode are held at some fixed
voltage difference.
rp = Vp / Ip
while the grid-to-cathode voltage is held constant.
This means that besides the grid-to-cathode voltage, it is possible to change the amount of current flowing through a triode
circuit by altering the plate voltage. Another way of putting it is
to say that the plate fights or opposes a change in plate voltage
by increasing or decreasing the current flow through the triode
in response to a change in plate voltage. Once again, in quality
audio applications, the rp of a triode helps make for a relatively
low output impedance without the use of global feedback.
The degree to which the plate is effective in altering the flow of
current is the reciprocal of the grids ability to do effect the
same change, i.e. the mu of the triode. Thus if a triode has a mu
of 20, then the plate would be 1/20 as effective as the grid in
controlling the flow of current. For example, if we increased the
plate voltage by 1 volt and then recorded an increase of
0.000125 amps as a result, then the rp of the tube would equal 8
k ohm, as 1v / 0.000125A = 8,000. The more effective the plate
is in controlling the flow of current through the tube, the lower
the plate resistance.
Transconductance
The last attribute of the triode is its ability to convert changes in
control voltage into changes in current. This is called
transconductance or Gm if it refers to the grids ability to
effect a change in current flow, or Gp in regard to the plate
ability to do the same.
gm = Ip / Vg
while the plate voltage is held constant.
gp = Ip / Vp
while the grid-to-cathode voltage is held constant.
In the previous example, the 1v increase resulted in 0.000125A
more current to flow through the triode, which means that the
Gp of that tube was 0.000125A/v or 0.125 mA/v or 125 mho,
as milliamps per volt is more useful in most tube work and the
mho or s is the symbol for transconductance; , the symbol
for 1/1,0000,000 ( is also the symbol for mu or
amplification factor).
Like the low mu of the triode, its relatively low transconductance was once seen as a huge limitation. Today, for most audio
work, the tubes low gm works to our advantage. Every electron device that exhibits gmtransistor, FET, MOSFET, triode,
pentodecan be overloaded. Too high an input voltage swing
and the device can become either current saturated or completely turned off, which might be great behavior for a switch,
but not for a device that must continuously trace the contours of
complex music. Here is an example, let us say that we are running a first stage of an amplifier at 2 mA idle current and the
device used is a MOSFET with a Gm of 1A/v. Now 0.002/1 =
0.002, which means that an input voltage swing greater than

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SE Amp CAD
HOW

TRIODE WORKS

CLASSES A, AB, B,

0.002 v will overload our first stage. The assumption made in

designing such am amplifier is that feedback will rescue the
day, as it will keep the MOSFET from ever seeing the full 2
millivolts. Maybe. If we replaced the MOSFET with a 12AX7
triode, the math would look much better: 0.002/0.0016 = 1.25
volts. The greater the idle current or the lower the Gm, the
greater the input overload voltage.
Vth (input overload voltage) = I / Gm.
The three main attributes of a triodeamplification factor,
transconductance, plate resistance are, of course, all interrelated:
Mu = Gm * rp

AND

The single-ended amplifier predates the push-pull amplifier. It

was quite simple and straightforward: input signal cascaded
from input to driver tube to output tube, no phase splitter and,
originally, no feedback. Class A from start to finish. To understand Class A, AB, B, and C amplifiers, imagine one lumberjack sawing a tree down. He must extend
the saw blade through the trees width
and retract it afterwards. If he stops, the
sawing stops. This is like single-ended,
Class A operation: whether the signal
swings positive or negative, the sole output device handles all of the output
waveform.

Gm = mu / rp
Rp = mu / Gm
Arranging two triodes in parallel halves the rp and doubles the
gm, but leaves the mu unaffected.

Plate Current

mu

Gm

Plate Current

Plate Voltage

rp

Now should another lumberjack grab hold of the saw at the

other end and work equally hard, both men will both push and
pull the blade through the tree. Although the work goes twice as
fast, the net number of felled trees would equal the same number of trees the two would fell in the same time period working
independently. This is like push-pull, Class A operation:
whether
the
signal swings
positive
or
negative,
the
two output devices equally
handle all of
the
output
waveform.
Our lumberjacks might decide that it would be less tiring if
each were responsible for only his side of tree. Once the first
had pulled the blade towards himself and then pushed it back to
the center of the tree, the second who had stood idle would pull
towards himself and push the blade back to the center, while the
first then rested. It turns out that this approach is the least fatiguing and allows for the sawing of much thicker trunks. The
problem with this approach is the jerky
trading off transitions
at the center position
of the trunk. This is
like push-pull, Class
B operation: each output device handles
exactly half of the
output waveform.
Let us say that an agreement is made between our lumberjacks
to avoid the jerky transition phase of the saw stroke. They agree
they will saw as before but with the exception that they will
saw together with equal pushing and pulling for only a few center inches of the saws motion across the tree. This approach

Plate Voltage
4

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SE Amp CAD
CLASSES A, AB, B,

AND

HOW

makes for much smoother sawing, but at the expense of not being able to saw quite as
fat a tree as before. This
is like push-pull, Class
AB operation: each output device handles only
a little more than half
of the output waveform.
Greed might compel to our woodsmen to ignore jerkiness and
realize that sawing down the most trees is the only aim, that in
fact the centermost portion really does not need to be sawed at
all, as a tree will fall of its own weight if the outer 90% is
sawed away. Each then agrees to saw only most of his side of
the tree alternately
with the other and to
ignore the thintrunked trees altogether. This is like
push-pull, Class C
operation: each output
device handles only a
little less than half of
the output waveform.

