INTRODUCTION TO

MASS COMMUNICATION
MASS COMMUNICATION
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE FOR BA ENGLISH
(2011 Admn. Onwards)

SEMESTER II

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
CALICUT UNIVERSITY.P.O., MALAPPURAM, KERALA,INDIA 673 635

391

School of Distance Education

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL

II Semester
MASS COMMUNICATION
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE FOR BA ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

Prepared and Scrutinised by

Dr. Muhammadali. N,
Reader and Head,
Department of Journalism and Mass Communication,
University of Calicut.

Layout & Settings

Computer Section, SDE

Reserved

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CONTENTS

MODULE I

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

05-16

MODULE II

DEFINING MASS COMMUNICATION

17-23

MODULE III

PRINT MEDIA

24-40

MODULE IV

ELECTRONIC MEDIA

41-55

MODULE V

NEW MEDIA

56-61

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MODULE I
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be familiar with

The meaning and importance of the concept of communication

Various definitions of communication

The elements of communication

The nature and purpose of communication

The functions of communication

Various types of communication

Various models of communication

Introduction
It is impossible not to communicate. Everybody communicates, everything
communicates. Communication is not a process limited to human beings only. All creatures on
the earth, from worms to humans, are communicating each other for their better existence. It is a
universal phenomenon.
Communication is a process which includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions,
skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, gestures, and visuals and so on. Thus, the act of
communication is referred to as transmission.
As communication being a universal phenomenon that defines all human behavior, it is
important to have a clear understanding of the concepts of communication. What is
communication? Why is it important to human beings? How does it work? What are the
elements involved in the process of communication? How do they relate each other? What are
the different types of communication? We should answer these questions to have a better
understanding of the subject. Let us look into each of them.

Meaning of Communication
The word communication was originated from the Latin word communis which means
common. Communion, community, communism, commonality, communalism etc. are some related
words having the same linguistic roots. Similarly, newer and newer terms are being coined as the
concept of communication assumes importance day by day. Communication technology,
communication media, communication age, communication management are just a few.
As the very term indicates, the ultimate aim of the communication process is to create
commonness between communicator and receiver of the message. Through communication, both
communicator and receiver enter into a mental agreement. Thus, they achieve their goal, which may be
expression of an emotion or transmission of an idea.
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Transaction, interchange, interaction, dialogue, discussion, sharing, contact are some of

the concepts that come up in our minds when we refer to communication.
According to Oxford English Dictionary, communication is the transfer or conveying of
meaning (Oxford Dictionary).

Definitions
1. Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common
system of symbols. (I.A.Richards).
2. The transmission of information, ideas attitudes, or emotion from one person or group to
another or others primarily through symbols.
(Theodorson and Theordorson)
3. Communication is the transmission and interchange of facts, ideas, feeling or course of
action. (Leland Brown)
4. Communication is a social interaction through messages ( Grabner, 1967)
5. The interchange of thoughts or information to bring about mutual understanding and
confidence or good human relation. (American society of Training Directors).
6. One mind affecting another (Claude Shannon)
7. The mechanism through which human relations exist and develop (Wilbur Schramm)
8. Transmission of stimuli (Colin Cherry)
9. Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic
and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. (Louis Allen)
10. Communication refers to the act by one or more persons, of sending and receiving
messages distorted by noise, within a context, with some effect and with some
opportunity for feedback (Joseph A.Devito)
The definitions given here indicate the following facts:

A world without communication is unthinkable

Communication is a complex process

Communication is essential for human relationships and progress

Human mind, body and physical conditions are vital components of communication

A common symbol system is essential for communication

Importance of Communication
Communication is important for all beings that lead community life and form
relationship. For human beings communication is as essential as food, shelter and dignity. While
animal kingdom uses low level symbols for communication, human beings have unique capacity
to use language.
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The basic foundation of human society is communication and it takes place at different
levels within oneself, between individuals, between individual and a group, between groups,
between countries and so on. Similarly, we use verbal and non-verbal forms of messages for
communication.
Communication is essential for development of the society. We attain cultural, social and
economic prosperity by sharing out experiences. How can we share experience without better
communication?
Personal enjoyment is communication based. Just think of a person kept in isolation
without any chance for communication with his friends and relatives. It is really a punishment, a
prison life. Communication helps us interact with our surroundings, thus create positive
relationships, share love, build up friendship and depend each other to enjoy life.
Can you imagine a world without media? Not at all. The basic mission of mass media is
to create ties in human society sharing news. In modern world, media have some more roles to
play. Media defines our political system, form public opinion, support public demands and set
agenda of our social life. In short, no social activity, be it marketing, business, education, politics,
media profession, is possible without communication.

Functions of Communication
Considering the essentiality of communication, scholars enumerated the following functions of
it.
a) Education: To transfer knowledge for the progress of the society
(Example: class room communication)
b) Information: To find and explain some thing new (Example: News media)
c) Cultural promotion : To help foster social values
generation (Example: Festivals, parties, celebrations)

and pass them from generation to

d) Social contact: To help make enjoyable companionship (Example:

organizations etc.)

Friendship, clubs,

e) Integration: To create harmonious relationships among various social groups (Example:

Political parties, conferences, meetings etc.)
f) Stimulation: To create interest and develop positive thinking /behavior(Example:
Advertisements)
g) Counseling: To alleviate anxiety and lead to better ways (Example: guidance, consolation
etc.)
h) Expression of emotions (Example: crying, smiling etc)
i)

Entertainment: To help pass time and enjoy life (Example: drama, song etc.)

j)

Control function: To get someone to behave in an appropriate way (Example: management,

censorship etc)

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Elements of Communication
Let us analyse Joseph A Devitos definition that communication refers to the act by one
or more persons, of sending and receiving messages distorted by noise, within a context, with
some effect and with some opportunity for feedback to find out the essential elements of
communication.
According to his definition, communication has the following elements:
a) Sender
b) Message
c) Channel
d) Receiver
e) Noise
f) Feedback
g) Context
h) Effect
Discussion on each of these elements with examples will give us more insight into the
entire process of communication.

Sender
Sender is the idea generating component in communication process. In human
communication, sender may be a person or persons who create or formulate the message to be
sent to the receiver. Being the primary source of the message, sender is also termed as source.
In mass media, for example, news reporter is the sender or source as he/she constructs
the message (news story). In a musical performance, the singer is the sender as his message is
enjoyed by the audience.
Sender is a critical component in communication as his/her social background,
personality status, education etc influence the quality of the message he/she creates. The
message is created from the idea generated in the mind of the sender. The idea generation
process is called encoding.
The source/sender has three functions:
a) To decide what is to be communicated
b) Encoding (Put the idea in such a way that the receiver understands it)
c) Transmitting the message to the receiver

Message
The message is any verbal or non-verbal method that produces meaning in the mind of
the receiver. Simply, it is the meaning transferred from senders mind to receivers mind. This
happens mainly in two ways: verbal and non-verbal methods.
Verbal message means written or oral messages. They are composed of words. Example:
A newspaper report or a lecture by a teacher.
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Non-verbal messages are those communicated through

movements, actions, clothes, style of conversation, pitch of the sound etc.

our

behaviour,

What is fundamental in message construction is the agreement between sender and

receiver in the code used for it. If the receiver cannot identify the language or meaning of the
message, the communication will be defective.

Channel
The channel means medium by which sender transmits the message to the receiver. Our
five senses such hearing, touching, smelling , tasting , seeing are basic natural channels of human
communication. Communication can be classified on the basis of five basic natural channels.
They are:
Tactile communication: Communication by touch or taste
Olfactory communication: communication by smell
Audio communication: Communication through sound waves
Visual communication: Communication through visual elements or properties.
We use any technically developed medium (like television, newspaper, books etc) with the
help of one or more of these five senses. Similarly, sender uses one or more channels to maximize
the communication effect. For example multi-media class room where teacher uses projector,
blackboard, lecture, gestures etc. simultaneously.

