Electrostatic precipitator

Electrostatic precipitator of a biomass heating system with a heat

power of 2 MW

Electrodes inside electrostatic precipitator

Collection electrode of electrostatic precipitator in waste incineration plant

to the particulate matter being collected and therefore is

very ecient in its consumption of energy (in the form of
electricity).

1 Invention of the electrostatic precipitator

Cylindrical electrostatic precipitator in waste incineration plant

The rst use of corona discharge to remove particles from

an aerosol was by Hohlfeld in 1824.[2] However, it was not
commercialized until almost a century later.

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a ltration device

that removes ne particles, like dust and smoke, from a
owing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic
charge minimally impeding the ow of gases through the
unit. [1]

In 1907 Frederick G. Cottrell, a professor of chemistry

at the University of California, Berkeley, applied for a
In contrast to wet scrubbers which apply energy directly patent on a device for charging particles and then collectto the owing uid medium, an ESP applies energy only ing them through electrostatic attractionthe rst elec1

COLLECTION EFFICIENCY (R)

trostatic precipitator. Cottrell rst applied the device to

the collection of sulphuric acid mist and lead oxide fumes
emitted from various acid-making and smelting activities. Wine-producing vineyards in northern California
were being adversely aected by the lead emissions.

The most basic precipitator contains a row of thin vertical wires, and followed by a stack of large at metal plates
oriented vertically, with the plates typically spaced about
1 cm to 18 cm apart, depending on the application. The
air or gas stream ows horizontally through the spaces
At the time of Cottrells invention, the theoretical basis between the wires, and then passes through the stack of
for operation was not understood. The operational theory plates.
was developed later in Germany, with the work of Walter A negative voltage of several thousand volts is applied
Deutsch and the formation of the Lurgi company.[3]
between wire and plate. If the applied voltage is high
Cottrell used proceeds from his invention to fund scien- enough, an electric corona discharge ionizes the gas
tic research through the creation of a foundation called around the electrodes. Negative ions ow to the plates
Research Corporation in 1912, to which he assigned the and charge the gas-ow particles.
patents. The intent of the organization was to bring inventions made by educators (such as Cottrell) into the
commercial world for the benet of society at large. The
operation of Research Corporation is perpetuated by royalties paid by commercial rms after commercialization
occurs. Research Corporation has provided vital funding to many scientic projects: Goddard's rocketry experiments, Lawrence's cyclotron, production methods for
vitamins A and B1 , among many others.
By a decision of the US Supreme Court, the Corporation
had to be split into several entities. The Research Corporation was separated from two commercial rms making
the hardware: Research-Cottrell Inc. (operating east of
the Mississippi River) and Western Precipitation (operating in the western states). The Research Corporation
continues to be active to this day, and the two companies
formed to commercialize the invention for industrial and
utility applications are still in business as well.
Electrophoresis is the term used for migration of
gas-suspended charged particles in a direct-current
electrostatic eld. Traditional CRT television sets tend
to accumulate dust on the screen because of this phenomenon (a CRT is a direct-current machine operating
at about 35 kilovolts).

Plate precipitator

+
- +-

+ +
+

+
- - -

+ +
+
-+

- +

Conceptual diagram of an electrostatic precipitator

The ionized particles, following the negative electric eld

created by the power supply, move to the grounded plates.
Particles build up on the collection plates and form a
layer. The layer does not collapse, thanks to electrostatic
pressure (due to layer resistivity, electric eld, and current
owing in the collected layer).
A two-stage design (separate charging section ahead of
collecting section) has the benet of minimizing ozone
production, which would adversely aect health of personnel working in enclosed spaces. For shipboard engine
rooms where gearboxes generate an oil mist, two-stage
ESPs are used to clean the air, improving the operating
environment and preventing buildup of ammable oil fog
accumulations. Collected oil is returned to the gear lubricating system.

3 Collection eciency (R)

Precipitator performance is very sensitive to two particulate properties: 1) Electrical resistivity; and 2) Particle
size distribution. These properties can be measured economically and accurately in the laboratory, using standard
tests. Resistivity can be determined as a function of temperature in accordance with IEEE Standard 548. This test
is conducted in an air environment containing a specied
moisture concentration. The test is run as a function of
ascending or descending temperature, or both. Data is
acquired using an average ash layer[further explanation
needed] electric eld of 4 kV/cm. Since relatively low applied voltage is used and no sulfuric acid vapor is present
in the test environment, the values obtained indicate the
maximum ash resistivity.
In an ESP, where particle charging and discharging are
key functions, resistivity is an important factor that signicantly aects collection eciency. While resistivity
is an important phenomenon in the inter-electrode region
where most particle charging takes place, it has a particularly important eect on the dust layer at the collection
electrode where discharging occurs. Particles that exhibit
high resistivity are dicult to charge. But once charged,
they do not readily give up their acquired charge on arrival
at the collection electrode. On the other hand, particles
with low resistivity easily become charged and readily re-

3.2

Normal Resistivity

lease their charge to the grounded collection plate. Both

extremes in resistivity impede the ecient functioning of
ESPs. ESPs work best under normal resistivity conditions.