15v 10v

Class A2
5v

0v
-5v
-10v
-15v
-20v
-25v
-30v
-35v
-40v

SE AMPLIFIER WORKS

As the whole waveform must be entirely handled by the single

output device, the SE amplifier operates in pure Class A. (If
parallel devices are used, each still sees the entire waveform.) A
vacuum tube can only conduct greater and lesser current in one
direction: from cathode to plate, never from plate to cathode.
Consequently, an SE amplifier must be run at an idle current
equal to the peak current needed to deliver the desired output
voltage into the load impedance, as it must give up that much
current flow to allow the plate to swing as much positively as it
did negatively. (Here is an analogy: imagine a teeter-totter with
a 100 lb. rock on one side. To keep the rock at the center of the
up and down excursions, a weight equal to the 100 lbs. must be
placed on the other side; to move the rock up, 200 lbs. weight
might be used; to move down, 0 lbs.) For example, if a load
resistance of 8 ohms needs to see 24 volts across it, then the
peak current into that load will be 24 / 8 = 3 amps, which means
the output device in a SE amplifier must be run (biased) at an
idle current of 3 amps. Of course, few tubes can be run at 3
amps; consequently, an output transformer is needed to give the
tube more leverage against the low impedance of the speaker.
Transformer
The output transformer functions as an electrical lever for the
tube and loudspeaker.

Class C is the most efficient; Class B, the second, followed by

AB and last, whether single-ended or push-pull, Class A.
(Other than radio work, Class C finds little if any use in audio
design.)
A further naming convention adds a 1 or a 2 to the amplifier class, for example, Class A1 vs. Class A2. Here the 1
suffix means that at no time during normal operating conditions
of the amplifier will its power tubes grid or grids be driven into
positive voltage relative to the cathode voltage. Conversely, the
2 added to the end means the grid or grids will be driven
beyond a negative voltage into a positive voltage relative to the
cathode voltage.

AN

V olt
a g e

nt
Curre

Po w e r

It converts the tubes large voltage swings at low current into

small voltage swings of high current for the speaker. The wattage remains constant from input to output. The transformer
used in single-ended amplifiers is different from those used in
push-pull amplifiers and in power supplies. Most transforms are
designed to work only in the absence of any DC component,
that is they are AC only devices. The core of most transformers
can readily become saturated (magnetized), if any of its windings see a net DC current flow. The key word in the last sentence was net. The primary winding of an output transformer
in a push-pull amplifier provides the DC idle current path for
the output tube to the power supply, but the net DC current
equals zero. This is so because the primary is center-tapped and
any current in one leg is matched in the other; the DC currents
move in opposite directions and cancel each other out and thus
fail to magnetize the core.
Air Gap
The SE amplifier transformer does not enjoy the PP transformers cancellation of net DC current. Consequently, the SE
transformer must be designed to tolerate a large amount of DC
current flow before saturating. This greater immunity is
achieved by introducing a gap in the magnetic circuit of the
transformers core called an air gap. The air gap greatly re-

Class A1

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SE Amp CAD
HOW

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SE AMPLIFIER WORKS

duces the potential inductance of the transformer while greatly

extending its linear operating range in the face of a strong DC
magnetizing current. Too great an air gap and the transformer
falls off too quickly at the lower frequencies, too little an air
gap and the transformer will not put out the full potential wattage of the output tube. Basically, power Vs bandwidth.
B+ and Idle Current
The output tube sees the reflected impedance of the speaker
multiplied by the step down ratio (winding ratio) of the output
transformer squared. For example, a transformer with a winding
ratio of 20 will reflect the 8 ohms of the speaker as 3200 ohms
to the tube: 20 = 400, 400 * 8 = 3200. Consequently, if we
wish to deliver 16 watts into the 8 ohm speaker, we will have to
deliver at least 16 watts into the primary impedance of the output transformer. Using the following variation on Ohms law:
E = (PR) * 2 (P is in RMS watts and E is in peak volts here),
we see that if we want to deliver 16 watts into 3200 ohms, we
must develop 320 volts across the 3200 ohms and the peak current into this load would need to be 0.1 amps, as I = E / R, in
this case, 0.1 = 320 / 3200. Thus we have our base B+ voltage
and idle current for the output tube: 320 volts and 100 ma. Of
course these figures are overly optimistic, as the tube will not
be able to source the needed 100 mA with 0 volt cathode to
plate differential. Here is where art joins science in designing
an SE amplifier output stage. There is no one perfect circuit
configuration. Picking many operating points for the output
tube can yield many correct output wattages and distortion figures and tube life expectancies.
Positive Voltage Swings
One conceptual difficulty many have with the transformer coupling of the output stage to the load is Where does the other
half of the voltage swing come from? Let us start with the part
that is obvious: as the tube conducts more current, the output
tube can pull its connection to the primary towards the cathode
voltage. But where does the positive voltage in excess of the B+
voltage on the plate come from? In other words, how is it possible for the plate voltage to exceed the voltage of the power supply? The answer lies in the nature of the inductive component
of the output transformer. The primary and secondary are inductively coupled, tightly soa change current flow in one will
induce a current flow in the other. Furthermore, the transformers core is immersed in the same strong electromagnetic
field induced by the flow of DC current through the primary,
which results in partially magnetizing the core material. Once
the magnetizing
current is removed
300v
from the primary
winding, the field
500v
created by this
winding will col300v
lapse and the core
100v
will snap back to 0v
its original non0v
polarized state, all
6