Receiver
Idea receiving end in communication process is called receiver. A person or thing may be
at the receiving end. The receivers role is as important as a senders role. As in the case of a
sender, receiver has also three roles to play:
a) To receive the message
b) To decode the message
Decoding is the process of extracting a message from a code and interprets it. For this, sender
and receiver should have knowledge about the code (for example: language) used in
communication.
c) To respond to the message through feedback
Receivers may be audience watching movies, persons listening to music, students hearing
a lecture or a computer getting e-mail from a remote server.
Communication fails or remains faulty when message is rejected or misinterpreted by the
receiver.

Feedback
Information or message that is fed back to the source is called feedback. If you get
clapping for your singing, clapping is the feedback. Questions raised by students in a class room
for more information is another example for feedback.
Feedback originated either from the sources own message is called self feedback.
Example: When you talk to somebody, you hear yourself and evaluate your tone, pitch etc.
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Sometimes you may think that you could have sharpened or softened your tone or pitch or text,
because of your own feedback.
Another type of feedback is that originated from the receiver. It may be in the form of
questions, applauses, puzzled look etc.
Feedback may be negative or positive, immediate or delayed.
Receivers indication to the sender that the message was not received well is called
negative feedback. Eg. Looks of indifference, rejection or boredom may be considered as
negative feedback.
Receivers favourable responses like acceptance, applauses etc. are positive feedback.
Feedback at the time of the communication itself or just after it is immediate feedback.
Eg. Applauses a singer gets during the performance.
Receivers response relatively much after the communication is delayed feedback. Eg.
Letters to the Editor.

Noise
Noise or communication barrier is any thing that distorts message. Noise may originate
in any of the components of communication like source, message, channel, context, receiver etc.
Noise is present when there is difference between the message sent and received.
Communication is not possible without noise, but its effects may be reduced through various
methods such as using good grammar, clear voice, simple language, quality signal etc.
Noise is of different types depending on the nature and reasons of the distortion.
They are:
Psychological noise: Any communication error due to the psychological reasons. Eg. A
fearful audience cant enjoy the musical programme.
Semantic noise : Language related problems in communication. Eg. Poor grammar, complex
sentence structure, rare vocabulary etc.
Contextual noise: If communication takes place in inappropriate time or place, message is
not conveyed well. Eg. Wishing compliments during a funeral function. Or An outdoor
meeting at noon in a hot summer.
Channel noise : Medium related communication barrier. Eg. Poor signal affecting picture
clarity of television.

Context
Communication takes place in a context. At times it is noticeable and at other times not.
In other words, time, place, culture, physical and social condition and psychology of the
participants are important in determining communication effect. If we try to interpret a message
out of its context, we may get an entirely different meaning which may result in communication
error.
Rules and roles are two important factors related to communication context.
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Rules are the norms we have to follow while communicating in different situations. For
example, our communication behaviour is different when we are in class room, market or prayer
hall, depending on the rules the situation demands.
Roles are the character or part each participant in communication has to play. For example,
in family communication situation, father plays a leaders role. In class room, students play the
receivers role.

Effect
Why do we communicate? It is a fundamental question. To make some effect on the receiver is
the answer. Effect is consequence or result of communication. Every communication act makes
some effect on the person/s. Effect may be positive or negative. Communication is said to be
success when we achieve the indented effect.
Communication effects are of three types:
Cognitive effects: The consequences take place in the receivers intelligence due to
communication. Example : Knowledge acquisition
Affective effects: The consequences occurred in the emotions of the person/s due to
communication.
Eg. Compassion, love etc.
Behavioral effects: The change in the receivers bahaviour or actions due to communication.
Eg. Political campaign and change in peoples voting behaviour or purchasing new
products inspired by the advertisements.
Using these elements, let us have a graphical representation of communication process. graphical
representation of communication process is also called communication models.

A basic model of human communication

While analysing this model, we should keep in mind that
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Communication is a dynamic process involving different elements. No element is static.

Some or all of these elements make communication possible. It is not must for a
communication act to have all these elements.

Elements of communication are interrelated.

