MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

Lecture # 1
Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes easier to describe, understand and
apply the physical principles, if one has a good knowledge of mathematics.

Tools are required to do

physical work easily and
mathematical tools are
required to solve numerical
problems easily.

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

Differentiation

Integration

Vectors

To solve the problems of physics Newton made significant contributions to

Mathematics by inventing differentiation and integration.

Cutting a tree with a blade

Cutting a string with an axe

Appropriate choice of tool is very important

1.

FUNCTION
Function is a rule of relationship between two variables in which one is assumed to be dependent and the
other independent variable, for example :
Example 1 : The temperatures at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling
point drops as you ascend). Here elevation above sea level is the independent & temperature is the dependent variable
Example 2 : The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is
held. Here time is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each of the above example, value of one variable quantity (dependent variable) , which we might call
y, depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since
the value of y is completely determined by the value of x, we say that y is a function of x and represent it mathematically as y = f(x).
Here f represents the function, x the independent variable & y is the dependent variable.
x
Input
(Domain)

f(x)
Ouput
(Range)

All possible values of independent variables (x) are called domain of function.
All possible values of dependent variable (y) are called range of functiion.
Think of a function f as a kind of machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever we feed it
an input value x from its domain (figure).
When we study circles, we usually call the area A and the radius r. Since area depends on radius,
we say that A is a function of r, A = f(r) . The equation A = r2 is a rule that tells how to calculate
a unique (single) output value of A for each possible input value of the radius r.
A = f(r) = r2 . (Here the rule of relationship which describes the function may be described as square
& multiply by ).
If r = 1
A =
if r = 2
A = 4
if r = 3 A = 9
The set of all possible input values for the radius is called the domain of the function. The set of all
output values of the area is the range of the function.
We usually denote functions in one of the two ways :
1.
By giving a formula such as y = x2 that uses a dependent variable y to denote the value of the function.
2.

By giving a formula such as f(x) = x2 that defines a function symbol f to name the function.

Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x),

y = sin x. Here the function is sine, x is the independent variable.
Ex.1

The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius r is given by the function V(r) = (4 / 3) (r )3
The volume of a ball of radius 3m is ?

Sol.

V(3) = 4 / 3(3)3 = 36 m3 .

Ex.2

Suppose that the function F is defined for all real numbers r by the formula F(r) = 2(r 1) + 3.
Evaluate F at the input values 0, 2, x + 2, and F(2).

Sol.

In each case we substitute the given input value for r into the formula for F :
F(0) = 2(0 1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 1
;
F(2) = 2(2 1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
F(x + 2) = 2(x +2 1) + 3 = 2x + 5 ;

F(F(2)) = F(5) = 2(5 1) + 3 = 11.

Ex.3

A function (x) is defined as (x) = x2 + 3, Find 0) , F(1), x2), (x+1) and 1)).

Sol.

(0) = 02 + 3 = 3

(1) = 12 + 3 = 4

(x+1) = (x + 1)2 + 3 = x2 + 2x + 4

((1)) = 4) = 42+3 = 19

(x2) = (x2)2+3 = x4+3

Sol.

If function F is defined for all real numbers x by the formula F(x) = x2 .

Evaluate F at the input values 0,2, x + 2 and F(2)
F(0) = 0 ;
F(2) = 22 = 4
;
F(x+2) = (x+2)2 ;
F(f(2)) = F(4) = 42 = 16

2.

TRIGONOMETRY

Ex.4

2.1

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREES AND

RADIAN

In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is best to use units called
radians because of the way they simplify later calculations.
B

Let ACB be a central angle in a circle of radius r , as in figure.

Then the angle ACB or is defined in radius as -

Arc length
=
Radius

If

AB
=
r

A
r

r = 1 then = AB

The radian measure for a circle of unit radius of angle ACB is defined to be the length of the circular arc AB.
Since the circumference of the circle is 2 and one complete revolution of a circle is 360, the relation
between radians and degrees is given by : radians = 180
Angle Conversion formulas
1 degree =

180

( 0.02) radian

1 radian 57 degrees

Ex.5

(i) Convert 45 to radians.

(ii) Convert

rad to degrees.
6

Ex.6

Convert 30 to radians.

Ex.7

Convert

rad to degrees.
3

Sol. 45

Sol.

Degrees to radians : multipy by

180

Radians to degrees : multiply by

180

=
rad
180
4

180

= 30
6

=
rad
180
6

Sol.

30

Sol.

180

= 60
3

Standard values
(1)

300

rad
6

(2)

45o

rad
4

(3)

60o

rad
3

(4)

90o

rad
2

(5)

120o

2
rad
3

(6)

135o

3
rad
4

(7)

150o

5
rad
6

(8)

180o

= rad

360o

(9)

= 2 rad

(Check these values yourself to see that the satisfy the conversion formulaes)

2.2.

MEASUREMENT OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ANGLES

y

Positive
measure

x
Negative
Measure
x

An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray lies
along the positive x-axis (Fig.). Angles measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned
positive measures ; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.
y

x
3

9
4

3
4

SIX BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The trigonometric function of a general angle are defined in terms of x, y, and r.

Sine :

sin =

opp
y
=
hyp
r

Cosecant : cosec =

hyp r
=
opp y

x
adj
Cosine : cos =
=
r
hyp

r
hyp
Secant : sec =
=
x
adj

y
opp
Tangent : tan =
=
x
adj

x
adj
Cotangent : cot =
=
y
opp

e
us
en
t
po r
hy

adjacent side

P(x,y)

VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

If the circle in (Fig. above) has radius r = 1, the equations defining sin and cos become
cos = x,
sin = y
We can then calculate the values of the cosine and sine directly from the coordinates of P.
Ex.8

Find the six trigonometric ratios from given figure

5
4

Sol.

sin =

opp
adj
4
3
opp
4
=
; cos =
=
; tan =
=
hyp
hyp
5
5
3
adj

cosec =

hyp
hyp
adj
5
5
3
=
; sec =
=
; cot=
=
opp
opp
opp
4
4
4

opposite
side

2.3

5
2

Ex.9
Sol.

Find the sine and cosine of angle shown in the unit circle if coordinate of point p are as shown.
y

1 3
,

2 2

1
cos = x-coordinate of P =
2

sin = y-coordinate of P =

2.4

3
2

1
2

3
.
2

RULES FOR FINDING TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90

Step 1
Step 2

Identify the quadrant in which angle lies.

(a) If angle = (n ) where n is an integer. Then trigonometric function of (n )
= same trigonometric function of and sign will be decided by CAST Rule.
IInd Quadrant

THE CAST RULE

Ist Quadrant

A useful rule for remembering when the

basic trigonometric functions are positive
and negative is the CAST rule.
If you are not very enthusiastic about CAST.
You can remember it as ASTC
(After school to college)
IIIrd Quadrant

(b)

IVth Quadrant

If angle = ( 2n 1) where n is an integer. Then

2

trigonometric function of ( 2n 1) = complimetry trignometric function of

2

and sign will be decided by CAST Rule.

Values of sin , cos and tan for some standard angles.
Degree 0
Radians 0
sin
cos
tan

Ex.10

Ex.11

Evaluate sin 120

Evaluate cos 135

30
/6

0 1/ 2
1
3 /2
0 1/ 3

37
37 / 180

45
/ 4

53
53 / 180

60
/3

90
/2

3/5
4/5
3/4

1/ 2
1/ 2
1

4/5
3/5
4/3

3 /2
1/ 2
3

1
0

120
2 / 3

135
3 / 4

180

3 / 2 1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
3
1

0
1
0

3
2

Sol.

sin 120 = sin (90 + 30) = cos 30 =

Aliter

sin 120 = sin (180 60) = sin 60 =

Sol.

cos 135 = cos (90 + 45) = sin 45 =

3
2
1
2

Ex.12

Evaluate cos 210

Sol.

cos 210 = cos (180 + 30) = cos30 =

Ex.13

Evaluate tan 210

Sol.

tan 210 = tan (180 + 30) = tan 30 =

1
3

3
2

2.5

GENERAL TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS :

1.

3.

2.

cos2 + sin2 = 1
2
2
1 + tan = sec .
2
2
1+ cot = cosec .

sin 2 = 2 sin cos

cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2cos2 1 = 1 2sin2

1 cos 2
;
2
sine rule for triangles

cos2 =
4.