of which will create a countervailing electromotive force in the

primary and secondary windings that develops a peak voltage
equal to idle current multiplied against the reflected impedance
of secondary, which will then be added to the existing B+ voltage. For example, if we quickly pulled the output tube from its
socket while it operated at the idle current of 100 mA with 320
volts on the plate and a secondary impedance of 3200 ohms, the
plate-primary connection would swing up to 640 volts. This
removing of the tube is functionally equivalent to turning the
tubes conduction completely off by applying a sufficiently
negative voltage to its grid. Of course, when playing music,
there is a smoothly varying of plate current and not the abrupt
cessation of conduction that results from yanking the tube, but
the principle remains the same: if the tube quickly moves into
conduction beyond the idle current value, the plate will swing
negative in relation to the B+ voltage and if the tube moves
quickly into a conduction less than the idle current value, the
plate will swing positive in relation to the B+ voltage.
Power Supply Perturbations & Noise
Since the output tube will experience twice the idle current at
one end of the waveform and no current at the other end, does
this mean that the power supply will become burdened by the
wild swings in current draw? No, is the quick answer. The same
inductive attribute that gave the plate the ability to swing more
positively than the B+ voltage, gives the SE amplifier effectively a constant current draw regardless of wild current swings.
The output transformer acts like the choke in a power supply
circuit. Just as the amplifier is buffered from the wild voltage
spikes of the power by the strongly inductive component of the
choke, the power supply is buffered from the amplifiers varying current demands by the strongly inductive component of the
transformer. If the transformer were replaced by a high wattage
resistor whose value equaled that of the transformers reflected
B+

B+

300v

0v
Triode SE Amplifier

0v
Pentode SE Amplifier

impedance, the power supply would then see all of the current
variations in the output tube operation.
This rosy scenario is tarnished by the poor power supply rejection ratio of the output tube in an SE amplifier. Yes, the power
supply is shielded from much of the plate voltage and current
swings of the output tube and the output tube itself is greatly
shielded from power supply noise, as the plate impedance is
usually one third of the reflected impedance of the primary,
which results in of noise making it to the plate: power supply

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SE Amp CAD
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DESIGN PROCEDURE

SE AMPLIFIER WORKS

noise * Rl / (rp + Rl). Unfortunately, the speaker does not directly attach to the plate. The voltage across output transformer
primary stepped down is what the speaker will receive. The
transformer sees of the noise and that noise is coupled
through the transformer to the speaker. The low rp, which had
proved wonderfully advantageous in lowering the output impedance of the amplifier, here proves to be a detriment to low
noise operation. High impedance devices like pentodes and
MOSFETs yield much smaller amounts of noise to the speaker
because the primary impedance is so small compared to their
extremely high (nearly infinite) internal impedance. However,
in the absence of feedback, these devices make for an unacceptably high output impedance and, consequently, a poor
damping-factor. Because the triode based single-ended amplifier will pass more of the power supply noise to the speaker, a
clean, smooth power supply is critical.

Shunt Feed (AKA Para Feed)

The shunt feed SE amplifier is all the rage with tube amplifier
aficionados these days. The electrical functioning of the
amplifier is almost identically with a conventional SE amplifier.
The same load lines and operating points are used, but the
output transformer is not in series with the tubes idle current;
instead, the idle current flows through a choke that serves as
constant current source for the output tube, as its impedance is
huge compared to the rp of the tube. A capacitor connects the
output transformer to the plate and couples the AC signal from
the plate into the transformer, which in turn couples the signal
to the speaker. Because the transformer sees no DC current, it
need not be air-gapped. Thus, one advantage of this circuit is
that high quality, nickel
core transformers can be
B+
used without the usual
early saturation that would
occur in a conventional
setup. The second advantage is a huge
reduction in noise at the
output, as the choke
buffers the plate from the
0v
power supply noise.
Shunt Feed SE Amplifier

Se Amp CAD can be used

to evaluate a shunt feed circuit. The trick is to define an output
transformer that embodies the DC resistance of the plate load
choke that will be used and the primary impedance of the
output transformer that will be used. The value of the needed
coupling capacitor can be found by this simple formula:
C (in f) = 159155 / Resistance / Frequency
For example,

The first step in designing an SE amplifier is to decide on how

power must be produced by the output stage. Just 1 watt or 3, 5,
8, 15, 20, 30 50, or 70 watts? Before you answer, consider this:
one great attribute of single-ended amplifiers is the effortless
dynamic shadings they usually render. From almost inaudible to
whisper level to crescendo, the well-designed SE amplifier will
startle jaded listeners with its ability to reveal the sub-dynamics
of a recording. A good 8 watt SE amplifier may sound ten times
more powerful at low volume levels than a 200 watt push-pull
solid-state amplifier with lots of feedback. It is this wonderfully
dynamic quality that compels many a listener to play the SE
amplifier beyond its comfortable range. It is as if you had just
found the most exhilarating sports car, nimble and agile,
quickly responsive, but disappointingly not able do over 40
mph. Conclusion: you will probably need more watts that you
presently think. The amount of power needed narrows the
choice of tubes, unless you are willing to parallel many smaller
tubes. Thus it is the choice of output tube that must come second.
The next step is to chose the output transformer. The old rule
was to use a transformer with a primary impedance twice that
of the tubes rp. And, in general, this is a good starting point.
The third step is to determine the output circuit topology. Indirectly heated cathodes or directly? AC or DC on the heaters?
Cathode biased or fixed biased? The fourth step is to decide
what the cathode-to-plate voltage will be and how much current
to run through the stage. Here is where SE Amp CAD really
comes in handy. Click the B+, current, and grid voltage controls
and watch the load-line and IV points displayed on the tubes
plate curves until the best operation points are found. Once
these four steps have been completed, the input stage can be
considered. In other words, once the needed grid voltage swings
are known, the input stages drive requirements are also known.