Scope and Purpose of Communication Models

A model is a miniature, a highly selective visual representation of any reality. In that
sense, communication model means graphical/visual representation of communication process
using various elements involved. The best example is the above described graphic that
visulanalizes various elements and processes in the communication as envisaged by Joseph A
Devito.
Purpose of Communication Models
A graphic representation of any reality helps us visualize the relationships among various
elements of a structure, system or process; an object, event or act. Mc Quil and Windhal say that
a model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. No single
model can be expected to present a holistic picture of reality. Communication models help us to
visualise, analyse and discuss various complex processes and issues that would be otherwise
difficult to explain

Functions of models
Organizing function: Models help us by ordering and relating systems to each other by
providing with images of whole that might not otherwise perceived
Explaining function : Models help us study communication by providing simplified version
which would otherwise be complex
Yet another function of communication is heuristic in nature. It means that in the study of
communication, models guide researchers to the key points of the process or system
Thus communication models help
a. to assign probabilities to formulate hypothesis in research
b. to predict outcomes
c. to describe the structure of a phenomenon

Aristotles Concept of Communication

The first known scholar who wrote about communication, though not directly, is
Aristotle (384-322 BC). In his famous books, Rhetoric, Aristotle called the study of
communication as rhetoric and elaborated three elements within the process. According to him,
communication process composed of a speaker, a message and a listener. Person at the end of the
communication process holds the key to whether or not communication takes place.

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In Aristotles point of view,

Communication is purposive;

It is based on the intention of affecting others;

Its effects can be evaluated and measured in terms of effect, and also in terms of the truth;

Rhetoric considers not only what is or was, but also what might be.

To his communicators need to develop five skills:

Invention - ability to generate ideas;

Disposition - ability to organize ideas;

Style - use of appropriate language;

Memory - ability to recall facts & ideas;

Delivery - use of voice and gestures.

From his observations, later scholars developed a model of communication using the elements he
mentioned.

Aristoles Model of Communication

The model consists of four visible elements: Speaker or receiver, speech or message,
audience or receiver(s) and effect of communication. And, context or occasion of the
communication covers all the elements indicating that it has influence on other four elements.

Lasswell Model of Communication

Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902-1978) is the proponent of famous question formula, which
is otherwise called Lasswell formula of communication. We cant call his definition of
communication which is presented in an array of question as a communication model in its strict
sense.
This American political scientist stated that the most convenient and comprehensive way
to describe an act of communication was to answer the following questions: Who (says) What
(to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect?

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Lasswell Model of Communication

This model is self speaking of the process of communication which consists of five
elements namely communicator (who), message (says what), medium (in which
channel), receiver (to whom) effect (with what effect).
Lasswell conceived communication as a linear process which starts from
communicator and ends at receiver with some effect. The major missing elements of this
basic model are feedback and context of communication. However, this model is said to
be highly helpful for organizing communication research as audience analysis, content
analysis, control analysis, reception analysis and effect studies which are respectively
represented by communicator, message, medium, receiver and effect.

Osgood and Shramm Model

Osgood and Schramm Model

Osgood and Schramm envisioned communication as a circular process which has
beginning and or end. Hence their model is called Circular Model. In their view, sender and
receiver are interchangeable positions and though not specifically mentioned, feedback is an
essential component of this model. There are three functions on each part of the communication
circle. They are : encoding, decoding and interpreting. Both sender and receiver are encoders,
decoders and interpreters at the same time.
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Encoder Who does encoding or sends the message

Decoder Who receives the message
Interpreter Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret.
Merits of this model are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change

It shows why redundancy is an essential part
There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person
Assume communication to be circular in nature
Feedback central feature.

David Berlos Model of Communication

David Berlos model of communication has four major parts : source (S), message (M),
channel (C) and receiver (R). It is conceived as a linear model. This model is otherwise called
SMCR model denoting each element

Berlos Communication Model

Unlike other models SMCR model elaborates the sub sects of major components
indicating the influence of external factors like culture, language, text and social system and
sensory organs on communication process.
Berlos model has the following demerits:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

No feedback / dont know about the effect

Does not mention barriers to communication
No room for noise
Complex model
It is a linear model of communication
Needs people to be on same level for communication to occur but not true in real life
Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel
which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).

