THE M A INTENA NC E & REPA IR

O F REINFO RC ED

C O NC RETE

HIPR -709 Conservation Science & Preservation Technology

The goal of this paper is to demonstrate that reinforced concrete structures have the
potential to last for prolonged periods when properly cared for using the technology and
knowledge that is currently available, and that will become available in the future.
During the 20th century, reinforced concrete became an increasingly popular building
material for everything from houses to highways, resulting in a new breed of historic
structures that will need specialized care. The main three sub-topics that are addressed
in this paper are how to properly maintain reinforced concrete, how to recognize
failures, and the treatment options available to remedy them.

Shayna L. Scott
1/29/2015

The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

wet, and strong when cured. (Portland Cement

INTRODUCTION

Association 2014)
The field of architectural conservation is one that
must constantly evolve to include the study of

Concrete has been in use for thousands of years

non-traditional materials and building practices.

because of the many advantages it offers as a

In the mid-1900s, reinforced concrete (RC)

construction material. Concrete can be shaped in

became a prominent construction material for

almost any manner, making it suitable for almost

both residential and commercial buildings

anything, it is a good insulator (which makes it

because of its strengths and versatility.

more sustainable), and it can resist fire, rain,

wind, insects, and biological attacks. (Civil

As construction evolved, concrete became

Engineers Forum 2015)

tantamount with modern architecture and its use

became more popular and widespread. In order
to preserve and protect historic RC buildings
today and in the future, it is necessary to
understand its maintenance requirements,
failures and treatment options.
THE COMPOSITION & HISTORY OF
CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of water, cement and

Figure 1. Egyptian Pyramids Constructed w/ Concrete.

aggregate. Portland cement was patented in

1842; this formula has dominated the concrete
industry because of its success in construction.
The ratios of cement, aggregate and water used
in a concrete mix will greatly affect its
durability, strength and overall performance. A
concrete mixture that has too much water will
crack easily, while a mix with too little water

Figure 2. The Pantheon in Rome. Built w/ Concrete-like

Substance

will be overly porous. A good concrete mix

consists of 10-15 parts cement, 60-75 parts
aggregate and 15-20 parts water. A wellproportioned concrete mix will be pliable when

A major drawback to concrete is that it has low

tensile strength and ductility, but the addition of
steel reinforcement bars or fibers helped to
improve these properties. 1

1 Tensile strength is the ability to resist breaking under

tension.

S. L. Scott

Ductility is the ability to take on a new form.

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Chemist and engineers led the innovation of RC;

Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe, and the

unlike other building materials, it required a

Guggenheim Museum by Frank Lloyd Wright

thorough understanding of how steel and

increased the popularity and use of RC in both

concrete work together. (Forty 2012)

residential and commercial sectors.

Accordingly, the maintenance and repair of this

composite material is a science that requires the
expertise of a professional.
In 1860, S.T. Fowler took out the first patent in
the U.S. for a RC wall. It was not until the
1880s that the use of RC became more
widespread. (Coney 2012) In Europe, a few
designers patented systems for the proper use of
RC in an attempt to regulate its use in
Figure 4. The Guggenheim Museum: Spiral Ramp and

construction. The Monier system was prevalent

Glass Dome, 1959.

in Germany & Austria, and in France, the

Hennebique system served as models to many
RC buildings of the 19th and early 20th century.
(Forty 2012)

CYCLICAL MAINTENANCE
Regular maintenance is vital to the preservation
of RC. It allows for the early detection of
physical, chemical and mechanical damage.
Other components such as gutters, downspouts
and roofs must also be up-kept, if not they can
contribute to the deterioration of RC. For
example, a clogged gutter or a leaky roof can
cause water damage to RC. Factors that might
determine the maintenance schedule for a
structure include materials, geographic location,
building use, and the age of the building.

Figure 3. Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology,

Chicago, 1956.