Design Trick
For the advanced builder, the design trick is to alter the design
order. Working on the assumption that the best output transformer is still not as good as the worst tube, select the best possible transformer as the first step. Next, hook the transformers
secondary up to a dummy 8 ohm load and attach a signal generator to the primary winding through a 10k potentiometer
which has its center scraper connected to one of the outside
leads. Now observe the waveform fidelity on an oscilloscope
while rotating the potentiometers shaft. At some magic series resistance value from the potentiometer, the waveform will
pass most cleanly. Write down the value and limit your choice
of output tubes to those whose rp approaches that of the
magic value. Once the output tube is chosen, proceed with
the design of the output circuit topology. Then move on to the
B+ and idle current decisions and from there to the input circuit
design.

1.77 f = 159155 / 6k / 15 Hz.

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SE Amp CAD
CIRCUIT VARIABLES

DATA RESULTS

Circuit variables, such as tube type, B+ voltage, cathode resistor values, and grid voltage values are entered in field boxes
at the left or changed by clicking the increment controls at the
field box's left. The results are then displayed at the program's
right in the schematic, the plate curves, the virtual oscilloscope traces, and the result panel.

SE Amp CAD divides the results of its calculations into several

groups: the output transformer; to the output tube; the maximum ratings output tube; the current-voltage relationships that
the output stage will experience because of the specified input
voltage swings; the output stage (output tube, cathode resistor
and bypass capacitor); and those that pertain to the load being
driven by the amplifier.

The increment buttons serve to increase

or decrease the value in the corresponding
edit field boxes by 1 or 10 or 100 or 1,000
units, depending on the variable being
adjusted. For example, the smallest increment for the grid voltage is 1 volt, but for
the primary impedance the smallest increment is 10 ohms.
When entering large values directly, such
as, 105,000 the easier entry method is to
type 105 and then k. Similarly, if entering 1,100,000, the quick way is to enter
1.1 followed by m.

After a change in value of a circuit variable, those results that

are determined at least in part by that variable are displayed in
fuchsia, until the Calculate button has been pressed, which
will restore the font color to aqua. If an error condition exists,
such as excessive plate dissipation, the results font color
turns to red and returns to aqua when the problem has been
corrected.

One point worth remembering is that some of the results are

harder than others. This means that the amount of heat created
from the idle current flowing through the cathode resistor is
very hard, as the actual heat generated would differ only to the
degree that the resistors tolerance is off and the amount of
leakage current the bypass capacitor pulls away from it. On the
other hand, the amount of 3rd harmonic distortion is less hard,
as an actual triode would differ from not only all other similar
triodes, but even itself over time. This means that an actual triode may prove better or worse in an actual circuit. The acceptable range of variation between samples of a tube type might
5% at one factory and 30% at another. Before the tube user turn
away from tubes in disgust, remember that 30% tolerance with
transistors would be considered fantastically matched, as 300%
is sometimes sold as matched.
The practical effect of this variation in tubes is that the bias
voltage that SE Amp CAD calculates should be close to what
an actual, particular tube would need in reality and, consequently, some tweaking will be almost always required. The
trap to avoid is the belief that exact values are needed or even
beneficial in most audio work. The simple truth is that there is
seldom any call for 0.01% parts in most audio construction projects.

Output Transformer
The output transformer can be selected or user defined from
the drop-down list or from the transformer dialog box, which
is accessible from the Tools heading on the menu bar or the
right mouse button speed menu.

The last point to remember is that the output transformer is the

truly weak link in this audio chain. Particularly at high frequencies, the transformers contribution to final distortion is great.
This can be established by attaching a probe to the plate Vs the
output of the transformer in a zero-feedback amplifier.
(Distortion in non-feedback amplifiers increases from the first
stage to the second to the last stage, the output transformer in
most cases. Distortion in feedback amplifiers decreases from
the first stage to the second to the last stage.)

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SE Amp CAD
TUBE LIST
The list of tubes that are known to SE Amp CAD can be
brought up by clicking Tools on the menu bar and then clicking Tube List.

refers to a triodes amplification factor or mu.

gm

refers to a triodes transconductance and is

measured in milliamps/volt.

rp

refers to a triodes plate resistance.

Imax refers to a triodes maximum plate current and is

measured in milliamps.
Vmax refers to the maximum static plate voltage at
which a triode should be operated.
Wmax refers to the maximum static plate dissipation
(watts) which a triode should undergo in normal
operation.
Vh

refers to the required heater voltage.

Ih

refers to the required heater current in amps.