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan A tan B
tan (A+B) =
1 tan A tan B

sin2 =

1 cos 2
2
5.
cosine rule for triangles

sin sin sin

a
b
c

3.

c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos

DIFFERENTIATION
3.1

FINITE DIFFERENCE

The finite difference between two values of a physical quantity is represented by notation.
For example :
Difference in two values of y is written as y as given in the table below.
y2
y1
y = y2 y1

100
50
50

100
99
1

100
99.5
0.5

INFINITELY SMALL DIFFERENCE :

The infinitely small difference means very-very small difference. And this difference is represented by d
notation insted of .
For example infinitely small difference in the values of y is written as dy
if y2 = 100 and y1 = 99.99999999........
then dy = 0.000000...................00001

3.2

DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIATION

Another name for differentiation is derivative. Suppose y is a function of x or y = f(x)

Differentiation of y with respect to x is denoted by symbol f (x)
where f (x) =

dy
dx

dx is very small change in x and dy is corresponding very small change in y.

NOTATION : There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = f(x). Besides f (x), the most
common notations are these :

3.3

y prime

Nice and brief but does not name the

independent variable

dy
dx

dy by dx

Names the variables and uses d for derivative

df
dx

df by dx

Emphasizes the functions name

d
f(x)
dx

d by dx of f

Emphasizes the idea that differentiation is an

operation performed on f.

Dxf
y

dx of f
y dot

A common operator notation

One of Newtons notations, now common for
dy
time derivatives i.e.
.
dt

SLOPE OF A LINE

It is the tan of angle made by a line with the positive direction of x-axis, measured in anticlockwise
direction.
Slope = tan
(In 1st quadrant tan is +ve & 2nd quadrant tan is ve)
In Figure - 1 slope is positive
In Figure - 2 slope is negative
< 90 (1st quadrant)
> 90 (2nd quadrant)
y

Figure - 1

3.4

Figure - 2

AVERAGE RATES OF CHANGE :

Given an arbitrary function y = f(x) we calculate the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval (x , x + x) by dividing the change in value of y, i.e.y = f(x + x) f(x), by length of interval x over
which the change occurred. \
y f ( x x) f ( x )

The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x, x + x] =
x
x

Geometricaly,

y
QR
=
= tan = Slope of the line PQ
x
PR

therefore we can say that average rate of change of y with

respect to x is equal to slope of the line joining P & Q.

y+ y

y
y

x
x + x y
In triangle QPR tan =
x

3.5

THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

y
f ( x x ) f ( x )
=
.
x
x
If the limit of this ratio exists as x 0, then it is called the derivative of given function f(x) and is denoted as

We know that, average rate of change of y w.r.t. x is

f (x) =

3.6

dy
f ( x x ) f ( x )
lim
= x 0
dx
x

GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF DIFFERENTIATION

The geometrical meaning of differentiation is very much useful in the analysis of graphs in physics. To understand the geometrical meaning of derivatives we should have knowledge of secant and tangent to a curve
Secant and tangent to a curve
Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points.
y
q

Secant

P
x

Tangent:A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve at a particular point. Tangent is a limiting case of secant
which intersects the curve at two overlapping points.
In the figure-1 shown, if value of x is gradually reduced then the
point Q will move nearer to the point P. If the process is
continuously repeated (Figure - 2) value of x will be infinitely
small and secant PQ to the given curve will become a tangent at
point P .
Therefore

y+ y

y
y

dy
y

= dx = tan
x 0 x

R
x + x

Figure - 1

dy
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x,i.e. is
dx

Q
y+y

equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x, y) or tan =

dy
dx

Q
Q

(From fig. 1, the average rate of change of y from x to x + x is

identical with the slope of secant PQ.)

x
x

y
R

x+x

Figure - 2

3.7

RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION

RULE NO. 1 : DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT

The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
If c is constant, then

d
c = 0.
dx

Ex.14

d
(8 ) 0 ,
dx

d 1
0 ,
dx 2

d
dx

3 0

RULE NO. 2 : POWER RULE

d n
x nx n1 .
dx
To apply the power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original exponent (n) and multiply the result by n.

If n is a real number, then

Ex.15

x2 x3

x4

....

f'

1 2x 3x2 4x3 ....

d 1
d
1
=
(x1) = (1)x2 = 2
dx x
dx
x

Ex.16

(i)

Ex.17

(a)

d 1/ 2
1
( x ) = x 1/ 2
dx
2
|
Function defined for x 0

d 1/ 5
(x )
dx
|
Function defined for x 0

(b)

(ii)

d 4
d 3
12

= 4
(x ) = 4(3)x4 = 4 .
dx x 3
dx
x

2 x
|
derivative defined only for x > 0
1 4/5
x
5

=
|

derivative not defined at x = 0

RULE NO. 3 : THE CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then
In particular, if n is a positive integer, then

du
d
(cu) = c
dx
dx

d
(cx n ) = cn xn1
dx

Ex.18

The derivative formula

d
(3 x 2 ) = 3(2x) = 6x
dx
says that if we rescale the graph of y = x2 by multiplying each ycoordinate by 3, then we multiply the slope
at each point by 3.

Ex.19

A useful special case

The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function is the negative of the functions derivative. Rule 3 with
c = 1 gives.
d
d
d
d
( u) =
( 1 u) = 1
( u) =
(u)
dx
dx
dx
dx

RULE NO. 4 : THE SUM RULE

The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the sum of their derivatives.

If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + v is differentiable at every point where u and v
are both differentiable functions is their derivatives.
d
d
du
dv du dv
(u v ) =
[u ( 1)v ] =
( 1)

dx
dx
dx
dx dx dx

The sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there are only finitely many
functions in the sum. If u1, u2,.........un are differentiable at x, then so is u1 + u2 + ........+ un , and
d
du1 du 2
du
(u1 u 2 ..... un ) =

....... n .
dx
dx
dx
dx

Ex.20

(a)

y = x4 + 12x

(b)

y = x3 +

4 2
x 5x + 1
3

dy
d 4
d

(x )
(12 x )
dx dx
dx

dy
d 3 d 4 2 d
d

x
(5 x )
(1)
x
dx dx
dx 3 dx
dx

= 4x3 + 12

= 3x2 +

4
.2x 5 + 0
3

= 3x2 +

8
x 5.
3

Notice that we can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated the polynomials in
above example.

Lecture # 2
RULE NO. 5 : THE PRODUCT RULE
If u and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product uv, and

d
dv
du
v
(uv) = u
.
dx
dx
dx

The derivative of the product uv is u times the derivative of v plus v times the derivative of u. In prime notation
(uv) = uv + vu.
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the product of
two functions is not the product of their derivatives. For instance,
d
d
(x.x) =
(x2) = 2x, while
dx
dx

Ex.21
Sol.

d
d
(x) .
(x) = 1.1 = 1.
dx
dx

Find the derivatives of y = (x2 + 1) (x3 + 3).

From the product Rule with u = x2 + 1 and v = x3 + 3, we find
d
[( x 2 1)( x 3 3)] = (x2 + 1) (3x2) + (x3 + 3) (2x)
dx

we find,

= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 6x

= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
Example can be done as well (perhaps better) by multiplying out the original expression for y and differentiating the resulting polynomial. We now check : y = (x2 + 1) (x3 + 3) = x5 + x3 + 3x2 + 3
dy
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
dx
This is in agreement with our first calculation.
There are times, however, when the product Rule must be used. In the following examples. We have only
numerical values to work with.

Ex.22
Sol.

Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find y(2) if u(2) = 3, u(2) = 4, v(2) = 1, and v(2) = 2.
From the Product Rule, in the form
y = (uv) = uv + vu ,
we have
y(2) = u(2) v(2) + v(2) u (2)
= (3) (2) + (1) (4) = 6 4 = 2.

RULE NO. 6 : THE QUOTIENT RULE

If u and v are differentiable at x, and v(x) 0, then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x,
du
dv
v
u
d u
dx
= dx
dx v
v2

and

Just as the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is not the product of their derivatives, the
derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the quotient of their derivatives.
t2 1

Ex.23

Find the derivative of y =

Sol.