The thorough analysis of a building must be

complete before a maintenance or repair

Today, RC is one of the most commonly used

construction building materials. Leading
architects of the 20th century advocated the use
of RC and it was instrumental in the
development of the modern architecture
movement. Iconic buildings such as Crown Hall
at the Institute of Technology in Chicago by

S. L. Scott

schedule is developed. Existing cracks,

efflorescence, spalling, and other findings that
indicate failure must be recorded for future
reference. The review of existing maintenance
and repair records is recommended prior to the
commencement of new repairs or the
development of maintenance schedules. Old

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records may contain valuable information about

treatments can be effective for the removal of

the buildings history such as previous

heavy soil, but only when applied by a

maintenance schedules, former repairs and

professional as they can alter the surface of RC if

alterations.

used incorrectly. Wet blasting uses small

particles of limestone and other similar material

CLEANING METHODS

in the water stream at pressures of around 35 to

It is necessary to test small, discrete areas of the

75 psi. (Slaton 2015)

RC prior to cleaning any large surface. The

cleaning method selected should be appropriate
for the level of soil on the surface. It is
recommended to use the gentlest cleaning
method possible; the purpose of cleaning is to
prolong the life of a structure, not make it look

A third method of cleaning RC is with the use of

chemicals. Mild detergents and water may
remove heavy soils when paired with light
scrubbing with a natural bristle brush. Strong
substances such as muriatic acids are
inappropriate as they may affect the RC

new.

adversely, causing etching, bleaching or other

The use of harsh chemicals or abrasive methods

undesirable reactions to occur.

such as sand blasting to clean RC is not

advisable; it can accelerate failure of the RC, and

SURFACE TREATMENTS

result in the loss of historic integrity. It must

If the walls of a building are comparable to the

also be decided if cleaning is even required;

bones in a human, then paint and sealants are

some stains are part of the historic fabric of the

equivalent to skin. Without the protection of

building and have bonded to the concrete,

paints and sealers, moisture, salts and acids

providing a protective barrier.

permeate the porous network, causing damage to

the concrete and the embedded steel. There is a
surfeit of paints and other surface treatments
available on the market, but only some are
appropriate for use on concrete.
Paints should be used that are 100% acrylic-latex
because of their water resistant properties; oil

Figure 5. Pressure Washing on Exterior Concrete Wall.

based paints should never be used. (California

Paints unknown) Elastomeric paint is a good

Low-pressure water is one of the most common

choice for concrete surfaces because it has a

methods of cleaning RC, the stream should not

plasticity that helps to bridge surface cracks.

exceed 200 psi for historic edifices; higher

The best elastomeric paints are breathable to

pressures are acceptable only on high-strength,

allow water vapors to escape.

sound concrete when there is no danger of

causing damage. (Slaton 2015) Micro abrasive

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SUB-SURFACE TREATMENTS
The application of water repellants and
impregnations that are not hydrophobic, are
only suitable for isolated areas. 3 These coatings
should be used sparingly because they often
leave a film on the concrete surface and are
irreversible.
Hydrophobic impregnations penetrate the
Figure 6. Cracks in Concrete Wall.

surface of concrete and line the capillaries and

pores network, making it water repellent. (Sika

Surfaces should always be clean and dry prior to

the application of any paint. Existing layers of
paint should not be removed unless they are
bubbling up, and have lost adhesion to the
surface. Older layers of paint are part of the
historic fabric of the building, see Figure 7. The
forceful removal of paint by mechanical means
such as sandblasting could expose the concrete,
making it vulnerable to invasion by moisture and

n.d.) These products typically do not leave a

film on the surface, but require periodic
reapplication in order for the product to remain
effective. Unlike water repellent treatments,
they do not block the egress of water vapors and
are safe for use on RC. Under the advice of the
Secretary of the Interior, it is advisable to test all
products prior to use; not doing so could cause
irreversible damage to the concrete surface.

chemicals.
Waterproof coatings can improve a concrete
surfaces ability to resist external elements.
Waterproof treatments do not function the same
as water repellents. With water repellents, the
objective is to change the nature of the concrete
by filling the pores. Concrete needs to remain
breathable to allow the escape egress of water
vapors. In regions that have saturated soils, a
condition called damp rising can cause austere
impairment of the RC if the moisture does not
have a path of egress, see Figure 8. 2

Damp rising is when moisture from water saturated

soil below the grade, penetrates a wall. The moisture
then rises vertically up the wall, causing damage both
inside the wall and to adjacent materials.