Cgp

refers to a triodes grid to plate capacitance in pf.

these characteristics were derived from one set of plate voltage

and current and are valid for only that set. SE Amp CAD uses
the mathematically derived value for these variables at any
voltage or current.
Because the mathematical modeling of a triode is both complex
and involved, user defined tubes cannot be added. If you have a
tube you want added to the list, drop us a line (if you can send
actual curve traces of the tube, all the better, as tube manual
graphs are very suspect. Contrary to public opinion these
graphs are not always derived from a curve tracer (20 points of
data and a French curve worked just fine for many tube
companies.)
Tube Outlines and Base Schematics
While in the Tube List dialog box, a tubes base pin out
schematic or its profile can be seen by pressing the Base or
the Profile buttons.
The tube profile outlines are marked in millimeters. The tube
base schematics are shown from the bottom of the tube (where
the pins are).

After checking one of the tube type choice eyelets, pressing the
up and down arrow keys will move the selected tube up and
down the list, which allows the user to compare quickly the
characteristics of all the triodes available. (Some tubes differ in
name and shape of envelope, but not in essential electrical characteristics, 6080 and 6AS7 for example)

The values displayed have been culled from various sources:

old tube manuals, current product specification sheets, and tube
related web sites. All of which means that all the data should be
viewed as slightly suspect. The maximum voltage ratings for
the original EL34 or KT88 are no longer valid for the current
stock of these types ( much too high for new EL34s or
KT88s.) but the 6L6 maximum voltage, as specified a 1950s
tube manual, is too low. Furthermore, tubes do not necessarily
conform their original size specifications; EL34s come in all
sizes and shapes and colors. Beyond the changes in maximum
ratings and differences in size, the essential characteristics were
never constant. By this we mean that the mu, rp, and Gm of a
triode are not constant across all voltages and/or currents. The
mu varies the least of the three, but it still varies. The values for

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SE Amp CAD
PLATE CURVES
What we like best about the triode vacuum tube is its amazing
linearity, the consistent incremental change in plate current
relative to incremental changes in the grid-to-cathode voltage.
But not even the 300B or 845 is perfectly linear: as voltage increases and/or current decreases, nonlinearity increases. To
compound problems, this movement into nonlinearity is in itself
very nonlinear. Fingerprinting this nonlinearity has proven elusive. Here the irony of the situation is made plain: what we
need to know about a triode in order to make the best use of its
linearity is knowing where it is nonlinear. Tolstoy might have
said All linear devices are linear in the same way; but each
nonlinear device is nonlinear in its own way. Remember it is
this unique bending that makes a 300B and a triode-connected
KT88 sound different.

number of grid lines and the voltage step increments. Push button switches toggle the display of the load line, and the IV dynamics of the output stage. SE Amp CAD knows what both the
plate voltage and current along with the grid voltage is at any
point on the graph.
Transfer Function: I or V
Here the deviation from linearity is easily seen. SE Amp CAD
can plot the plate voltage or plate current's transfer function into
the primary's impedance across the peak to peak voltage swing
of the output tube's grid.
Plate Curves
Here the constant plate voltage increments are plotted against
sliding grid voltages. This is a less common way to display a
tube's dynamic characteristics, but in may ways it is the better
way to do so, as the curvature of the load is an easier read out of
non-linearity than the straight load line against the variable grid
curves.
Grid Curves
This is the usual tube manual plate voltage/current graph. Here
the change in plate current with constant grid voltage increments is plotted against an increasing plate voltage.

Enter True Curves.

GlassWare is proud to introduce a new model we call True
Curves. Based on a formula derived by John Broskie, it allows the modeling of triode plate curves to an unprecedented
level of accuracy.

Example of how closely the true curves model matches

a real tubes graph from a tube curve tracer.

Live Curves
The tube curves that SE Amp CAD displays are entirely mathematically derived, which means that you can specify the both
the maximum current and voltage of the graph along with the
10

V & I & W Limits

SE Amp CAD can superimpose the voltage and current and
wattage limits of a tube over the plate or grid curves. SE Amp
CAD will draw red lines over the graph marking the limits.
These lines set the safe use boundaries for a tubes operation.
Live Tube Data Readouts
With a normal tube manual graph of the tubes plate curves a
lot of guessing is required. For example if -30 volt grid voltage
increments are used, it will take some eye calculation to determine where exactly the 20 volts grid line would lie. With SE
Amp CAD this is not a problem, as the program reads the
mouses cursor movement across the plate curves and displays
the tubes grid voltage, plate voltage, plate current, rp, mu, Gm,
and plate dissipation at the cursor position on the graph. As the
cursor is moved, the tube data are updated and displayed.
Bitmap Copy Creation
SE Amp CAD performs easy screen captures of the plate curves
by creating bitmap files, which can be stored on your hard drive
and used in other programs and easily printed. The file created
is a Windows bitmap file and ends in BMP; its color depth
matches that of your video display, which means that the file
can be quite large if you are running your monitor in high or
true color modes. To reduce the file size, open the image file in
a paint type program and select convert to palette image and
then select 16 or 256 colors.

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SE Amp CAD
SCHEMATIC UPDATES

VIRTUAL OSCILLOSCOPE

SE Amp CAD allows the user to see the changes in the

schematic immediately, as circuit component selection is made.
Furthermore, the needed component values and the resulting
changes in operational voltages are also updated on the fly. The
choices made in the circuit schematic define the circuit that SE
Amp CAD evaluates. In addition, this schematic will be printed
in the Circuit report.