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Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Claude Shannon, an engineer at the Bell Telephone Company, along with Weaver
developed the most influential of all early communication models. Their goal was to formulate a
theory to guide the efforts of engineers to find out the most efficient way of transmitting
electrical signals from one location to another.

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

As the prime concern of the developers of this model was to quantitatively maximize the signals
transmitted, this model is also called Mathematical Model of Communication. The model is based on
technical communication settings where information source transmits the messages after converting it
to signals. These signals are captured using receivers and decoded. Communication through
mechanical devices like telephone or television is a best example for this model.

Dances Helical Model of Communication

Dance Model of Communication

The Helical Model of communication was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967. A helix is
nothing but a smooth curve just like a spring which if goes upwards also comes downwards.
Dance thought of communication process similar to helix. Dance's model emphasized the
complexity of communication. He was interested in the evolutionary nature of the process of
communication. According to him, once communication started, it develops gradually according
to time. This model disagrees with the traditional concepts of linearity and circularity in
communication and stresses the helical spiral nature of the process. According to Dance, earlier
communication helps widen the nature and context of further communication. To him,
communication has a very simple beginning and it widens as time and context permit.
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MODULE II
DEFINING MASS COMMUNICATION
Objectives
This unit will introduce

Components of mass communication

Channels of mass communication

The process of mass communication

Nature of mass communication

Functions and dysfunctions of mass communication

Types of mass media

Introduction
We learnt to define communication, identify its elements and categorize the process
based on the number of persons involved in it. Of the above mentioned types of communication,
our focus is on mass communication. In this unit, we will learn the various aspects of mass
communication, which is the thrust area of this programme.

Components of Mass Communication

For better understanding of the nature of mass communication, we should analyze its
two basic components : the mass and the communication media.

The Mass
The concept mass in mass communication is defined as a large, heterogeneous,
assorted, anonymous audience.
Large means we cant exactly count the number of the members of audience. It is
relatively large but it doesnt mean that the audience includes all people.
Heterogeneous means the audience of mass media includes all types of people the rich,
the poor, farmers, bureaucrats, politicians and so on.
Assorted means the audience of mass media is not necessarily limited to a particular
geographical sector. They may be scattered everywhere. For example, a newspaper may have a
reader in every nook and corner of the world.
Anonymous means we cant specifically identify a reader of a newspaper of newspaper
with his certain characteristics. Today he may be reader of a particular newspaper. Tomorrow, he
may change his media habit. Anybody at any time may be a member of mass media audience.
The channels of communication that produce and distribute news, entertainment content,
visuals and other cultural products to a large number of people. Mass media can be classified in
to three major groups on the basis of their physical nature.
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They are:

Print Media like newspaper, magazines and periodicals, books etc.

Electronic like radio, cinema, television, video and audio records

Digital Media like CD RoMs, DVDs and the Internet facilities.

Mass Communication Process

How does mass communication work can be well explained in linear model of mass
communication?. According to this traditional concept, mass communication is a component
system made up of senders ( the authors, reporters, producers or agencies) who transmit
messages ( the book content, the news reports, texts, visuals, images, sounds or advertisements)
through mass media channels ( books, newspapers, films, magazines, radio, television or the
Internet) to a large group of receivers ( readers, viewers, citizens or consumers) after the filtering
of gatekeepers ( editors, producers or media managers) with some chance for feedback ( letters to
editors, phone calls to news reporters, web-site postings or as audience members of talk shows or
television discussions). The effect of this process may formation of public opinion, acceptance of
a particular cultural value, setting the agenda for the society and the like.
A simple linear model of mass communication situation can be represented with the
diagram given below.