We apply the Quotient Rule with u = t2 1 and v = t2 + 1 :

t2 1

( t 2 1).2t ( t 2 1).2t
dy
=
dt
( t 2 1)2
=

2t 3 2t 2t 3 2t
2

( t 1)

d u v ( du / dt ) v( du / dt )

dt v
v2

4t
2

(t 1)2

RULE NO. 7 : DERIVATIVE OF SINE FUNCTION

d
(sin x ) cos x
dx

Ex.24

(a)

y = x2 sin x :

(b)

y = x2 sin x :

(c)

sin x
y=
:
x

dy
d
(sin x )
= 2x
dx
dx
= 2x cos x

Difference Rule

dy
d
= x2
(sin x) + 2x sin x
dx
dx
x2 cos x + 2x sin x

Product Rule

d
x. (sin x ) sin x.1
dy
dx
=
dx
x2

x cos x sin x
x2

Quotient Rule

RULE NO. 8 : DERIVATIVE OF COSINE FUNCTION

d
(cos x ) sin x
dx

Ex.25

(a)

y = 5x + cos x

(b)

dy
d
d
=
(5x) +
(cos x)
dx
dx
dx
= 5 sin x
y = sin x cos x

Sum Rule

dy
d
d
= sin x
(cos x) + cos x
(sin x)
dx
dx
dx
= sin x( sin x) + cos x (cos x)
= cos2 x sin2 x

Product Rule

RULE NO. 9 : DERIVATIVES OF OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Because sin x and cos x are differentiable functions of x , the related functions
tan x =

sin x
;
cos x

sec x =

1
cos x

cos x
1
;
cosec x =
sin x
sin x
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. There derivatives. Calculated from the Quotient
Rule, are given by the following formulas.

cot x =

d
(tan x) = sec2 x ;
dx

d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx

d
(cot x) = cosec2 x ;
dx

d
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x
dx

Ex.26

Sol.

Find dy / dx if y = tan x .
d
d
cos x
(sin x ) sin x
(cos x)
d sin x
d
dx
dx

(tan x) =
=
dx cos x
dx
cos 2 x

Ex. 27 (a)

(b)

cos x cos x sin x (sin x)

2

cos x

cos 2 x sin 2 x
2

cos x

1
cos2 x

= sec2 x

d
d
(3x + cot x) = 3 +
(cot x) = 3 csc2 x
dx
dx
d 2
d
d

=
(2csc x) = 2
(csc x)
dx sin x
dx
dx

= 2 (csc x cot x) = 2 csc x cot x

RULE NO. 10 : DERIVATIVE OF LOGARITHM AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

d
loge x 1
dx
x
d x
e ex
dx

Ex.28

y = ex . loge (x)
dy
d x
d

e . log (x) +.
[loge (x)] ex
dx dx
dx

dy
ex
= e x . loge (x) +
dx
x

Lecture # 3
RULE NO. 11 : CHAIN RULE OR OUTSIDE INSIDE RULE
dy du
dy
=
.
du
dx
dx

It sometimes helps to think about the Chain Rule the following way. If y = f(g(x)),
dy
f ' [g( x )].g' ( x ) .
dx
In words : To find dy/dx , differentiate the outside function f and leave the inside g(x) alone ; then multiply
by the derivative of the inside.

We now know how to differentiate sin x and x2 4, but how do we differentiate a composite like sin (x2 4)?
The answer is, with the Chain Rule, which says that the derivative of the composite of two differentiable
functions is the product of their derivatives evaluated at appropriate points. The Chain Rule is probably the
most widely used differentiation rule in mathematics. This section describes the rule and how to use it. We
begin with examples.
Ex.29

The function y = 6x 10 = 2(3x 5) is the composite of the functions y = 2u and u = 3x 5. How are the
derivatives of these three functions related ?

Sol.

We have

dy
dy
du
=6,
=2 ,
=3.
dx
du
dx

Since 6 = 2 . 3 ,

dy du
dy
=
.
du
dx
dx

Is it an accident that

dy du
dy
=
.
?
du
dx
dx

If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our intuition allows us to see that this relationship is
reasonable. For y = f(u) and u = g(x) , if y changes twice as fast as u and u changes three times as fast as
x, then we expect y to change six times as fast as x.
Ex.30

Let us try this again on another function.

y = 9x4 + 6x2 + 1 = (3x2 + 1)2
is the composite of y = = u2 and 3x2 + 1 . Calculating derivatives. We see that
dy du
.
= 2 u . 6x
du dx

and

= 2(3x2 +1) . 6x = 36x3 + 12 x

dy
d
=
(9x4 + 6x2 + 1) = 36x3 + 12 x
dx
dx

Once again,

dy
dy
du
.
=
dx
du
dx

The derivative of the composite function f(g(x)) at x is the derivative of f at g(x) times the derivative of g at x.
Ex.31

Find the derivative of y =

Sol.

Here y = f(g(x)) , where f(u) =

f (u) =

2 u
the Chain Rule gives

x2 1

u and g (x) = x2 + 1. Since the derivatives of f and g are

and g (x) = 2x ,

1
dy
d
1

f(g(x)) = f (g(x)) . g (x) =

. g(x) =
. (2x) =
dx dx
2 g( x )
2 x2 1

x
x2 1

Ex.32

derivative of
the outside

outside

d
sin(x2+x) = cos(x2 + x) . (2x + 1)
dx
Inside

Inside
left alone

derivative
of the Inside

Ex.33

We sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or more times to find a derivative.
Here is an example. Find the derivative of g(t) = tan (5 sin 2t)

Sol.

g (t)

d
(tan(5 sin 2t)
dt
Derivative of
tan u with
u = 5 sin 2t

d
= sec2 (5 sin 2t) .
(5 sin 2t)
dt

= sec2 (5 sin 2t) . (0 (cos 2t) .

Derivative of
5 sin u
with u = 2t

d
(2t)
dt

= sec2 (5 sin 2t) . ( cos 2t) . 2

= 2(cos 2t) sec2 ( 5 sin 2t)
Ex.34

(a)

d
1
(1 x2)1/4 =
(1x2)3/4 (2x)
dx
4

u = 1 x2 and n = 1/4

Function defined
on [1 , 1]

x
2(1 x 2 )3 / 4
derivative defined
only on (1 ,1)

(b)

d
1
d
(cos x) 1/5 = (cos x ) 6 / 5
(cos x)
dx
5
dx

=
(c)

(d)

1
(cos x ) 6 / 5 ( sin x)
5

d sin
e
dx

sin
= e

sin
=e

cos x

sin
= e

cos x

1
sin x (cos x)6/5
5

d
sin x
dx

d
x
dx

1
2 x

e sin

x2 5

1
2

2 x 5
1

= cos

x 5 2 x2 5

d
sin 2x
dx
d
2x
dx
= cos 2x . 2 = 2 cos 2x

= cos 2x

cos x

2 x

d
d

2
sin x 5 = cos x 2 5
dx
dx

= cos

(e)

x2 5

d
(x2 + 5)
dx

2 x

x
x2 5

cos

x2 5

(f)

d
(A sin (t + )
dt
d
(t + )
dt
= A cos (t + ). . = A cos (t + )

= A cos (t + )

RULE NO. 12 : POWER CHAIN RULE

If u(x) is a differentiable function and n is an integer, then un is differentiable and
d n
du
u = nun1
dx
dx

Ex.35

(a)

d
d
sin 5 x = 5 sin4 x
(sin x)
dx
dx
= 5 sin4 x cos x

(b)

d
(2x + 1)3
dx

= 3(2x + 1)4

d
(2x + 1)
dx
= 3(2x + 1)4 (2) = 6 (2x + 1)4

(c)

d
(5x3 x4)7
dx

= 7(5x3 x4)6

(d)

d 1

dx 3 x 2

d
(5x3 x4)
dx
= 7(5x3 x4)6 (5 . 3x2 4x3)
= 7(5x3 x4)6 (15x2 4x3)

d
d
(3x 2)1 = 1(3x 2)2
(3x 2)
dx
dx

= 1 (3x 2)2 (3) =

3
(3 x 2)2

In part (d) we could also have found the derivative with the Quotient Rule.
d
(Ax + B)n
dx

Ex.36

(a)

Sol.

Here u = Ax + B ,

d
(Ax + B)n
dx

du
=A
dx

= n(Ax + B)n1 . A

(b)

d
sin (Ax + B) = cos (Ax + B). A
dx

(c)

1
d
log (Ax + B) =
.A
Ax B
dx

d
tan (Ax + B) = sec2 (Ax + B). A
dx
d (Ax + B)
(e)
e
= e(Ax + B) . A
dx

(d)

RULE NO. 13 : RADIAN VS. DEGREES

x
d
d

x
=
=
sin(x) =
sin
cos
cos(x) .
180
dx
dx
180
180
180

Lecture # 4
3.8

DOUBLE DIFFERENTIATION

If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f is also a function, so f may have a derivative of its own,
denoted by (f ) = f . This new function f is called the second derivative of f because it is the derivative of the
derivative of f . Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y = f (x) as
d dy d2 y

dx dx dx 2
Another notation is f (x) = D2 f (x).
INTERPRETATION OF DOUBLE DERIVATIVE
We can interpret f (x) as the slope of the curve y = f (x) at the point (x, f (x)). In other words, it is the rate
of change of the slope of the original curve y = f (x) .
In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of change of a rate of change. The most familiar
example of this is acceleration, which we define as follows.
If s = s(t) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, we known that its first derivative
represents the velocity v(t) of the object as a function of time :
ds
v (t) = s (t) =
dt
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration a(t) of the object.
Thus, the acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function and is therefore the second derivative
of the position function :
dv
d2 s
a (t) = v (t) = s (t)
or in Leibniz notation, a =
=
dt
dt 2
Ex. 37 :
Solution :

Ex. 38 :

If f (x) = x cos x , find f (x).