SE Amp CAD not only displays the results numerically, it also

displays the resulting wave forms. Its virtual oscilloscope
quickly shows if the output stage is functioning close to its
design objectives. The deviation from linearity (i.e. distortion)
that the output stage undergoes with increasing input signal is
displayed on the fly: as the active circuit variables are altered,
the scope trace reflects the change in wave form.

Although SE Amp CAD deals only with the actual output stage
of a SE amplifier, the number of different circuits that can be
defined is large. For example, triode or triode connected
pentode? Indirectly heated cathode or directly heated? If
directly heated, center-tapped or not center-tapped? AC or DC
through the cathode? If DC, a raw DC power supply or a
regulated power supply?
The component values needed for the cathode resistor and
power supply are calculated by SE Amp CAD instantly and
displayed on the schematic. If you wish, the component values
can be hidden, as can the circuit voltages, in order to make the
schematic less cluttered when viewed. When the schematic
background color turns to pink, the Calculate button must be
pressed to recalculate the results and update the schematic
values.
Cursor Data Display
Where the cursor rests on the trace is translated into the
instantaneous plate voltage and phase angle values that are
displayed in the hint line portion of the bottom of the program.
AC and DC Viewpoints
An AC viewpoint ignores the negative bias voltage and the
positive plate voltage and shows only the AC component of the
output and input signal reference to the 0 voltage line. A DC
viewpoint includes the negative bias voltage and the positive
plate voltage with the DC component of the output and input
signal reference to the 0 voltage line.
Wave Forms
The type of input signal to the grid of the output tube can be
selected in the virtual oscilloscope. SE Amp CAD displays the
usual three oscilloscope wave forms: sine, square, and triangle.
Sine waves are useful in showing the amplifier's ability to
handle music-like signals. The square wave is useful for
quickly displaying the gain and asymmetrical voltage swing of
the amplifier. The triangle wave is useful for revealing the
nonlinear transfer function i.e. the distorted output of the
amplifier.
Bitmap Copy Creation
SE Amp CAD features easy screen captures of the oscilloscope
traces by creating bitmap files (*.BMP), which can be stored on
your hard drive and used in other programs and easily printed.
Hint
Clicking on the oscilloscope trace will invert its screen image,
which might make it more easily seen.

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SE Amp CAD
SCENARIOS & SAVING CIRCUITS

REPORTS

SE Amp CAD holds 4 temporary output circuit arrangements

called scenarios. These allow for quick comparisons of results
from changes both in circuit values and/or in circuit topology.
Scenarios are loaded and unloaded from the menu bar under
Scenarios and directly on the right mouse button speed menu.
When am empty scenario slot label (e.g. Scenario 1, Scenario
2) is clicked, the circuit variables are saved to that memory
slot and the scenario label receives a check mark. When a recall
scenario slot is empty, the scenario labels font color is grayed.
As a scenario slot becomes filled, its load scenario labels font
color changes to black. To see what is being stored in the scenario memory slots, click View on the menu and then click
Review Scenarios and the Scenario Display box will be

SE Amp CAD can print a report of the circuit that is currently

being defined, the output tubes plate curves, the scenarios, and
the ReadMe.txt file for the program. In addition, an order form
can be printed to order a copy of SE Amp CAD.

shown. This box contains a data grid that displays all the scenarios with their circuit values and circuit results. The grid is
fairly malleable, as it allows the user to move the data rows up
or down.
SE Amp CAD also can save circuit arrangements permanently
on the hard drive, to be recalled and modified at any time. For
example, to recall a circuit from storage, click on the menu bar
item File and then move down to Recall Circuit, which will
bring up the Recall Circuit dialog box. Alternatively, at any
time just right mouse button click to bring up the speed menu,
whose fifth and sixth items refer to storing and recalling circuit
values.

Amplifier Circuit Results

This report prints the both the setup variables and results of the
circuit currently being evaluated. It also prints a small IV graph
with the key IV dynamic points.

Plate Curves
This report prints a tube manual page set of information: plate
curves, maximum ratings, tube outline and base schematic.

ReadMe Text File

This report prints a copy of the ReadMe.TXT file that is located
in the same directory as the main program. It covers a broad
overview and FAQ for the program.

Order Form
Additional GlassWare software programs can be ordered using
the form printed by this selection.

Scenario Data
The currently loaded scenarios are presented in an easy to
compare format and printed to a single sheet of paper. To aid in
making comparisons, this report contains the essential circuit
variables, results, and circuit schematics to make comparisons
easy.

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SE Amp CAD
OPTIONS

REPORT PRINT PREVIEW

Pressing the Preview button brings up the print preview window, which allows you to see what you are going to print. From
this dialog box, the print command can be issued, the report
image can be zoomed in or out, and pages can be advanced.
Additional information can be gleaned from viewing the reports
that SE Amplifier CAD can print. And the print preview window can be used as a readme file viewer by selecting the ReadMe.TXT file for print previewing.

The Options page allows the user to change the SE Amp

CAD program itself. Size, fonts, colorall are changeable.

Press to see the

entire width of
the report page.

Press to see the

entire report page.

Press these buttons

to display the next
or previous report
page.