Reporter

Report

Media

Audience

Feedback

Nature of Mass Communication

From the above model of mass communication, it is easy to identify the following
features of mass communication.
1. Mass communication experience is public one. It means that anybody can be a part of
this communication process at any time without much effort or permission.
2. It is a mediated communication act. Nature of the media involved in the process
defines the mediation in mass communication. For example, television can transmit a
news instantly as it is a fast medium, newspaper takes to bring the same news report
to the public because of its limitations. This is how nature of the media defines the
mediation process in mass communication.
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3. Mass communication is filtered communication. This filtering processing is called

gatekeeping. For example, a news report in a newspaper or on a television channel
filtered or controlled at different level by reporter, sub editor, news editor, editor.
4. It is the most complicated form of communication as it involves complex technology
like satellites digital networks, management structure, marketing chain etc.
5. Mass communication can alter the way the society thinks about events and attitudes.
6. Mass communication experience is transient. It means that once you used a message (
for example, a news report or a film) you may not use it again. The message is meant
to be used once and it is gone. Who will read yesterdays newspaper?
7. Mass communication is most often remains as one-way communication. As receivers,
how many of us write letters to editor (sender)? A very few. But, in interpersonal
communication, senders and receivers are in active conversation sending feedback to
each other.
8. Unlike other communicators, mass communicators cant see their audience. Karan
Tapar or Pranoy Roy, the leading television personalities in India know that their
programmes are watched by millions of Indians. But, they cant see how people
respond or react while watching their presentations. Thats why they cant change the
style of presentation or mode of communication instantly as we do in interpersonal or
group communication.

Mass Media
Mass media influence our daily life more than any other cultural institution. They are our
main sources of news and entertainment. They define our purchase decision, voting behavior,
academic achievement and so on. Because of this all-encompassing impact of mass media,
politicians, businessmen and government agencies depend on media to influence people. During
election time, we witness politicians spending millions of rupess for political campign through
mass media. Business firms across the world spend billions of dollars to market their products
with the help of mass media advertisements. We are informed of the policies of our governments
through newspapers and electronic media. Likewise, we people need mass media to express our
needs, complaints and wishes to the authorities. In short, role of mass media in our society is
omnipresent.

Defining Mass Media

According to Wilbur Schramm a mass medium is essentially a working group organized
around some device for circulating the same message, at about same time, to a large number of people.
From this definition, let us know that there is a well organized system behind each mass
medium. For example, a newspaper is produced everyday with the collective efforts of a lot of
people using various information sources ranging from local reporters to international news
agencies. Same is the case of distribution of the newspaper also. Everybody from circulation
manager to local newspaper boy is actively engaged in smooth circulation of each copy of a
newspaper. Moreover, every county has its own policy, laws, and telecommunication systems to
facilitate mass media. In this sense, the production of a mass medium is the result of a well
organized system.
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And, the messages are disseminated to a large number of people ie. mass. They are called
the audience. No media can sustain without a sufficient audience. We learned the characteristics
of mass audience in the earlier unit.
The definition again talks about devices of circulating messages. These devices are
technological means through which messages are communicated to the audience. Devices
include printed documents, television, radio, DVD, cassettes, the internet etc.

Types of Mass Communication

Mass media can be categorized according to physical form, technology involved, nature
of the communication process etc. Given below are the major categories of mass media.

Print Media
Johannes Gutenbergs invention of the moveable metallic type in the fifteenth century
paved the way for proliferation of the print media. The printing press using moveable types
introduced the method for mass production of texts. Before the invention of the printing press,
books were expensive materials affordable only for the aristocrats and royal families. Printing
reduced the cost of books and made them available to the common men also. Rapid duplication
of multiple copies of handy texts led to the innovation of modern newspapers.
Print Media include

Newspapers

Magazines

books

other textual documents

Electronic Media
The history of electronic mass media starts with the invention of radio by Marconi. The
first radio station was set up in Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in the 1920s. Following the
USA, European countries also started radio stations for broadcasting news and entertainment
content. The colonial powers like Briton and France set radio stations in Asian and African
countries in the early years of 20th century. The next step in electronic communication media
history was the invention of cinema. Following cinema, television broadcasting was initiated in
the US on experimental basis during 1920s. But, the dramatic impact of television as a mass
medium began in 1950s. Parallel to these, recording industry was also boomed in the western
countries. In short, the term electronic media mainly include:

Radio

Movies

Television

Audio and Video records

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New Media
Online and digital means of producing, transmitting and receiving messages are called
new media. The term encompasses computer mediated communication technology. It implies the
use of desktop and portable computers as well as wireless and handheld devices. Every company
in the computer industry is involved with new media in some manner. The forms of
communicating in the digital world include

CD-RoMs
DVDs
Internet facilities like World Wide Web, bulleting boarding, email etc.