3
plate, making them dicult to remove and causing rapping problems.
In low resistivity dust layers, the corona current is readily
passed to the grounded collection electrode. Therefore, a
relatively weak electric eld, of several thousand volts, is
maintained across the dust layer. Collected dust particles
with low resistivity do not adhere strongly enough to the
collection plate. They are easily dislodged and become
re-entrained in the gas stream.

Resistivity, which is a characteristic of particles in an

electric eld, is a measure of a particles resistance
to transferring charge (both accepting and giving up
charges). Resistivity is a function of a particles chemical
composition as well as ue gas operating conditions such
as temperature and moisture. Particles can have high, The electrical conductivity of a bulk layer of particles demoderate (normal), or low resistivity.
pends on both surface and volume factors. Volume conBulk resistivity is dened using a more general version of duction, or the motions of electrical charges through the
Ohms Law, as given in Equation (1) below:
interiors of particles, depends mainly on the composition
and temperature of the particles. In the higher temperature regions, above 500 F (260 C), volume conduction
controls the conduction mechanism. Volume conduction
Where: E is the Electric eld strength (V/cm); j is the also involves ancillary factors, such as compression of the
Current density (A/cm2 ); and is the Resistivity (Ohm- particle layer, particle size and shape, and surface properties.
cm)
A better way of displaying this would be to solve for re- Volume conduction is represented in the gures as a
sistivity as a function of applied voltage and current, as straight-line at temperatures above 500 F (260 C). At
temperatures below about 450 F (230 C), electrical
given in Equation (2) below:
charges begin to ow across surface moisture and chemical lms adsorbed onto the particles. Surface conduction
begins to lower the resistivity values and bend the curve
Where: = Resistivity (Ohm-cm) V = The applied DC downward at temperatures below 500 F (260 C).
potential, (Volts); I = The measured current, (Amperes); These lms usually dier both physically and chemically
l = The ash layer thickness, (cm); and A = The current from the interiors of the particles owing to adsorption
measuring electrode face area, (cm2 ).
phenomena. Theoretical calculations indicate that moisResistivity is the electrical resistance of a dust sample 1.0 ture lms only a few molecules thick are adequate to
cm2 in cross-sectional area, 1.0 cm thick, and is recorded provide the desired surface conductivity. Surface conin units of ohm-cm. A method for measuring resistivity duction on particles is closely related to surface-leakage
insulators, which have
will be described in this article. The table below, gives currents occurring on electrical
been extensively studied.[4] An interesting practical apvalue ranges for low, normal, and high resistivity.
plication of surface-leakage is the determination of dew
point by measurement of the current between adjacent
electrodes mounted on a glass surface. A sharp rise in
3.1 Dust Layer Resistivity
current signals the formation of a moisture lm on the
Lets take a closer look at the way resistivity aects elec- glass. This method has been used eectively for detertrical conditions in the dust layer. A potential electric mining the marked rise in dew point, which occurs when
eld (voltage drop) is formed across the dust layer as neg- small amounts of sulfuric acid vapor are added to an atatively charged particles arrive at the dust layer surface mosphere (commercial Dewpoint Meters are available on
and leak their electrical charges to the collection plate. At the market).
the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection The following discussion of normal, high, and low resisplate, the voltage is zero. Whereas at the outer surface tivity applies to ESPs operated in a dry state; resistivity is
of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriv- not a problem in the operation of wet ESPs because of the
ing, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can moisture concentration in the ESP. The relationship bebe quite high. The strength of this electric eld depends tween moisture content and resistivity is explained later
on the resistivity and thickness of the dust layer.
in this work.
In high resistivity dust layers, the dust is not suciently
conductive, so electrical charges have diculty moving
through the dust layer. Consequently, electrical charges 3.2 Normal Resistivity
accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating
a strong electric eld.
As stated above, ESPs work best under normal resisVoltages can be greater than 10,000 volts. Dust parti- tivity conditions. Particles with normal resistivity do
cles with high resistivities are held too strongly to the not rapidly lose their charge on arrival at the collection

electrode. These particles slowly leak their charge to

grounded plates and are retained on the collection plates
by intermolecular adhesive and cohesive forces. This allows a particulate layer to be built up and then dislodged
from the plates by rapping. Within the range of normal
dust resistivity (between 107 and 2 x 1010 ohm-cm), y
ash is collected more easily than dust having either low or
high resistivity.