Add Rectification
In the absence of a input drive voltage, the average and the idle
current draw are the same in a SE amplifier. Because of the
strong 2nd harmonic distortion inherent in the triodes operation in a SE amplifier, the average current will increase with a
strong drive voltage swing. This difference between average
and idle current can be included in SE Amp CADs results by
checking this menu option.
Hint Line Font
The hint line font, which appears in the black display box at the
top of the program, can be changed to another font, size, and
color. Just choose an alternative font, size, and color. The new
font choices will be remembered next time the program is run.
Dont Show Hint Balloons
Some user just love the hint balloons; others just hate them. Decide which group you belong to and press the Dont show hint
balloons button to stop or start the display of hint balloon messages. This choice will be remembered next time the program is
run.
Background Color
The normally black hint line background can be changed to another color. Just choose an alternative color. This choice will be
remembered next time the program is run.
Expand SE Amp CAD
Unbelievably, there are people with 14 inch monitors who insist
on running them at 1280 x 1024 resolution. How their eyes
must ache. By pressing the "Expand SE Amp CAD" button,
some aid can be had. Fortunately, this choice will be remembered next time the program is run.
On the other hand, if your monitor is plenty big and you are
running at a higher resolution, then try resizing the program. If
there is enough room, SE Amp CAD will display in a fully expanded mode, which can be seen in the illustration in the introduction of this manual.

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SE Amp CAD
EVALUATION DIALOG BOX

QUICK HELP

After defining all the circuit variables, such as B+ voltage, idle

current, and plate load resistance, SE Amp CAD can search for
error conditions and provide error descriptions and remedies.

The Quick Help window provided by this program is not part of

the Windows help data base, hypertext program. It is less cumbersome and quicker, although much less weighty (unlike this
manual). To bring it up, just press the F1 key when a control
has emphasis (Computerese for when you move the mouse into
a data entry box or have checked an options eyelet) or outside
mouse button click to bring up the speed menu, whose first entry is Quick Help; or when the cursor is over a description
label, press the button, which appears below the label, and
Quick Help comes up instantly. One good idea, if you have the
screen area for it, is to leave the Quick Help window up and
running while you use the program, as it will track your movements.

Error List
The errors caught are of the gross kindexcessive plate voltage, excessive plate dissipation, currentthat could damage the
tube or greatly compromise the circuits performance. Each line
represents one type of error.
Error Description
When a line in the Error List box is selected, a description of
that error is displayed below in the Error Description bracket.
Each error gets its own explanation.
Error Remedies
Each type of error finds its remedy displayed in the Error
Remedies bracket. Not every solution need be tried, as a change
in one the variables usually results in a change more than one
operating parameter.
Make It So
Pressing the "Make it so" button will let SE Amp CAD correct
the error conditions for you. It does this by auto-loading the
circuit part values and operating points that will return the circuit to normal and eliminate the error conditions.

As for 1-800 help lines, there are none. As for 1-900 you-payfor help line, ditto. (Please limit your calls to program related
problems, as we cannot answer your tube audio design problems. Well actually we could, but we cannot spend the whole
jawing audio. Sorry.) Our phone number is 831-438-5778. As
for e-mailing us questions, no problem. We are at

[email protected]
or write us

POB 231
Fenton MI 48430
USA

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SE Amp CAD
GLOSSARY
AC Alternating current. A flow of electricity that changes direction in a cyclical manor.

Air Gap The break in the magnetic circuit in the core of a

choke or single-ended amplifier. This gap allows the
core to withstand a much greater polarizing DC current
through the primary winding without saturating the core.
Amp Short for Ampere. A unit of electrical current flow. One
volt across one ohm of resistance defines 1 amp of current flow. Often the amp is too large to be used conveniently in audio circuits and consequently the milliampere
(ma, .001 amps) is used instead.
Amplification Factor a.k.a., the mu or of the triode; it is
the variation in plate voltage divided by the variation in
grid voltage while the plate current is held constant, for
example when the plate is loaded with a constant current
source. The mu of a tube sets the upper limit to the gain
that is realizable from a triode in a grounded cathode
amplifier circuit.
Amplifier A electronic circuit that creates a copy of the input
signal with an increase in voltage and/or current.
Anode The positive electrode. In a tube it is element that receives the majority of electrons emitted by the cathode.
Bandwidth In audio work, the range of frequencies that does
not drop below -3 dB of the average gain. For most audio work this range covers 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Bypass Capacitor A capacitor that is used to provide an effective AC shunting path across a circuit elementusually,
a resistor.
Capacitance The physical property of a circuit component that
permits it to store an electric charge, a potential difference, between elements within that circuit. The unit of
capacitance is the farad.
Cathode The negative electrode. In a tube it is the element that
emits electrons.
DC Direct Current. A flow of electricity proceeds continuously
in one direction solely.
Decibel Abbreviated dB. A unit of change in amplitude. In
acoustic terms it is the smallest increment that can be
heard. In electrical terms it is equal to dB = 10 log P1/
P2 and dB = 20 log E1/E2.