S. L. Scott

Figure 7. Layers of Historical Paint on Wall.

3
Impregnation is the treatment of concrete to make
the surface stronger and less porous by partial or
complete filling of the capillaries. (Sika n.d.)

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It is best to stipulate that deicing salts be

prohibited from use adjacent to RC structures.

Figure 8. Rising Damp on Concrete Wall.

Corrosion inhibitors can protect the embedded

Figure 9. Efflorescence.

steel from oxidizing; when steel expands, it

causes damage to the concrete by exerting too
much force. Traditionally, corrosion inhibitors
were applied to rebar prior to implanting them
into concrete. Today, formulas exist that inhibit
corrosion of the rebar via impregnation of the
surrounding concrete. These products prolong
the life of RC structures by shielding the rebar
post-construction. A regular maintenance task
may include the application of an impregnable
Figure 10. Water Absorbing Tree.

corrosion inhibitor to areas of the concrete that

are prone to water and/or chemical damage.

Windows, doors and other openings with

improper seals can also invite water damage.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

Modern heating and cooling systems can pose a

Surface treatments are just one method of

problem when temperatures and humidity levels

protecting RC from damage; other preventative

vary too greatly between interior and exterior

measures can thwart repairs. Downspouts can be

environments and cause condensation. (Park

re-positioned if the water runoff is too close to

n.d.)

the structure. In regions where it snows, deicing

salts that are used to catalyze the melting of the
snow can be problematic to RC. The salts
penetrate concrete and deposit chloride ions that
can cause corrosion of the embedded rebar, and
efflorescence or sub florescence in the concrete.

A site can be used and manipulated as an

unobtrusive tool to control moisture and minimize
damage to a structure. Sloping the grade down,
away from a structure is an effective way to
prevent water from becoming stagnant adjacent to
foundation walls. Paved areas contiguous to the

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structure prevent water from saturating the soil

PHYSICAL ATTACKS

beneath the foundation, which can lead to damp

rising as discussed earlier. The planting of trees
and plants that soak up water a safe distance from
a structure is another effective method to reduce
saturated soil near the foundation of a building.
DIAGNOSING DAMAGE
Reinforced concrete is susceptible to three
different classes of attack: physical, mechanical
and chemical.

Shrinkage, thermal movement,

Figure 11. Cracks Indicative of Shrinkage.

Shrinkage can occur during the drying process

erosion, abrasion and freeze/thaw cycles are

and may produce a random pattern of fine cracks

examples of physical attack.

that are not of much consequence. RC structures

Impacts to the

structure, overloading, movement, vibration,

are less susceptible to shrinkage cracks than

earthquakes and explosions are mechanical

concrete buildings that do not have

attacks. Chemical attacks are perhaps the most

reinforcements. A greater ratio of aggregate in a

injurious of the three categories of attackers; they

concrete mix can reduce shrinking during the

can cause destruction to both the concrete and the

curing process. Concrete that cures under hot

rebar. This class of attacks includes damage that

and/or dry conditions will have a greater

results from alkali-aggregate reactions, sulfates,

percentage of shrinkage than if it were cool and

chlorides, acids, carbonation, efflorescence and

consistently wet throughout the curing process.

mold. (Sika n.d.)

One of the most recognizable signs of failure is a
crack in a vertical or horizontal surface. Spalling,
mold, rust stains and efflorescence are also signs
of failure. In cases where damages are severe, it
is usually the result of extended periods without
maintenance, unfamiliarity with RC structures or
insufficient funds. Early detection of failure is
critical and may be the difference between a
minor and major repair.