Using the Product Rule, we have
d
d
f (x) = x
(cos x) + cos x
(x)
dx
dx
= x sin x + cos x
To find f (x) we differentiate f (x) :
d
f (x) =
(x sin x + cos x)
dx
d
d
d
=x
(sin x) + sin x
( x) +
(cos x)
dx
dx
dx
= x cos x sin x sin x = x cos x 2 sin x
The position of a particle is given by the equation
s = f (t) = t3 6t2 + 9t
where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.
(a) Find the acceleration at time t. What is the acceleration after 4 s ?

Solution :

(a) The velocity function is the derivative of the position function :

s = f (t) = t3 6t2 + 9t
ds
v(t) =
= 3t2 12t + 9
dt
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function :
dv
=
= 6t 12
dt
dt 2
a(4) = 6(4) 12 = 12 m/s2

a (t) =

d2 s

3.9

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

3.9.1

DIFFERTIATION AS A RATE OF CHANGE

dy
is rate of change of y with respect to x :
dx

For examples :
(i) v =

dx
this means velocity v is rate of change of displacement x with respect to time t
dt

(ii) a =

dv
this means acceleration a is rate of change of velocity v with respect to time t .
dt

(iii) F =

dp
this means force F is rate of change of momentum p with respect to time t .
dt

(iv) =

dL
this means torque is rate of change of angular momentum L with respect to time t
dt

(v) Power =

dW
this means power P is rate of change of work W with respect to time t
dt

(vi) =

d
this means magnitude of e.m.f. is rate of change of electric flux with respect to time t
dt

(vii) =

dq
this means current is rate of flow of charge q with respect to time t
dt

2
D.
4
How fast is the area changing with respect to the diameter when the diameter is 10 m?

Ex.39

The area A of a circle is related to its diameter by the equation A =

Sol.

The (instantaneous) rate of change of the area with respect to the diameter is
dA

D
= 2D =
dD
4
2

Ex.40

Sol.

When D = 10 m, the area is changing at rate (/2) 10 = 5 m2/m. This means that a small change D m in
the diameter would result in a change of about 5 D m2 in the area of the circle.
t (seconds)
s (meters)
Experimental and theoretical investigations revealed that the distance a
t=0
0
body released from rest falls in time t is proportional to the square of the
5
amount of time it has fallen. We express this by saying that
10
1 2
15
s = gt ,
20
t=2
2
25
where s is distance and g is the acceleration due to Earths gravity. This
30
equation holds in a vacuum, where there is no air resistance, but it closely
35
models the fall of dense, heavy objects in air. Figure shows the free fall of
40
t=3
a heavy ball bearing released from rest at time t = 0 sec.
45
(a)
How many meters does the ball fall in the first 2 sec?
A ball bearing falling from rest
(b)
What is its velocity, speed, and acceleration then?
2
(a)
The freefall equation is s = 4.9 t .
During the first 2 sec. the ball falls
s(2) = 4.9(2)2 = 19.6 m,
(b)
At any time t, velocity is derivative of displacement :
d
v(t) = s(t) =
(4.9t2) = 9.8 t.
dt
At t = 2, the velocity is v(2) = 19.6 m/sec
in the downward (increasing s) direction. The speed at t = 2 is
speed = |v(2)| = 19.6 m/sec.

a=

d2 s
dt 2

= 9.8 m/s2

3.9.2

MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner

shown in the figure. It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at
x2. At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to the xaxis
and hence its slope is tan = 0. Thus, at a maximum or a minimum,
slope =

dy
= 0.
dx

x1

x2

MAXIMA
Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it
is zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus,

decreases at a maximum and hence the rate of change of

negative at a maximum i.e.

The quantity

d
dx

d
dx

dy
dx

dy
is
dx

dy
< 0 at maximum.
dx

dy
is the rate of change of the slope. It is written as
dx

Conditions for maxima are: (a)

d2 y
dx 2

dy
d2 y
= 0 (b)
<0
dx 2
dx

MINIMA
Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive.
Hence with the increases of x. the slope is increasing that means
the rate of change of slope with respect to x is positive
hence

d
dx

dy
> 0.
dx

Conditions for minima are:

(a)

dy
=0
dx

(b)

d2 y
dx 2

>0

Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the

quantity is a maximum or a minimum. The test on

d2 y
dx 2

may then

be omitted.

Ex.41

Particles position as a function of time is given as x = 5t2 9t + 3. Find out the maximum value of position
co-ordinate? Also, plot the graph.
x = 5t2 9t + 3

Sol:

dx
= 10t 9 = 0
dt

t = 9/10 = 0.9

Check, whether maxima or minima exists.

there exists a minima at t = 0.9

d2 x
dt 2

= 10 > 0

Now, Check for the limiting values.

When t = 0
;
x=3
t= ;
x=
So, the maximum position co-ordinate does not exist.
Graph

Putting t = 0.9 in the equation

x = 5(0.9)2 9(0.9) + 3 = 1.05
NOTE : If the coefficient of t2 is positive, the curve will open upside.

SOLVED EXAMPLES ON APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE

Ex.42
Sol.

Does the curve y = x4 2x2 + 2 have any horizontal tangents ? If so, where ?
The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope dy/dx is zero. To find these points. We
1.

Calculate dy/dx :

2.

Solve the equation :

dy
d 4
=
(x 2x2 + 2) = 4x3 4x
dx
dx

y = x4 2x2 + 2

(0,2)

dy
= 0 for x : 4x3 4x = 0
dx
4x(x2 1) = 0
x = 0,1, 1

1
(1,1)

The curve y = x 2x + 2 has horizontal tangents at x = 0,1, and 1.

The corresponding points on the curve are (0,2) (1,1) and (1,1). See figure.

Ex.43

Sol.

Ex.44

(1,1)

A body hanging from a spring (fig.) is stretched 5 units

beyond its rest position and released at time t = 0 to
oscillate up and down. Its position at any later time t is
s = 5 cos t
What are its velocity and acceleration at time t ?
We have
Position :
s = 5 cos t

Velocity :

v=

ds
d
d
=
(5 cos t) = 5 (cos t) = 5 sin t
dt
dt
dt

0 Rest position

Acceleration :

a=

dv
d
d
=
( 5 sin t) = 5 (sin t) = 5 cos t
dt
dt
dt

5 Position at
t=0

A sudden change in acceleration is called a jerk. When a ride in a car or a bus is jerky. It is not that the
accelerations involved are necessarily large but that the changes in acceleration are abrupt. Jerk is what
spills your soft drink. The derivative responsible for jerk is d3s/dt3.
Jerk is the derivative of acceleration. If a bodys position at time t is s = f (t) , the bodys jerk at time t is
J=

da
d3 s
=
dt
dt 3

Recent tests have shown that motion sickness comes from accelerations whose changes in magnitude or
direction take us by surprise. Keeping an eye on the road helps us to see the changes coming. A driver is
less likely to become sick than a passenger reading in the backseat.
(a) The jerk of the constant acceleration of gravity (g=32 ft/sec2) is zero : j =

(b) The jerk of the simple harmonic motion in Example 2 is :

j=

d
( g) 0
dt

da
d
=
(5 cos t)
dt
dt

It has its greatest magnitude when sin t = 1, not at the extremes of the displacement but at the origin,
where the acceleration changes direction and sign.
Ex.45

A hot air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a range finder 500 ft from the lift-off point. At
the moment the range finders elevation angle is /4, the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14 rad/min. How
fast is the balloon rising at the moment ?
Ballon

Sol.

d
= 0.14 rad / min
dt

when =
4

We answer the question in six steps.

dy
=?
dt
when =

Rangefinder
Step 1:

Step 2:

500 feet
Draw a picture and name the variables and constants (Figure ) . The variables in the picture are
= the angle the range finder makes with the ground (radians)
y = the height of the balloon (feet).
We let t represent time and assume and y to be differentiable functions of t.
The one constant in the picture is the distance from the range finder to the lift-off point (500 ft.) There
is no need to give it a special symbol s.
Write down the additional numerical information.
d
= 0.14 rad/min
dt

when

=/4

Step 3:

Write down what we are asked to find. We want dy/dt when = /4 .