Functions of Mass Media

As mentioned earlier, mass media have pervasive effects on our personal and social life.
The role and scope of mass media in our society are in the following areas:

Information

Education
Entertainment
Persuasion

Information function
Mass media carry a lot of information which are essential for our day to day life. We
know exam results, weather forecasts, current affairs, traffic regulations, last dates, precautions,
government policies etc. from mass media. The core of
medias information function is
performed by the media content called news. The place or time dedicated for news in a mass
media is called news hole. News is the most consumed item of any media. News can be defined
as reports on things that people want or need to know. Information should be accurate, objective
and complete. Biased or incomplete reports will keep the audience away from the media.
Advertising is also mass medias information function. We get much useful information
from classified advertisements.

Education function
Information is different from education. Education is systematically organized information
with predefined objectives. The primary source of education in our society is schools or colleges. Media
also perform the functions that educational institutions do. Media are life-long educators for the society.
They give us comprehensive knowledge of selected topics. Non-news content or news-based content
like editorials, articles, columns in newspapers provide us with complete idea of a subject. Health
Magazines, IT magazines are also examples for education through media. Recently, mass media in
Kerala directly participate in our educational system by publishing educational supplements for
school-goers . Padippura of Malayala Manorams, Kutty.com of Mathrubhumi, Velicham of
Madhyamam, Kilivatil of Deshabhimani are examples. Moreover, we have a number television
channels dedicated for mass education. Victors of IT @ School Project of Kerala Government, Vyas
Channelr of Consortium of Educational Communication under University Grants Commission,
Gyandarsan of Doordarshan are some of such efforts.
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Entertainment function
Irrespective of their type, mass media are wonderful entertainers. All media have
entertainment content. Newspapers publish cartoons, comics, puzzles, special weekend
supplements for amusing people. Lion share of magazine content such as short stories, novels,
satires and cartoons are for entertainment. Movies are another big stock for entertainment.
Audio-Visual media such as television and radio are also primarily concentrate on entertainment
function through their programmes based on sports, film, and fashion shows etc.

Persuasion
Persuasion means influencing attitudes or opinions. Mass media have many ways to
persuade people. Most people form their opinion from information they get from mass media.
Media have direct and indirect methods for persuasion. For public opinion formation, mass
media use editorials, news analysis and commentaries. In such cases, the purpose is clear and
direct. The most obvious method of persuasion is advertising. Advertisements are direct
methods to influence purchasing behaviour of the public. Some media report events hiding their
vested interests in news. Such biased, subjective reports are for persuading people to form
favourable attitudes towards them or their interests. Opinionated news is an undirected method
of persuasion. Its against the ethics of responsible journalism. News and opinion should be
given separately.
According to western media scholars like Harold Laswell, mass media, be print or
electronic, have the following functions:

Surveillance of the environment

Mass media observe the society and its activities and report them to make people aware
of their socio-cultural environment. In other words, we as social animals are always under the
close observations of mass media. Media are our watchdogs. It always watches who do good
things and who do bad things, and report them to encourage or correct our deeds. Reports about
corruptions are good example. Considering this watchdog function of mass media, we call the
media as the Fourth Estate of our democratic political system. The other estates are Legislative,
Judiciary and Executive.

Transmission of heritage
Mass media are the bridge between our past and present. They report day to day affairs
which will become history of tomorrow. The best records of modern history are newspapers of
yesteryears. We get our cultural tradition from history and we follow the best of them. In
keeping our culture flowing, media play a vital role. It advises us which part of our culture is
good and to be followed and which is bad and not to be followed.