3.3

High Resistivity

If the voltage drop across the dust layer becomes too high,
several adverse eects can occur. First, the high voltage drop reduces the voltage dierence between the discharge electrode and collection electrode, and thereby reduces the electrostatic eld strength used to drive the gas
ion-charged particles over to the collected dust layer. As
the dust layer builds up, and the electrical charges accumulate on the surface of the dust layer, the voltage difference between the discharge and collection electrodes
decreases. The migration velocities of small particles are
especially aected by the reduced electric eld strength.

COLLECTION EFFICIENCY (R)

Thin dust layers and high-resistivity dust especially favor

the formation of back corona craters. Severe back corona
has been observed with dust layers as thin as 0.1 mm, but
a dust layer just over one particle thick can reduce the
sparking voltage by 50%. The most marked eects of
back corona on the current-voltage characteristics are:
1. Reduction of the spark over voltage by as much as
50% or more;
2. Current jumps or discontinuities caused by the formation of stable back-corona craters; and
3. Large increase in maximum corona current, which
just below spark over corona gap may be several
times the normal current.
The Figure below and to the left shows the variation in
resistivity with changing gas temperature for six dierent
industrial dusts along with three coal-red y ashes. The
Figure on the right illustrates resistivity values measured
for various chemical compounds that were prepared in the
laboratory.

Another problem that occurs with high resistivity dust

layers is called back corona. This occurs when the potential drop across the dust layer is so great that corona discharges begin to appear in the gas that is trapped within
the dust layer. The dust layer breaks down electrically,
producing small holes or craters from which back corona
discharges occur. Positive gas ions are generated within
the dust layer and are accelerated toward the negatively
charged discharge electrode. The positive ions reduce
some of the negative charges on the dust layer and neutralize some of the negative ions on the charged particles
heading toward the collection electrode. Disruptions of
the normal corona process greatly reduce the ESPs collection eciency, which in severe cases, may fall below
50% . When back corona is present, the dust particles
build up on the electrodes forming a layer of insulation.
Often this can not be repaired without bringing the unit
oine.
Resistivity Values of Representative Dusts and Fumes From InThe third, and generally most common problem with high
resistivity dust is increased electrical sparking. When the
sparking rate exceeds the set spark rate limit, the automatic controllers limit the operating voltage of the eld.
This causes reduced particle charging and reduced migration velocities toward the collection electrode. High
resistivity can generally be reduced by doing the following:

dustrial Plants

Results for Fly Ash A (in the gure to the left) were acquired in the ascending temperature mode. These data
are typical for a moderate to high combustibles content
ash. Data for Fly Ash B are from the same sample, acquired during the descending temperature mode.

The dierences between the ascending and descending

temperature modes are due to the presence of unburned
Adjusting the temperature;
combustibles in the sample. Between the two test modes,
the samples are equilibrated in dry air for 14 hours
Increasing moisture content;
(overnight) at 850 F (450 C). This overnight annealAdding conditioning agents to the gas stream;
ing process typically removes between 60% and 90% of
any unburned combustibles present in the samples. ExIncreasing the collection surface area; and
actly how carbon works as a charge carrier is not fully
Using hot-side precipitators (occasionally and with understood, but it is known to signicantly reduce the reforeknowledge of sodium depletion).
sistivity of a dust.

3.4

Low Resistivity

5
combustibles during the above-mentioned annealing procedure, the descending temperature mode curve shows
the typical inverted V shape one might expect.

3.4 Low Resistivity

Resistivity Values of Various Chemicals and Reagents as a Function of Temperature

Particles that have low resistivity are dicult to collect

because they are easily charged (very conductive) and
rapidly lose their charge on arrival at the collection electrode. The particles take on the charge of the collection
electrode, bounce o the plates, and become re-entrained
in the gas stream. Thus, attractive and repulsive electrical
forces that are normally at work at normal and higher resistivities are lacking, and the binding forces to the plate
are considerably lessened. Examples of low-resistivity
dusts are unburned carbon in y ash and carbon black.
If these conductive particles are coarse, they can be removed upstream of the precipitator by using a device such
as a cyclone mechanical collector.
The addition of liquid ammonia (NH3 ) into the gas stream
as a conditioning agent has found wide use in recent years.
It is theorized that ammonia reacts with H2 SO4 contained
in the ue gas to form an ammonium sulfate compound
that increases the cohesivity of the dust. This additional
cohesivity makes up for the loss of electrical attraction
forces.
The table below summarizes the characteristics associated with low, normal and high resistivity dusts.