Step 4:

Write an equation that relates the variables y and .

Step 5:

Differentiate with respect to t using the Chain Rule. The result tells how dy/dt (which we want) is
related to d/dt (which we know).

y
= tan ,
500

or

y = 500 tan

dy
d
= 500 sec2
dt
dt

Step 6:

Evaluate with = /4 and d / dt = 0.14 to find dy/dt.

dy

2
= 500 2 (0.14) = (1000) (0.14) = 140 (sec
= 2)
dt
4
At the moment in question, the balloon is rising at the rate of 140 ft./min.

Ex.46

A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection from the north, is chasing a speeding car that has
turned the corner and is now moving straight east. When the Cruiser is 0.6 mi north of the intersection and
the car is 0.8 mi to the east, the police determine with radar that the distance between them and the car is
increasing at 20 mph. If the cruiser is moving at 60 mph at the instant of measurement, what is the speed of
the car?

Sol.

We carry out the steps of the basic strategy.

y

Situations when
x=0.8, y=0.6
ds
dt =20

dy
dt =60

dx
dt =?

Step 1 : Picture and variables. We picture the car and cruiser in the coordinate plane, using the positive xaxis as the eastbound highway and the positive y-axis as the northbound highway (Figure) . We let
t represent time and set
x = position of car at time t.
y = position of cruiser at time t,
s = distance between can and cruiser at time t.
We assume x, y and s to be differentiable functions of t.
x = 0.8 mi,

dy
= 60 mph
dt

y = 0.6 mi ,

ds
= 20 mph
dt

(dy/dt is negative because y is decreasing.)

Step 2 : To find :

dx
dt

Step 3 : How the variables are related : s2 = x2 + y2

(The equation s =

x y would also work.)

Step 4 : Differentiate with respect to t.

dy
ds 1 dx
y
x

=
dt
dt
dt
s

Step 5 :

20 =

Pythagorean theorem

2s

ds
dx
dy
= 2x
+ 2y
Chain Rule
dt
dt
dt

x y

dy
dx
y
x

dt
dt

Evaluate, with x = 0.8 , y = 0.6 , dy/dt = 60 , ds/dt = 20 , and solve for dx/dt.
1

dx

(0.6)(60)
0.8
dt

(0.8) (0.6)
2

20 = 0.8

dx
36
dt

At the moment in question, the cars speed is 70 mph.

dx
20 36
=
= 70
dt
0 .8

Lecture # 5
4.

INTEGRATION
In mathematics, for each mathematical operation, there has been defined an inverse operation.
For example- Inverse operation of addition is subtruction, inverse operation of multiplication is division and
inverse operation of square is square root. Similarly there is a inverse operation for differentiation which is
known as integration

4.1

ANTIDERIVATIVES OR INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definitions :
A function F(x) is an antiderivative of a function f(x) if F(x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f. The set of all
antiderivatives of f is the indefinite integral of f with respect to x, denoted by

f ( x)dx .
The symbol

is an integral sign. The function f is the integrand of the integral and x is the variable of

integration.
For example f(x) = x3
then
f(x) = 3x2
2
3
So the integral of 3x is x
Similarly if f(x) = x 3 + 4 then
f(x) = 3x2
2
3
So the integral of 3x is x + 4
there for general integral of 3x2 is x3 + c where c is a constant
One antiderivative F of a function f, the other antiderivatives of f differ from F by a constant. We indicate this
in integral notation in the following way :

f (x)dx F(x) C.

.............(i)

The constant C is the constant of integration or arbitrary constant, Equation (1) is read, The indefinite
integral of f with respect to x is F(x) + C. When we find F(x)+ C, we say that we have integrated f and
evaluated the integral.

Ex.47

Evaluate

2x dx.
an antiderivative of 2x

Sol.

2x dx x

C
the arbitrary constant

The formula x2 + C generates all the antiderivatives of the function 2x. The function x2 + 1, x2 , and x2 +
are all antiderivatives of the function 2x, as you can check by differentiation.
Many of the indefinite integrals needed in scientific work are found by reversing derivative formulas.

4.2

INTEGRAL FORMULAS
Indefinite Integral

1.

x n1
x dx
C ,n 1, n rational
n 1
n

dx = 1dx x C (special case)

2.

3.

cos kx dx

sin kx dx

cos kx
C
k

sin kx
C
k

Reversed derivative formula

d x n1
2
dx n 1 = x
d
(x) = 1
dx
d cos kx

= sin kx
k
dx
d sin kx

= cos kx
dx k

Ex.48

Ex.49

4.

sec

x dx tan x C

d
tan x = sec2 x
dx

5.

csc

x dx cot x C

d
(cot x) = csc2 x
dx

6.

sec x tan x dx sec x C

d
sec x = sec x tan x
dx

7.

cos ec x cot x dx cos ec x C

d
(csc x) = csc x cot x
dx

Examples based on above formulas :

x 5 dx

x6
C
6

(a)

(b)

(c)

sin 2x dx

(d)

cos 2 dx = cos 2 xdx

1
x

dx =

Formula 1 with n = 5

1 / 2

dx 2x1/ 2 C 2 x C

Formula 1 with n = 1/2

cos 2x
C
2
1

Formula 2 with k = 2
sin(1/ 2)x
C =
1/ 2

2 sin 2 C

Formula 3 with k = 1/2

Right :

Reason :

The derivative of the right-hand side is the integrand:

Check :

d
(x sin x + cos x + C) = x cos x + sin x sin x + 0 = x cos x.
dx

Wrong :
Reason :

x cos x d x = x sin x + C
The derivative of the right-hand side is not the integrand:

Check :

4.3

x cos x d x = x sin x + cos x + C

d
(x sin x + C) = x cos x + sin x + 0 x cos x.
dx

RULES FOR INTEGRATION

RULE NO. 1 : CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

A function is an antiderivative of a constant multiple kf of a function f if and only if it is k times an
antiderivative of f.

kf (x)dx k f ( x)dx
Ex.50

Rewriting the constant of integration

5 sec x tan x d x

=5

sec x tan x d x

= 5 (sec x + C)
= 5 sec x + 5C
= 5 sec x + C
= 5 sec x + C

Rule 1
Formula 6
First form
Shorter form, where C is 5
Usual formno prime. Since 5 times an
arbitrary constant is an arbitrary constant,
we rename C.

What about all the different forms in Example? Each one gives all the antiderivatives of f (x) = 5 sec x tan x.
so each answer is correct. But the least complicated of the three, and the usual choice, is

5 sec x tan x d x = 5 sec x + C.

Just as the Sum and Difference Rule for differentiation enables us to differentiate expressions term by term,
the Sum and Difference Rule for integration enables us to integrate expressions term by term. When we do
so, we combine the individual constants of integration into a single arbitrary constant at the end.

RULE NO. 2 : SUM AND DIFFERENCE RULE

A function is an antiderivative of a sum or difference f g if and only if it is the sum or difference of an

antiderivative of f an antiderivative of g.

[f (x) g(x)dx] f (x)dx g(x)dx

Ex.51

Termbyterm integration

Evaluate :
Sol.

(x2 2x + 5) dx.

If we recognize that (x3 /3) x2 + 5x is an antiderivative of x2 2x + 5, we can evaluate the integral as

tive
antideriva

3
x
( x 2 2 x 5 )dx
x 3 5 x C.
3

arbitrary constant

If we do not recognize the antiderivative right away, we can generate it term by term with the sum and
difference Rule:

(x

2x 5)dx = x 2 dx

2xdx + 5dx

x3
+ C1 x2 + C2 + 5x + C3.
3
This formula is more complicated than it needs to be. If we combine C1,C2 and C3 into a single constant
C = C1 + C2 + C3, the formula simplifies to

x3
x2 + 5x + C
3
and still gives all the antiderivatives there are. For this reason we recommend that you go right to the final
form even if you elect to integrate term by term. Write

( x 2 2x 5)dx =

x 2 dx

2xdx +

5dx =

x3
x2 + 5x + C.
3

Find the simplest antiderivative you can for each part add the constant at the end.
Ex.52

We can sometimes use trigonometric identities to transform integrals we do not know how to evaluate into
integrals we do know how to evaluate. The integral formulas for sin2 x and cos2 x arise frequently in applications.
(a)

sin

xdx

1 cos 2 x
dx
2

1 cos 2x
2

1
1
1
(1 cos 2x ) d x =
dx
2
2
2

1 1 sin 2x
x
sin 2x
C =
x

+C
2 2
2
2
4

sin2 x =

cos 2x dx

 cos

(b)

x dx

1 cos 2x
dx
2

1 cos 2x
2

x sin 2x
C As in part (a), but with a sign change
+
2
4

cos2 x =

Ex.53

Find a body velocity from its acceleration and initial velocity. The acceleration of gravity near the surface of
the earth is 9.8 m/sec2. This means that the velocity v of a body falling freely in a vacuum changes at the rate
d
of
= 9.8 m/sec2. If the body is dropped from rest, what will its velocity be t seconds after it is released?
dt

Sol.