Figure 12. Thermal Expansion Crack

Thermal expansion is the process of concrete

expanding due to an increase in temperature.
Cracks may form on the surface of the concrete

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The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

that are vertical and/or diagonal; the cracks

wear down horizontal surfaces and ultimately

usually originate from the corner of an orifice.

change the texture. Constant wear and tear can

These cracks are not of great concern and can be

also lead to cracks and/or pieces of the concrete

easily remedied; they only detract from the

breaking off, especially near edges. Surface

aesthetics of a building.

treatments are available to help resist abrasion

and prolong the life of concrete floors.

Figure 11. Erosion Damage.

Erosion is the deterioration of the concrete

surface by physical or mechanical means. One
of the most common causes of erosion is the
application of water at pressures that are too high
during surface cleaning. Cleaning concrete
surfaces with water pressures higher than 400 psi
is a common cause of erosion. Lower pressures
are more appropriate, especially for damaged or
weakened surfaces.

Figure 13. Freeze/Thaw Damage.

Freeze/thaw damage is a problem in regions that

have snow and can result in cracking, spalling
and delamination. (Penn State Uniersity nd.)
Concrete made with a high ratio of water is at a
higher risk of freeze/thaw damage. As the
excess water dries out, more voids are created
within the concrete, those voids trap water, and
more tension is put on the concrete as it expands.
Freeze/thaw expansion is a serious concern that
requires action; if it is not addressed, the severity
of the damage will increase due to the already
compromised state of the concrete.
MECHANICAL ATTACKS
Overloading, can cause severe damage to RC
structures and is not always foreseeable.

Figure 12. Abrasion Damage.

Overloading can occur when too much weight

Abrasion damage is generally limited to floors

from machinery or other equipment is loaded

and is the result of constant traffic. Abrasion can

onto a floor. This is imperative to remember

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when historic buildings are re-purposed for a

aggregate reactions, sulfates, chlorides, acids and

new use, an engineer should always be consulted

carbonation contribute to the ruin of RC.

to make sure that the structure has the load

Hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, aluminum-

capabilities to support the new use. Sagging

chloride and calcium-bisulfite are among the

concrete is an indication of overload.

chemicals that cause the greatest amount of

damage to RC.
Alkali-aggregate reactions are chemical attacks
that occur when certain aggregates have a
negative reaction with hydroxides. 4 There are
two distinct type of alkali-aggregate reactions:
alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) and alkalicarbonate reactivity (ACR). Water initiates the
reaction in ASR. The following chemical
equation defines the reaction sequence (Portland

Figure 14. Overload Structural Beam.

Cement Association 2002):

Earthquakes and other movements are also

Alkalis + Reactive Silica Gel Reaction Product

examples of overloading. (Portland Cement

Gel Reaction Product + Moisture Expansion

Association 2002) Damage from these incidents

can range from small cracks in the structure, to
chunks of concrete completely breaking off.
Cracks that are the result of overloading are
usually diagonal and extend the length of the
surface.
A third type of overloading can result from
impacts. An example of an impact is a tree that
has fallen onto a building or a car that has
crashed into it. Impacts are unpredictable, but

Figure 15. Map Cracking from ASR Damage.

the positive side is that damage caused by these

attacks is isolated to the area where the impact

The product of the silica and water create a gel

that expands with moisture, creates pressure

occurred.

within the concrete, and produces map pattern

CHEMICAL ATTACKS
Like any other building material, RC is
vulnerable to attack by chemicals. Alkali-

cracking. If the problem is not resolved, it can

lead to spalling or complete deterioration. The
best way to prevent this type of damage is to

Hydroxides occur naturally in concrete.

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maintain the concrete as dry as possible. In

regions with high humidity, aggregates that
contain silica should not be used.
ACR is a reaction that can occur when
aggregates that contain calcium magnesium
carbonate [CaMg (CO 3) 2] are used; the
compound is more commonly referred to as

Figure 16. Oxidation Process

dolomite. (Merriam-Webster Inc. 2015) Like

ASR, this reaction results in expansion due

Once the rebar begins to corrode, oxidation

crystallization of the minerals. It is not common

produces rust, which takes up more volume than

to encounter this damage because modern

the rebar and puts pressure on the concrete.