Resistivity Measured as a Function of Temperature in Varying

Moisture Concentrations (Humidity)

The moisture content of the ue gas stream also aects

particle resistivity. Increasing the moisture content of the
gas stream by spraying water or injecting steam into the
duct work preceding the ESP lowers the resistivity. In
both temperature adjustment and moisture conditioning,
one must maintain gas conditions above the dew point to
prevent corrosion problems in the ESP or downstream
equipment. The gure to the right shows the eect of
temperature and moisture on the resistivity of a cement
dust. As the percentage of moisture in the gas stream increases from 6 to 20%, the resistivity of the dust dramatically decreases. Also, raising or lowering the temperature
can decrease cement dust resistivity for all the moisture
percentages represented.

Carbon can act, at rst, like a high resistivity dust in the

precipitator. Higher voltages can be required in order for
corona generation to begin. These higher voltages can be
problematic for the TR-Set controls. The problem lies in
onset of corona causing large amounts of current to surge
through the (low resistivity) dust layer. The controls sense
this surge as a spark. As precipitators are operated in
spark-limiting mode, power is terminated and the corona The presence of SO3 in the gas stream has been shown to
generation cycle re-initiates. Thus, lower power (current) favor the electrostatic precipitation process when probreadings are noted with relatively high voltage readings. lems with high resistivity occur. Most of the sulfur conThe same thing is believed to occur in laboratory mea- tent in the coal burned for combustion sources converts
surements. Parallel plate geometry is used in labora- to SO2 . However, approximately 1% of the sulfur contory measurements without corona generation. A stain- verts to SO3 . The amount of SO3 in the ue gas normally
less steel cup holds the sample. Another stainless steel increases with increasing sulfur content of the coal. The
electrode weight sits on top of the sample (direct contact resistivity of the particles decreases as the sulfur content
with the dust layer). As voltage is increased from small of the coal increases.
amounts (e.g. 20 V), no current is measured. Then, a
threshold voltage level is reached. At this level, current
surges through the sample... so much so that the voltage
supply unit can trip o. After removal of the unburned

Other conditioning agents, such as sulfuric acid, ammonia, sodium chloride, and soda ash (sometimes as raw
trona), have also been used to reduce particle resistivity. Therefore, the chemical composition of the ue gas

WET ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

stream is important with regard to the resistivity of the

particles to be collected in the ESP. The table below lists
various conditioning agents and their mechanisms of operation.
If injection of ammonium sulfate occurs at a temperature
greater than about 600 F (320 C), dissociation into ammonia and sulfur trioxide results. Depending on the ash,
SO2 may preferentially interact with y ash as SO3 conditioning. The remainder recombines with ammonia to
add to the space charge as well as increase cohesiveness
of the ash.
More recently, it has been recognized that a major reason for loss of eciency of the electrostatic precipitator A smokestack at coal-red Hazelwood Power Station in Victoria,
is due to particle buildup on the charging wires in ad- Australia emits brown smoke when its ESP is shut down
dition to the collection plates (Davidson and McKinney,
1998). This is easily remedied by making sure that the 4 Modern industrial electrostatic
wires themselves are cleaned at the same time that the
precipitators
collecting plates are cleaned.[5]
Sulfuric acid vapor (SO3 ) enhances the eects of water
vapor on surface conduction. It is physically adsorbed
within the layer of moisture on the particle surfaces. The
eects of relatively small amounts of acid vapor can be
seen in the gure below and to the right.