In mathematical terms, we want to solve the initial value problem that consists of
d
The differential condition :
= 9.8
dt
The initial condition:
= 0 when t = 0 ( abbreviated as v (0) = 0 )
We first solve the differential equation by integrating both sides with respect to t:
d
= 9.8
The differential equation
dt
d

dt dt = 9.8dt

Integrate with respect to t.

+ C1 = 9.8t + C2
Integrals evaluated
= 9.8t + C.
Constants combined as one
This last equation tells us that the bodys velocity t seconds into the fall is 9.8t + C m/sec.
For value of C : What value? We find out from the initial condition :
= 9.8t + C
0 = 9.8(0) + C (0) = 0
C = 0.
Conclusion : The bodys velocity t seconds into the fall is
= 9.8t + 0 = 9.8t m/sec.
The indefinite integral F(x) + C of the function f(x) gives the general solution y = F(x) + C of the differential
equation dy/dx = f(x). The general solution gives all the solutions of the equation ( there are infinitely many,
one for each value of C). We solve the differential equation by finding its general solution. We then solve the
initial value problem by finding the particular solution that satisfies the initial condition y(xo) = yo ( y has the
value yo when x = xo.).

RULE NO. 3 : RULE OF SUBSTITUTION

f (g(x)) g(x) dx = f (u)du

1. Substitute u = g(x), du = g(x) dx.

= F(u) + C
= F (g(x)) + C

Ex.54

Evaluate

( x 2)

2. Evaluate by finding an antiderivative F (u) of

f(u). (any one will do.)
3. Replace u by g(x).

dx

We can put the integral in the form

n

u du
by substituting
u = x + 2,

du = d(x + 2) =

d
(x + 2). dx
dx

= 1.dx = dx.
Then

( x 2)

dx

u du

u = x + 2,

du = dx

Ex.55

Ex.56

Ex.57

Evaluate

Evaluate

Evaluate

1 y 2 2y dy

4t 1dt

1/ 2

u6
+C
6

Integrate, using rule no. 3 with n= 5.

( x 2)6
+ C.
6

Replace u by x + 2.

1/ 2

du

Let u = 1 + y2, du = 2y dy.

u(1 / 2) 1
(1/ 2) 1

Integrate, using rule no. 3 with n = 1/2.

2 3/2
u
+C
3

Simpler form

2
(1 y 2 )3 / 2 + C
3

Replace u by 1 + y2.

1
du
4

1 1/ 2
u du
4

1 u3 / 2

+C
4 3/2

Replace u by 1 + y2.

1 3/2
u
+C
6

Simpler form

1
( 4t 1)3 / 2 + C
6

Replace u by 4t 1.

With the 1/4 out front, the integral is now in standard form.

cos (7 + 5) d = cos u 7 du
=

Let u = 4t 1, du = 4 dt, (1/4)du = dt.

1
cos u du
7

Let u = 7 + 5, du = 7d, (1/7) du = d.

With (1/7) out front, the integral is now in
standard form.

Ex.58

Evaluate

1
sin u C
7

Integrate with respect to u.

1
sin (7 + 5) + C
7

Replace u by 7 + 5.

sin( x )3 dx =

sin( x)

x2 dx

sin u 3 du

1
sin u du
3

1
( cos u) + C
3

Let u = x3, du = 3x2 dx, (1/3) du = x2dx.

1
cos(x3) + C
3

Integrate with respect to u.

Replace u by x3.

Ex.59

cos

sec

2 d
1
du
2

2
= sec u

Check:

Ex.60

(x

d
d

sec 2 =

1
cos 2

Let u = 2, du =2d, d = (1/2)du.

1
2

1
tan u + C
2

Integrate, using eq. (4).

1
tan 2 + C
2

Replace u by 2.

sec

tan 2 C
2

2x 3)2 (x + 1) dx

u du

1 d

(tan 2) + 0
2 d

1
1
sec2 2 2 =
.
2
cos 2 2

1
du
2

2
sec 2 2
d

Chain Rule

Let u = x2 + 2x 3, du = 2xdx + 2dx =

2(x+1)dx, (1/2)du= (x+ 1) dx.

Ex.61

sin

t cos t dt

1 2
u du
2

1
1 u3

+ C = u3 + C
6
2 3

Integrate with respect to u.

1 2
(x + 2x 3)3 + C
6

Replace u.

u du

Let u = sin t, du = cos t dt.

u5
+C
5

Integrate with respect to u.

sin5 t
+C
5

Replace u.

The success of the substitution method depends on finding a substitution that will change an integral we
cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. If the first substitution fails, we can try to simplify the integrand
further with an additional substitution or two.

Ex.62

Evaluate :

2zdz
3

z2 1

We can use the substitution method of integration as exploratory tool: substitute for the most troublesome
part of the integrand and see how things work out. For the integral here, we might try u = z2 + 1 or we might
even press our luck and take u to be the entire cube root. Here is what happens in each case.

Solution 1.

Substitute u = z2 + 1.

2zdz
3

1/ 3

z 1

u2 / 3
+C
2/3

du

du

1/ 3

Let u = z2 + 1, du = 2zdz.
In the form f undu
Integrate with respect to u.

Solution 2

Substitute u

3 2/3
u +C
2

3 2
(z + 1)2/3 + C
2

z 2 1 instead.

3u2 du
u

2zdz
3

z2 1

Replace u by z2 + 1.

Let u =

3
2
2
z 2 1 , u = z + 1, 3u du =2zdz

= 3 u du
= 3

u2
C
2

3 2
(z + 1)2/3 + C
2

Integrate with respect to u.

Replace u by (z2 + 1)1/3

Lecture # 6
4.3

DEFINITE INTEGRATION OR INTEGRATION WITH LIMITS

f ( x) dx g( x)

b
a

g (b ) g (a )

where g(x) is the antiderivative of f(x) i.e. g(x) = f(x)

Ex.63

4
1

3dx = 3

/2
0

4.4

4
1

4
dx 3x 1 = 3[4 (1)] = (3) (5) = 15

/2

sin xdx cos x 0

= cos cos( 0) = 0 + 1 = 1
2

APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL : CALCULATION OF AREA OF A CURVE

From graph shown in figure if we divide whole area in infinitely small strips
of dx width.
We take a strip at x positon of dx width.
Small area of this strip dA = f(x) dx
b

So, the total area between the curve and xaxis = sum of area of all strips =

f ( x)dx
a

Let f(x) 0 be continuous on [a,b]. The area of the region between the graph of f and the x-axis is
b

A=

f (x ) dx
a

Ex.64

Using an area to evaluate a definite integral

Evaluate

Sol.

b
a

x d x 0 < a < b.

We sketch the region under the curve y = x, a x b ( figure) and see

that it is a trapezoid with height (b a) and bases a and b. The value of the
integral is the area of this trapezoid :

Thus

b
a

x d x = (b a)

ab
b2 a2

=
.
2
2
2

xdx =

(1)
2

=2

y=x
b
a
a
o

a b
The region in Example

and so on.
Notice that x2/2 is an antiderivative of x, further evidence of a connection between antiderivatives and summation.

Lecture # 7
5.

VECTOR
In physics we deal with two type of physical quantity one is scalar and other is vector. Each scalar quantities
has magnitude and unit.
For example mass
= 4kg
Magnitude of mass = 4
and unit of mass = kg
Example of scalar quantities : mass, speed, distance etc.
Scalar quantities can be added, subtracted and multiplied by simple laws of algebra.

5.1

DEFINITION OF VECTOR

If a physical quantity in addition to magnitude (a) has a specified direction.

(b) obeys the law of parallelogram of addition, then and then only it is said to be a vector. If any of the
above conditions is not satisfied the physical quantity cannot be a vector.
If a physical quantity is a vector it has a direction, but the converse may or may not be true, i.e. if
a physical quantity has a direction, it may or may not a be vector. e.g. time, pressure, surface
tension or current etc. have directions but are not vectors because they do not obey parallelogram
law of addition.