technology has nearly eliminated the use of

Cracking, spalling and delamination may

aggregates containing dolomite through

indicate the presence of chloride ions. Rust

advanced filtering processes. Dolomite may be

colored stains on the concrete are clear proof of

present in historic RC structures; map pattern

rebar corrosion.

cracking may also be an indicator that ACR is

occurring.
Sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium are
all sulfates that attack concrete in various
different ways. (Portland Cement Association)
Sulfates can mix with chemicals in concrete to
produce new compounds that deteriorate the
concrete. These new compounds manifest as
solids near the surface of the concrete. Sulfates
can also break the chemical bonds in the cement

Figure 17. Rust Stains from Corroded Steel.

causing the concrete to become weak. A low

water to cement ratio will decrease the potential
for sulfate damage to concrete. (Portland Cement
Association)
Chloride is extremely destructive to rebar, and
most commonly come from deicing salts and
seawater. Structures in maritime communities
like Miami, as well as those in regions of heavy
snow such as Chicago are at the highest risk of
corrosion.

S. L. Scott

Figure 18. Spalling Damage.

Acids are often used to clean concrete surfaces,

but if they have a pH level above 3.0, they can

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cause etching. Acids combine with water to

prevalent where there is moisture and food.

create a new, destructive compounds such as

Nearly anything can be considered food,

acid rain, which has a pH level of 4.0 4.5.

including microorganisms that are found in dust.

(Portland Cement Association 2002) Soil and

Black and/or green colored stains indicate the

animal waste may contain acids that are harmful

presence of mold. Mold and/or fungi should be

to concrete. It is best to protect concrete with

removed as soon as possible because it can be

surface treatments if acid exposure is plausible.

hazardous to human health. It can also be a fall

hazard because it creates a slippery surface on

Carbonation can also result in the corrosion of

stairs and other horizontal surfaces.

embedded metals. This occurs most often in

areas with high levels of air pollution and/or high
humidity. (Portland Cement Association 2015)
Carbonates are created when carbon dioxides
from the air react with hydroxides in the
concrete. Areas that are shaded from the sun,
constantly moist, or where the metal is
embedded too close to the surface of the concrete
are more vulnerable susceptible to damage from
carbonation. (Portland Cement Association)
Efflorescence is a condition that occurs when
salts are trapped in the walls of concrete. This is

Figure 20. Mold & Soil Stains.

REPAIR METHODS FOR RC

usually the result of damp rising. A white

discoloration at the base of a wall is usually

Thanks to technology, repairs to RC structures

indicative of efflorescence.

can now be completed without diminishing the

integrity of the building. Concrete has an
advantage over other materials because it is
uniform, as opposed to other construction
methods that rely on large quantities of small
units such as bricks or wood. Another advantage
that concrete has is that new mortars and/or
concrete can be matched to existing materials,
creating an almost seamless repair.
With petrography, the size, amount, type and

Figure 19. Efflorescence.

Mold can occur on concrete directly, or on top of

an exterior coating such as paint. Mold is most

S. L. Scott

quantity of aggregates used in existing concrete

can be determined. Likewise, ratios of water to
cement, lime content and the presence of

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admixtures can be determined prior to repairs to

Cracks that are or greater, are active, or are

RC structures for better matching.

the result of more serious damage such as

settlement and load bearing issues are

Repairs to RC structures are divided into two

categories: concrete and rebar repairs. A
concrete repair can be as simple as filling in a
crack, or as detailed as re-casting or replacement.
Similarly, rebar repairs can be as simple as
slowing down the rate of corrosion, or as

concerning. (CFA- Tech Notes TN004 Cracking

n.d.) Cracks typically occur where tension is
greatest, but and an experienced professional can
transfer those cracks into joints to accommodate
movement in the structure and prevent further
damage. (Sika n.d.)

complex as the rebar being replaced.