sponse of a circuit.
Frequency Response The range of frequencies to which a circuit or loudspeaker can respond. It is usually banded
within -3dB points.
Class A Whether the signal swings positive or negative, the
sole output device handles all of the output waveform.
Class B Each output device handles exactly half of the output
waveform.
Class AB Each output device handles only a little more than
half of the output waveform.
Class C Each output device handles only a little less than half
of the output waveform.
Gm Transconductance. The measure of the change in current
flow through an electronic device relative to the change
in control voltage, usually the grid-to cathode voltage.
Tubes are measured in mA/volt; whereas, solid state devices, in A/v.
Gp Plate Transconductance. Transconductance is the measure
of the change in current flow through an electronic device relative to the change in control voltagein this
case, plate voltage.
Gain The relative change in voltage, current, or power to the
some reference voltage, current, or power.
Grid The electrode structure in a vacuum tube that surrounds
the cathode and through which the cathode-emitted electrons flow to the plate. It is the usual current control element of the tube.
Ground A circuits voltage reference point.
Hertz Abbreviated Hz. One cycle per second. A 100 Hz tone is
one that has 100 cycles per second.
Impedance The resistance offered to the flow of alternating
current.
Inductance The property of an electrical element that opposes
any change in the existing current flow. The unit of inductance is the Henry.
Kilohertz Abbreviated kHz. One thousand cycles per second.
A 10 kHz tone is one that has 10,000 cycles per second.
Mu A triodes amplification factor. It is a measure of the relative effectiveness of the tubes grid over the plate in controlling current flow through the tube.

Distortion The departure of the reproduced signal from the input signal. Of course, one listener's distortion can be another listener's bloom, sweetness, warmth, and fluidity.

Ohms Law The voltage across a resistor in a DC circuit is

equal to the current times the resistance. E = IR, I = E/R,
R = E/I.

EMF The Electromotive Force. Unit of measurement is the

volt.

PSRR Power Supply Rejection Ratio. PSRR refers to the ratio

of a circuits change at its output relative to the disturbance at the power supply that caused it.

Feedback The process of sampling a portion of the output of an

amplifier and feeding it back into the circuit in a manner
that will tend to correct any deviation the output signal
from the input signal other than gain. Feedback usually
lowers output impedance and distortion and noise. It also
serves to flatten and extend the frequency response of an
amplifier.
Filter A frequency selective network of resistors capacitors
and/or inductors that is used to tailor the frequency re-

Phase The measure of the angular relationships between currents and voltage in an AC circuit and the angular relationships between pressures in sound waves.
Power The rate at which work is done. In electrical terms, the
watt and the joule. In acoustic terms, the acoustical watt.
Plate a.k.a. anode. The positive electrode in a tube, which attracts the majority of electrons emitted by the cathode.

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SE Amp CAD
GLOSSARY
Power Supply Abbreviated PS. A circuit that supplies power to
another circuit. It usually comprises a transformer, diodes, capacitors, and sometimes a choke or regulator.
Rectification Effect The change in average current flow due to
the presence of 2nd harmonic distortion in the output
tubes operation. In the absence of a input drive voltage,
the average and the idle current draw are the same in a
SE amplifier. Because of the strong 2nd harmonic distortion inherent in the triodes operation in a SE amplifier, the average current will increase with a strong drive
voltage swing. A quick thought experiment is to imagine
an output tube with a bias voltage of 40 volts on its
grid. Now if the grid were to see a voltage swing of
+100 volts and 100 volts, the output waveform would
be monstrously distorted. At one extreme the peak current draw would be several times that of idle and at the
other, the tube would be completely turned off and conduction would be zero. In this case the average current
would be probably twice the idle current. This difference
between average and idle current can pose troubleshoot
problems for the SE amplifier designer, as the power
transformer or filter choke or output transformer that did
not saturate at idle might at full output due to the rectification effect.

whereas, solid state devices, usually, in A/v.

Transformer A device made up of at least two coils which
usually surround a ferromagnetic core and by induction
serve to transform electrical energy from one coil to the
other. In an SE amplifier this transformer is always air
gapped to help the transformer handle the large magnetizing effect of the DC current flowing through the primary winding.
Triode A vacuum tube with three primary elements: the cathode, which emits electrons; the grid, which surrounds
the cathode and offers a large amount of control over the
current flow from the cathode; the plate, which encases
both the cathode and the grid and receives the flow of
electrons from the cathode and, to a much lesser degree
than the grid, controls the flow of current from the cathode.
Zo The output impedance of a circuit or amplifier.

RMS Abbreviated form of Root Mean Square. A.k.a. the effective amplitude. The conversion of a wave value of current or voltage into a value equal to the that would result
in the same amount of heat generated as a DC current or
voltage would into the same load. For sine waves the
conversion factor is .707 the peak value; for square
waves, 1; for triangle waves, .577.
rp The plate resistance of a vacuum tube. It is the impedance
that a tube offers a change in plate voltage. It is equal to
mu/gm and it is not as constant as we might like, varying as it does with voltage and current. A 12AX7 has a
rp of 62 k, whereas a 6DJ8, 3k.
Reactor A.k.a. inductor, coil, choke. A device that introduces
an inductive element into an circuit.
Regulator A circuit whose purpose is to maintain a constant
output voltage in spite of variation in the power supply
voltage or variations in the current drawn by the load.
Shunt Feed An alternative single-ended amplifier topology. An
amplifier wherein the output transformer is not in series
with the tubes idle current, but capacitor coupled to the
plate. The idle current flows through a choke that serves
as a constant current source load for the output tube.
Single Ended A.k.a SE. An amplifier or circuit that uses one
device ( or devices in parallel) to handle all of the output
signal. By necessity this entails Class A operation of the
output device.
Slew Rate The ability of an amplifier to swing so much voltage
in so much time. The voltage is measured in volts and
the time is measured in microseconds (s), which gives
us the final v/s suffix.
Transconductance The measure of the change in current flow
through an electronic device relative to the change in
control voltage. Tubes are measured in mA/volt;
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