The magnitude of a vector ( A ) is the absolute value of a vector and is indicated by

| A | or A.
Example of vector quantity : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Representation of vector :
Geometrically, the vector is represented by a line with an arrow indicating the direction of vector as

Mathematically, vector is represented by A

Sometimes it is represented by bold letter A .

IMPORTANT POINTS :
If a vector is displaced parallel to itself it does not change (see Figure)
C
A

A= B = C
Transition of a vector
parallel to itself

If a vector is rotated through an angle other than multiple of 2 (or 360) it changes (see Figure).
B
A
q

A B
Rotation of a vector

If the frame of reference is translated or rotated the vector does not change
(though its components may change). (see Figure).

or
ct
e
v
A S'

O'
S

O
moving frame

Two vectors are called equal if their magnitudes and directions are same, and they represent values of
same physical quantity.
Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are placed tail
to tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e. 0 ).

5.2

UNIT VECTOR

Unit vector is a vector which has a unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. Any vector ( A )

) in that direction and magnitude of the given vector..

can be written as the product of unit vector ( A

A = AA

or A =
A

A unit vector has no dimensions and unit. Unit vectors along the positive
x-, y- and z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are denoted by i , j
and k respectively such that i j k = 1.

Ex.65

Sol.

Three vectors A , B , C are shown in the figure. Find angle between (i) A and B , (ii) B and C , (iii) A and C .

To find the angle between two vectors we connect the tails of the two

vectors. We can shift B such that tails of A , B and C are connected as

shown in figure.

Now we can easily observe that angle between A and B is 60, B and

C is 15 and between A and C is 75.

Ex. 66 A unit vector along East is defined as i . A force of 105 dynes acts west wards. Represent the force in terms of i .

Sol.
F = 105 i dynes

5.3

MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number gives a vector B (= A ) whose magnitude is changed by

the factor but the direction is the same as that of A . Multiplying a vector A by a negative number gives

a vector B whose direction is opposite to the direction of A and whose magnitude is times A .

Ex. 67 A physical quantity (m = 3kg) is multiplied by a vector a such that F ma . Find the magnitude and direction

of F if

(i)
a = 3m/s2 East wards

(ii)
a = 4m/s2 North wards

Sol.

(i)
(ii)

5.4

F ma = 3 3 ms2 East wards = 9 N East wards

F ma = 3 (4) N North wards

= 12N North wards = 12 N South wards

ADDITION OF VECTORS
Addition of vectors is done by parallelogram law or its corallary, the triangle law :

(a)

Parallelogram law of addition of vectors : If two vectors A and B are represented by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram both pointing outwards (and their tails coinciding) as shown. Then
the diagonal drawn through the intersection of the two vectors represents the resultant (i.e., vector

sum of A and B ).

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

The direction of resultant vector R from A is given by

R=

tan =

CE
B sin
=
AE
A B cos

B sin
tan 1

A B cos
(b)

Triangle law of addition of vectors : To add two vectors A and B shift any of the two vectors

parallel to itself until the tail of B is at the head of A . The sum A + B is a vector R drawn from

the tail of A to the head of B , i.e., A + B = R . As the figure formed is a triangle, this method is
called triangle method of addition of vectors.
If the triangle method is extended to add any number of vectors in one operation as shown . Then
the figure formed is a polygon and hence the name Polygon Law of addition of vectors is given to
such type of addition.

IMPORTANT POINTS :
To a vector only a vector of same type can be added that represents the same physical quantity and the
resultant is a vector of the same type.
As

R = [A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos ] 1/2

so

will

be

maximum when, cos = max = 1,

i.e., = 0, i.e. vectors are like or parallel and Rmax = A + B.

The resultant will be minimum if, cos = min = -1, i.e., = 180 , i.e. vectors are antiparallel and
Rmin = A B.
If the vectors A and B are orthogonal, i.e., = 90, R =

A 2 B2

As previously mentioned that the resultant of two vectors can have any value from (A ~ B) to (A + B)
depending on the angle between them and the magnitude of resultant decreases as increases 0 to 180
Minimum number of unequal coplanar vectors whose sum can be zero is three.
The resultant of three non-coplanar vectors can never be zero, or minimum number of non coplanar vectors
whose sum can be zero is four.

Subtraction of a vector from a vector is the addition of negative vector, i.e.,

A B = A ( B )

(a)

From figure it is clear that A B is equal to addition of A with reverse of B

| A B | = [(A)2 + (B2) + 2AB cos (180 )]1/2

| A B | = A 2 B2 2AB cos
(b)

Change in a vector physical quantity means

subtraction of initial vector from the final vector.

Ex. 68 Find the resultant of two forces each having magnitude F0, and angle between them is .
Sol.

2
2
2
2
FRe
sul tan t = F0 + F0 + 2 F0 cos

= 2 F02 ( 1 + cos )
= 2 F02 (1 + 2 cos2
= 2 F02 2 cos2
Fresultant = 2F0 cos

1)
2

Ex. 69 Two non zero vectors A and B are such that | A + B | = | A B |. Find angle betwen A and B ?

Sol.
|A + B| = |A B|

A2 + B2 + 2AB cos = A2 + B2 2AB cos

Ex.70

Sol.

4AB cos = 0

cos = 0

The resultant of two velocity vectors A and B is perpendicular to A . Magnitude of Resultant R is equal to

half magnitude of B . Find the angle between A and B ?

Since R is perpendicular to A . Figure shows the three vectors A , B and R .

angle between A and B is

R
B
1
=
=
B
2B
2

= 30

angle between A and B is 150.

If the sum of two unit vectors is also a unit vector. Find the magnitude of their difference?

sin =
Ex.71
Sol.

Let A and B are the given unit vectors and R is their resultant then
| R | = | A + B |
1=

( A )2 (B )2 2 | A || B | cos

1 = 1 + 1 + 2 cos

|A B| =

cos =

1
2

1
( A )2 (B)2 2 | A || B | cos = 1 1 2 1 1( )
2

Lecture # 8
5.5
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

If a and b be any two nonzero vectors in a plane with different directions and A be another vector in the

same plane. A can be expressed as a sum of two vectors - one obtained by multiplying a by a real number

and the other obtained by multiplying b by another real number .

A = a + b (where and are real numbers)

We say that A has been resolved into two component vectors namely

a and b

a and b along a and b respectively.. Hence one can resolve a given vector into two component vectors
along a set of two vectors all the three lie in the same plane.
Resolution along rectangular component :
It is convenient to resolve a general vector along axes of a rectangular
coordinate system using vectors of unit magnitude, which we call as unit
vectors. i, j, k are unit vector along x,y and z-axis as shown in figure
below:

Resolution in two Dimension

Consider a vector A that lies in xy plane as shown in figure,

A = A1 + A 2

A1 = A x i , A 2 = A yj

A = A x i + A yj

The quantities Ax and Ay are called x- and y- components of the vector A .

A is itself not a vector but A i is a vector and so is A j .

A 2 = Ay j

Ax = A cos and Ay = A sin

A 1 = Ax i

Its clear from above equation that a component of a vector can be positive, negative or zero depending on the

value of . A vector A can be specified in a plane by two ways :

(a)
its magnitude A and the direction it makes with the x-axis; or
(b)

its components Ax and Ay.

A=

A 2x A 2y , = tan1

Note : If A = Ax Ay = 0 and if A = Ay Ax = 0 i.e.

components of a vector perpendicular to itself is always zero.
The rectangular components of each vector and those of the

sum C = A + B are shown in figure. We saw that

C = A + B is equivalent to both
Cx = Ax + Bx
and
Cy = Ay + By

Resolution in three dimensions. A vector A in components along

x-, y- and z-axis can be written as :

OP = OB + BP = OC + CB + BP

Ay
Ax

A = AZ + Ax + Ay = Ax + Ay + AZ

= A x i A y j A zk

A=

P
O

A 2x A 2y A 2z

Ax = A cos , Ay = A cos , Az = A cos

where cos , cos and cos are termed as Direction Cosines of a given vector A .
cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1
Ex.72

A mass of 2 kg lies on an inclined plane as shown in figure. Resolve its

weight along and perpendicular to the plane. (Assume g = 10 m/s2)

Sol.

Component along the plane

= 20 sin 30 = 10 N
component perpendicular to the plane
= 20 cos 30 = 10 3 N

Ex.73
Sol.

A vector makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal. If horizontal component

of the vector is 250. Find magnitude of vector and its vertical component?

Let vector is A
Ax = A cos300 = 250 =

Sol.

Ex.75
Sol.
Ex.76

Sol.

A=

250
1
=
3
3
2

A = i + 2 j 3 k , when a vector B is added to A , we get a unit vector along x-axis. Find the value of B ?
Also find its magnitude

A + B = i

| B | = (2)3 (3)2 = 13
B = i A = i ( i + 2 j 3 k ) = 2 j + 3 k

In the above question find a unit vector along B ?