Large cracks should be filled or injected with
Each case is unique and no two repairs will be
the same. By analyzing the damage that needs
repairing, and the history of a structure, the most

materials that have plasticity, consist of a onecompound polyurethane and are durable. (n.d.,
16-17)

appropriate repair method can be determined. It

is also important to investigate and rectify the
cause of the damage prior to making repairs to
prevent the problem from reoccurring.
CONCRETE REPAIRS
Fine cracks are the result of thermal expansion,
or shrinkage during the curing phase. These
cracks are usually dormant and only require

Figure 22. Transfer of Crack to Contraction Joint.

minor repair. These cracks are typically not a

threat to the structure, but it is advisable to fill

Severe damage to concrete, such as spalling, may

them to prevent the infiltration of moisture and

require mortar patching or replacement. The

chemicals. Cracks should be exposed and filled

most appropriate mortar to use for patching large

with a waterproof sealer, or other appropriate

voids in RC surfaces is M90 mortar. (Speiwick

sealing agent.

n.d.) Mortars that have very low shrinkage, are

corrosion inhibiting, lightweight, and have a
quick dry time are ideal for patch repairs.
In the case that an entire section needs to be recast or replaced, it may be necessary to remove a
sample of the existing concrete to analyze its
chemical and physical composition. Once the
new concrete and existing concrete match
properties, the new cast is attached with high

Figure 21. Repair of Small, Dormant Crack.

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strength grouts, and/or cement mortars that

External steel plates are used specifically to

contain epoxy.

restore and/or increase the load carrying capacity

of beams in RC structures. These plates have

Products used in the repair should have good

strength, be able to expand during the curing
process, be pliable for good workability, and
provide a moisture barrier. The repair should be
blended to be as seamless as possible to retain
the integrity of the structure. (Sika n.d., 20-21)
Mortars used for structural repairs should have

been in use since 1990 and have gained

popularity for their ease of installation, low cost
and ability to increase the flexural property of
concrete. 5 The plates are secured using collar
anchors and can extend the life of a RC structure.
They are suitable for use in historic structures
because the treatment is reversible.

all of the same qualities as mortars used in

patching repairs, and additionally they should
have a high density with the ability to resist
carbonation.
In the case that mortars, epoxies and grouts alone
are insufficient to repair severe damage to
concrete, a method called stitching can be
employed. Stitching is not ideal because it
decreases flexibility in the concrete, but it may
be a better option than replacement. Staples span

Figure 24. Installation of External Plates.

the affected area in varying lengths after holes

are drilled into the concrete on either side of the

REBAR REPAIRS

crack. (The Constructor 2014)

Electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE) is a

temporary, non-invasive method used to prevent
the corrosion of rebar inside the concrete. It uses
a power supply and monitoring system to apply
50 volts of direct current to the rebar, see Figure
24. The current from the power supply forces
the negative ions to move towards the surface of
the concrete and away from the passive layer,
which protects the steel. The treatment takes
approximately 4-6 weeks to be fully effective
and is reversible. (Bromfield 1996)

Figure 23. Stitching Repair of Concrete.

Flexural strength is a measure of tensile

strength of concrete.

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ECE can decrease the rate of corrosion

Figure 27. The difference is that a wet anode is

significantly by decreasing the level of chemical

placed at the surface of the concrete that contains

saturation in the pore network. However,

calcium carbonate. Positive ions travel from the

because this treatment is not permanent, heavy

surface inwards under electro-osmotic-pressure

precipitation can interrupt the effectiveness of

and re-alkalize the concrete. (Bromfield 1996)

the treatment and it may have to be repeated.

(Bastidas n.d)
Another way to control corrosion of the rebar is
by converting the surface of the metal into a
cathode; this is called cathodic protection
(CP). 6 The corrosion of steel and other metals is
an electrochemical reaction that only occurs with
a presence of negatively charged or anodic ions.
CP requires the permanent installation of a
power supply and control systems to maintain a
constant negative charge around the embedded
metal, see Figure 26. The positive charge is redirected to an anode that is isolated and will not
cause damage to the RC structure. (Coney 2012)
CP has been very successful in the repair of
historic RC structures. The implementation of a
CP system creates new hydroxyl ions in the
concrete, re-builds the passive alkaline layer that
protects the rebar and repels chloride ions.
(Bromfield 1996)
Re-alkalization can reverse damage caused by
carbonation, and restore the passive layer created
by hydroxyl ions in concrete, which protect the
embedded steel. The same principles as cathodic
protection are applied to this treatment see

A cathode is the positively charged area in an

electrochemical reaction.