ESPs continue to be excellent devices for control of

many industrial particulate emissions, including smoke
from electricity-generating utilities (coal and oil red),
salt cake collection from black liquor boilers in pulp
mills, and catalyst collection from uidized bed catalytic
The inherent resistivity of the sample at 300 F (150 C)
cracker units in oil reneries to name a few. These deis 51012 ohm-cm. An equilibrium concentration of just
vices treat gas volumes from several hundred thousand
1.9 ppm sulfuric acid vapor lowers that value to about 7
ACFM to 2.5 million ACFM (1,180 m/s) in the largest
x 109 ohm-cm.
coal-red boiler applications. For a coal-red boiler the
collection is usually performed downstream of the air preheater at about 160 C (320 F) which provides optimal
resistivity of the coal-ash particles. For some dicult
applications with low-sulfur fuel hot-end units have been
built operating above 370 C (698 F).
The original parallel plateweighted wire design has
evolved as more ecient (and robust) discharge electrode
designs were developed, today focusing on rigid (pipeframe) discharge electrodes to which many sharpened
spikes are attached (barbed wire), maximizing corona
production. Transformer-rectier systems apply voltages
of 50100 kV at relatively high current densities. Modern controls, such as an automatic voltage control, minimize electric sparking and prevent arcing (sparks are
quenched within 1/2 cycle of the TR set), avoiding damage to the components. Automatic plate-rapping systems
and hopper-evacuation systems remove the collected particulate matter while on line, theoretically allowing ESPs
to stay in continuous operation for years at a time.

5 Wet electrostatic precipitator

Resistivity Modeled As A Function of Environmental Conditions
- Especially Sulfuric Acid Vapor

A wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP or wet ESP) operates with water vapor saturated air streams (100% relative
humidity). WESPs are commonly used to remove liquid
droplets such as sulfuric acid mist from industrial process
gas streams. The WESP is also commonly used where the

7
gases are high in moisture content, contain combustible
particulate, or have particles that are sticky in nature.
The preferred and most modern type of WESP is a downow tubular design. This design allows the collected
moisture and particulate to form a moving slurry that
helps to keep the collection surfaces clean. Plate style
and upow design WESPs are very unreliable and should
not be used in applications where particulate is sticky in
nature.

Consumer-oriented electrostatic
air cleaners

Portable electrostatic air cleaner with cover removed, showing

collector plates

dicult, and the stack of plates often cannot be easily

disassembled for cleaning. One solution, suggested by
several manufacturers, is to wash the collector plates in a
dishwasher.
Some consumer precipitation lters are sold with special soak-o cleaners, where the entire plate array is removed from the precipitator and soaked in a large container overnight, to help loosen the tightly bonded particulates.

A portable electrostatic air cleaner marketed to consumers

A study by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation testing a variety of forced-air furnace lters found
that ESP lters provided the best, and most cost-eective
means of cleaning air using a forced-air system.[6]

Plate precipitators are commonly marketed to the pub- The rst portable electrostatic air lter systems for homes
lic as air purier devices or as a permanent replacement was marketed in 1954 by Raytheon.[7]
for furnace lters, but all have the undesirable attribute of
being somewhat messy to clean. A negative side-eect of
electrostatic precipitation devices is the potential production of toxic ozone and NO. However, electrostatic precipitators oer benets over other air purications tech- 7 See also
nologies, such as HEPA ltration, which require expensive lters and can become production sinks for many
Scrubber
harmful forms of bacteria.
With electrostatic precipitators, if the collection plates
are allowed to accumulate large amounts of particulate
matter, the particles can sometimes bond so tightly to the
metal plates that vigorous washing and scrubbing may be
required to completely clean the collection plates. The
close spacing of the plates can make thorough cleaning

Air ionizer
Ozone generator
Air Purge System

References

[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed.

(the Gold Book) (1997). Online corrected version:
(2006) "electrostatic precipitator".
[2] Ali Farnoud Electrostatic Removal of Diesel Particulate
Matter, ProQuest, 2008 ISBN 0549508163, p. 23
[3] Chronicle. GEA Bischo. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
[4] Johnson, F. W. (1937). Adsorbed Moisture Film on the
Surface of Glazed Porcelain. Phil. Mag. 24: 797.
[5] Davidson, J. H.; McKinney, P. J. (1998). Chemical vapor
deposition in the corona discharge of electrostatic air cleaners. Aerosol Science and Technology 29 (2). pp. 102110.
doi:10.1080/02786829808965555.
[6] Your Furnace Filter: What A Furnace Filter Can Do For
You. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
[7] Plug-in Filter Cleans the Air. Popular Science, July
1954, p. 70, bottom of page.

External links
An overview and comparison of the many dierent
types of dust collection systems, including Electrostatic Precipitators.
Wet & Dry Electrostatic Precipitators
Applied Electrostatic Precipitation
Electrostatic Precipitator Knowledge Base
Electrostatic Precipitator Technical Tips A guide to
ESP optimization and controls.
Particle Size Comparisons

EXTERNAL LINKS

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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