2j 3k
B

=
=
B
13
B

Vector A , B and C have magnitude 5, 5 2 and 5 respectively, direction of A , B and C are towards east,

Ay = A sin300 =

Ex.74

500

A 3
2
500

North-East and North respectively. If i and j are unit vectors along East and North respectively. Express the

sum A + B + C in terms of i , j . Also Find magnitude and direction of the resultant.

ant.

North
A = 5 i
C = 5 j
B

= 5 i + 5 j
B = 5 2 cos 45 i + 5 2 sin 45 j
C

= 10 i + 10 j
A + B + C= 5i + 5i + 5 j + 5 j
East

A
| A + B + C | = (10)2 (10)2 = 10 2
tan =

10
=1
10

= 45 from East

Ex.77

You walk 3 Km west and then 4 Km headed 60 north of east. Find your resultant displacement
(a) graphically and
(b) using vector components.

Sol.

Picture the Problem : The triangle formed by the three vectors is not a
right triangle, so the magnitudes of the vectors are not relat.d by the
Pythagorean theorem. We find the resultant graphically by drawing each
of the displacements to scale and measuring the resultant displacement.
(a)

If we draw the first displacement vector 3 cm long and the

second one 4 cm long, we find the resultant vector to be
about 3.5 cm long. Thus the magnitude of the resultant
displacement is 3.5 Km. The angle made between the
resultant displacement and the west direction can then
be measured with a protractor. It is about 75.

(b) 1. Let A be the first displacement and choose the x-axis to be in the easterly direction. Compute Ax
and Ay , Ax = 3 , Ay = 0

2. Similarly, compute the componets of the second displacement B , Bx = 4cos 60 = 2 , By = 4 sin 60

= 2 3

3. The components of the resultant displacement C = A + B are found by addition,

C = (3 2)i + (2 3 )j = i + 2 3 j

4. The Pythagorean theorem gives the magnitude of C .

C=

12 2 3

13 = 3.6

5. The ratio of Cy to Cx gives the tangent of the angle between C and the x axis.

2 3
= 74
1
Remark : Since the displacement (which is a vector) was asked for, the answer must include either
the magnitude and direction, or both components. in (b) we could have stopped at step 3 because
the x and y components completely define the displacement vector. We converted to the magnitude
and direction to compare with the answer to part (a). Note that in step 5 of (b), a calculator gives the
angle as 74. But the calculator cant distinguish whether the x or y components is negative. We
noted on the figure that the resultant displacement makes an angle of about 75 with the negative x
axis and an angle of about 105 with the positive x axis. This agrees with the results in (a) within the
accuracy of our measurement.
tan =

Lecture # 9
5. 6 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
5.6.1

THE SCALAR PRODUCT

The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B , denoted as A . B

(read A dot B ) is defined as the product of their magnitude with cosine of angle

between them. Thus, A . B = AB cos {here is the angle between the vectors}
PROPERTIES :
It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e. < 90) and negative if angle
between them is obtuse (i.e. 90 < 180)

It is commutative, i.e., A . B = B . A

It is distributive, i.e. A . ( B +

C) = A .B +A . C

A. B

As by definition A . B = AB cos The angle between the vectors = cos1

AB

A . B = A (B cos ) = B (A cos )

Geometrically, B cos is the projection of B onto A and A cos is the projection of A onto B as shown.

So A . B is the product of the magnitude of A and the component of B along A and vice versa.

A .B
Component of B along A = B cos=
= A.B
A

A.B
Component of A along B = A cos=
= A. B
B
Scalar product of

two v ectors will be maximum when cos = max = 1, i.e., = 0,

i.e., vectors are parallel

( A . B )max = AB

If the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes then the vectors are perpendicular.
The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by

( A )2 = A . A = AA cos = A2
In case of unit vector

A=

A. A

n ,

n . n = 1 x 1 x cos 0 = 1

In case of orthogonal unit vectors i , j and k ;

n . n = i . i = j . j = k . k = 1
i . j = j . k = k . i = 0

A . B = ( i Ax + j Ay + k Az) . ( i Bx + j By + k Bz) = [AxBx + AyBy + AzBz]
Ex.78
Sol.

If the Vectors P = a i + a j + 3 k and Q = a i 2 j k are perpendicular to each other. Find the value of a?

If vectors P and Q are perpendicular

(a i + a j + 3 k ) . (a i 2 j k ) = 0
P Q =0
2

a 2a 3 = 0

a2 3a + a 3 = 0

a(a 3) + 1(a 3) = 0

a = 1, 3

Ex.79
Sol.

Find the component of 3 i + 4 j along i + j ?

A B
Componant of A along B is given by
hence required component
B
=

Ex.80
Sol.

(3i 4j ) (i j )

Find angle between A = 3 i + 4 j and B = 12 i + 5 j ?

(3i 4j ) (12i 5j)
A B
We have cos =
=
AB
3 2 4 2 12 2 5 2
cos =

36 20
56
=
5 13
65

= cos1

56
65

Lecture # 10
5.6.2

VECTOR PRODUCT

The vector product or cross product of any two vectors A and B , denoted as

A B (read A cross B ) is defined as :

A B = AB sin n
Here is the angle between the vectors and the direction n is given by the right-hand-thumb rule.
Right-Hand-Thumb Rule:

V=AB

n , draw the two vectors A and B with both the tails coincid

ing . Now place your stretched right palm perpendicular to the plane of A and B in

such a way that the fingers are along the vector A and when the fingers are closed

they go towards B . The direction of the thumb gives the direction of n .

To find the direction of

n
B

PROPERTIES :

Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors i.e.

orthogonal to both the vectors A and B , though the vectors A and B may or may not be orthogonal.

Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e. A B B A .

But

A B = B A = AB sin

The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained i.e.

A ( B C) = A B + A C .

The magnitude of vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin = max = 1, i.e,, = 90

| A B |max AB
i.e., magnitude of vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
The magnitude of vector product of two nonzero vectors will be minimum when |sin| = minimum = 0,i.e.,

= 0 or 180 and | A B |min 0 i.e., if the vector product of two nonzero vectors vanishes, the vectors are
collinear.
The self cross product i.e. product of a vector by itself vanishes i.e. is a null vector.

A A = AA sin 0 n = 0 .

In case of unit vector n ,

n n = 0 i i j j k k = 0
In case of orthogonal unit vectors i , j and k
in accordance with right-hand-thumb-rule,

i j k

j k i

k i j
i

i

In terms of components, A B = A x
Bx

j
Ay
By

k
Az
Bz

(A)

(B)

A B = i (A y B z A z B y ) j (A z B x A x B z ) k (A x B y A y B x )

Ex.81
Sol.
Ex.82
Sol.
Ex.83

Sol.
Ex.84

Sol.

Q.1

A is East wards and B is downwards. Find the direction of A B ?

Applying right hand thumb rule we find that A B is along North.

If A B = | A B | , find angle between A and B

AB cos = AB sin
tan
an = 1

= 45
A B= |A B|

Two vectors A and B are inclined to each other at an anlge . Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to

both A and B

A B

here n is perpendicular to both A and B .

A B = AB sin n
n =
AB sin

Find A B if A = i 2 j + 4 k and B = 2 i j + 2 k .
i
j

1 2
A B =
3 1

k
4
2

Find the value of

(a) sin ( )
(d) cos (

)
2

(g) sin ( )

(j) cos (

3
)
2

(m) tan (
Sol.

Q.2

)
2

(a) sin (b) cos

(h) cos (i) cos

= i ( 4 (4)) j (2 12) + k (1(6)) = 10 j + 5 k

(b) cos ( )
(e) sin (

+ )
2

(h) cos ( )

(k) sin (

3
+ )
2

(n) cot (

)
2

(c) tan
(j) sin

(d) sin
(k) cos

(c) tan ( )
(f) cos (

+ )
2

(i) sin (

3
)
2

(l) cos (

3
+ )
2

(e) cos
(l) sin

(f) sin
(m) cot

(i) For what value of m the vector A = 2 i + 3 j 6 k is perpendicular to B = 3 i m j + 6 k

(ii) Find the components of vector A = 2 i + 3 j along the direction of i + j ?

Sol.

(i) m = 10
5

(ii)
Q.3

Sol.

(g) sin
(n) tan

(ii)

A is NorthEast and B is down wards, find the direction of A B .

Find B A if A = 3 i 2 j + 6 k and B = i j + k .

(i)

North - West.

(ii)

4 i 3 j + k

(i)