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Figure 25. Electrochemical Chloride Extraction.

Figure 26. Cathodic Protection System.

Figure 27. Re-Alkalization Process.

SUMMARY
Reinforced concrete has strengths and weaknesses just like any other building material. The negative
aspect of RC is that the combination of concrete and metal make the material vulnerable to a multitude of
physical, chemical and mechanical attacks. If the embedded steel rebar corrodes, it directly affects the
concrete by expanding and can causing the concrete to crack, spall or break off from pressure. Likewise,
the concrete is a protective barrier to the embedded steel; damage to the concrete will expose the steel to
attacks from the elements. The positive aspect of RC is that it is a manufactured material based on
engineering and science. Admixtures, surface treatments and impregnations are available that greatly
reduce the risks of attacks by moisture and chemicals.
Maintenance is the key to sustaining RC structures now and in the future. Regular cleanings of RC
structures are essential and it provides an opportunity to inspect previous repairs and recognize failures.
The roof, gutters and downspouts should be checked frequently to assure they are in proper working order,
and water should be diverted away from the structure whenever possible. It is imperative that exterior
paints and coatings be well preserved to maintain the barrier that protects concrete from various attacks.
Professionals such as contractors or architectural conservators should always perform repairs. The least
invasive treatment should always be chosen to preserve the integrity of a structure whether it is historic or
not. As discussed earlier, the plasticity and uniform nature of concrete allows repairs to blend in a seamless
way that is not possible with other building materials. There is a vast amount of information in books,
online and in professional journals that can be used to make intelligent decisions about the care of this
unique composite material.
Based on the information that has been reviewed, it is understandable why RC has been used to build
everything from small residential homes to massive highway systems. Technology and scientific research
has already provided non-destructive ways to maintain and repair RC that will preserve the integrity of the
material. There is no doubt that experts in the study of RC will continue to advance and create new and
improved methods of sustaining RC structures. RC is a flexible, strong, and valuable building material that
is worth all the time and effort that scientists, engineers and builders have dedicated to its development.
There are already historic RC structures that are valuable to our history, and in the future, more will be
recognized and preserved for centuries to come with proper care.

The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

LIST OF FIGURES
Cover Image. Accessed January 30, 2015.
http://technicalstudiescsat.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2013/04/28/task-5-reinforced-concrete-failures/
Figure 1. Egyptian Pyramids Constructed w/ Concrete. Accessed February 3, 2015.
http://www.culturefocus.com/egypt_pyramids.htm
Figure 2. The Pantheon in Rome. Built w/ Concrete-like Substance. Accessed February 3, 2015.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on
Figure 3. Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. Accessed February 7, 2015.
http://0-www.britannica.com.library.scad.edu/EBchecked/topic/381736/Ludwig-Mies-van-der-Rohe
Figure 4. Guggenheim Museum: Spiral Ramp and Glass Dome. Accessed February 7, 2015. http://0www.britannica.com.library.scad.edu/EBchecked/topic/649476/Frank-Lloyd-Wright
Figure 5. Pressure Washing on Exterior Concrete Wall. Accessed February 11, 2015.
http://www.sodablast.ca/sand-blasting
Figure 6. Cracks in Concrete Wall. Accessed February 14, 2015.
http://www.stellarpaintingandremodeling.com/tag/colorado-painting-contractors/
Figure 7. Layers of Historical Paint on Wall. Accessed February 14, 2015.
http://kk.org/streetuse/2007/11/layers-of-time/
Figure 8. Rising Damp on Concrete Wall. Accessed February 15, 2015.
http://www.wisepropertycare.com/rising-damp/what-is-rising-damp/
Figure 9. Efflorescence. Accessed February 15, 2015.
http://www.retrofittingcalifornia.com/efflorescence-problem/
Figure 10. Water Absorbing Tree. Accessed Online February 15, 2015.
http://www.houseplantsguru.com/absorption-of-water-through-roots-in-flowering-plants
Figure 11. Erosion Damage. Accessed Online February 21, 2015. http://saberconcrete.com/services/otherservices/
Figure 12. Abrasion Damage. Accessed Online February 21, 2015.
http://www.techcoat.com/abrasionresistance.html
Figure 13. Freeze/Thaw Damage. Accessed Online February 17, 2015.
http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/thinshells/module%20III/concrete_behavior_text.htm#_Toc5593991

S. L. Scott

HIPR 709 Conservation Science & Preservation Technology

P age |1

The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

Figure 14. Overloaded Structural Beam. Accessed Online February 21, 2015.
http://www.structural.net/case-study/pre-stressed-beam-repair-washington-dc-parking-structure
Figure 15. Map Cracking in ASR Damaged Concrete. Accessed Online February 22, 2015.
http://www.bam.de/en/aktuell/presse/bildarchiv/fotoachiv_material_umwelt.htm
Figure 16. Oxidation Process. Accessed Online February 22, 2015. http://www.cement.org/for-concretebooks-learning/concrete-technology/durability/corrosion-of-embedded-materials
Figure 17. Rust Stains from Corroded Steel. Accessed Online February 22, 2015.
http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/corrincon.htm
Figure 18. Spalling Damage. Accessed Online February 16, 2015.
http://civildigital.com/spalling-concrete-causes-prevention-repair
Figure 19. Efflorescence. Photographed by Author.
Figure 20. Mold & Soil Stains. Photographed by Author.
Figure 21. Repair of Small, Dormant Crack. Accessed Online February 23, 2015.
http://www.earndig.com/extraordinary-easy-how-to-repair-walls-cracked/stucco-dry-wall-repair-sheetrockcracked-foundation-ceiling-drywall-hole-diy-concrete-crack-in-basement-ideas-patching-holes-cost-floorcontractor-wall-cracks-repair-by-experts-554x415/
Figure 22. Transfer of Crack to Contraction Joint. Accessed Online. February 23, 2015.
http://www.cement.org/for-concrete-books-learning/concrete-technology/concreteconstruction/contraction-control-joints-in-concrete-flatwork
Figure 23. Stitching Repair of Concrete. Accessed Online. February 23, 2015.
http://theconstructor.org/concrete/repair-of-active-cracks-in-concrete/7726/
Figure 24. Installation of External Plates. Accessed Online February 20, 2015.
http://www.felix.by/news/118/consulting/
Figure 25. Electrochemical Chloride Extraction. Accessed Online February 22, 2015.
http://www.jpbroomfield.co.uk/ace/resources/chlorem-1-w640h480.jpg
Figure 26. Cathodic Protection System. Accessed Online February 24, 2015.
http://remedialtechnology.com.au/themes/VSRTTheme/resources/flash/cathodic%20protection_flv.png
Figure 27. Re-Alkalization Process. Access Online. February 24, 2015.
http://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/US6258236B1/US06258236-20010710-D00000.png

S. L. Scott

HIPR 709 Conservation Science & Preservation Technology

P age |2

The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

REFERENCES
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California Paints. unknown. Choosing The Right Type of Paint. Accessed 01 07, 205.
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Forty, Adrian. 2012. Concrete and Culture: A Material History. London: Reaktion.
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Park, Sharon C. n.d. Holding the Line: Controlling Unwanted Moisture in Historic Buildings. Accessed 01
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Penn State Uniersity. nd. "Concrete Behavior." engr.psu.edu. Accessed 02 17, 2015.
http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/thinshells/module%20III/concrete_behavior_text.htm#_Toc5593991.

S. L. Scott

HIPR 709 Conservation Science & Preservation Technology

P age |3

The Maintenance & Repair of Reinforced Concrete

Portland Cement Association. 2015. Corrosion of Embedded Metals. Accessed 02 22, 2015.
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S. L. Scott

HIPR 709 Conservation Science & Preservation Technology

P age |4