Interpretation of information
Mass media provide us with information from every nook and corner of the world. They
do not just report facts and figures of the events, rather they interpret events to make us aware of
what happens, and why, where, when and how it happens. Media interpretation may be biased
or not. But, it helps develop our views towards an event or object or personality. Every media
report is an analysis and one version of the fact. There may be another versions and analysis.
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Prescription for conduct

How should we behave in a society? What should be our approach towards something
important to the society? What is good for social life? As a member of a larger social system, we
face these questions every now and then. In most cases, mass media provide us answers. During
the election time, we are confused of electing a candidate. But, news coverage of political policies
and leaders of various parties give us an insight that helps us take decisions. This is how media
prescribe our political conduct. So do the advertising. Which product or service is better? Which
is suitable to our budget? We depend on advertisements before taking purchase decisions.

Catalyst for Development

In a country like India, medias role in national development is highly important. Medias
contributions to national development are mainly in two ways : As advocates for development
and as carriers of development messages. Mass media find out problems faced by people in
different walks of their life and make the administrators aware of them. Most often, media report
such events and further campaign to get the grievances redressed. On the other hand, media
make people aware of their rights, government subsidies, development policies and the merits
and demerits of adopting or practicing them for better life. Government controlled media
perform these duties better than the private media do. This development orient function of
media is termed as Development Communication. Development Communication has been
recognized as a special area in communication study and research.

Nature of Mass Communication

From the above model of mass communication, it is easy to identify the following
features of mass communication.
1. Mass communication experience is public one. It means that anybody can be a part of this
communication process at any time without much effort or permission.
2. It is a mediated communication act. Nature of the media involved in the process defines the
mediation in mass communication. For example, television can transmit a news instantly as it is a
fast medium, newspaper takes to bring the same news report to the public because of its
limitations. This is how nature of the media defines the mediation process in mass
communication.
3. Mass communication is filtered communication. This filtering processing is called gatekeeping.
For example, a news report in a newspaper or on a television channel filtered or controlled at
different level by reporter, sub editor, news editor, editor.
4. It is the most complicated form of communication as it involves complex technology like satellites
digital networks, management structure, marketing chain etc.
5. Mass communication can alter the way the society thinks about events and attitudes.
6. Mass communication experience is transient. It means that once you used a message
( for example, a news report or a film) you may not use it again. The message is meant to be used
once and it is gone. Who will read yesterdays newspaper?
7. Mass communication is most often remains as one-way communication. As receivers, how many
of us write letters to editor (sender)? A very few. But, in interpersonal communication, senders
and receivers are in active conversation sending feedback to each other.
8. Unlike other communicators, mass communicators cant see their audience. Karan Tapar or
Pranoy Roy, the leading television personalities in India know that their programmes are
watched by millions of Indians. But, they cant see how people respond or react while watching
their presentations. Thats why they cant change the style of presentation or mode of
communication instantly as we do in interpersonal or group communication.
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MODULE III
PRINT MEDIA
Objectives
This Unit will help you

Identify the features of the print media

Learn different types of print media in detail

Learn about various print media: newspaper, magazines and periodicals and books.

Introduction
In 1457, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable metal types. This paved the way for mass
production of printed materials. Resultantly, presses and publications spread rapidly first across
Europe, then in other continents. Mass production of printed documents led to democratization
of knowledge. In other words, it made knowledge and education accessible to common people. It
was exactly a revolution because till then knowledge was considered the property of the elite.
As we learned in the last unit, the primary print media are three: books, magazines and
newspapers.
The print media are different in their binding, regularity, content and timeliness, though
the means and methods for production are similar to certain extent.
Types of Print Media
Features

Books

Magazines

Newspapers

Binding

Stitched /Glued

Stapled

Unbound

Regularity

Single Issue

At least quarterly

At least weekly

Content

Single Topic

Diverse Topic

Diverse Topic

Timeliness

Generally, not
timely

May be timely or
untimely

Timeliness is
important

These are not rigid distinctions. However, they are helpful to understand the features of
each type.

Newspapers
Newspapers are periodically published documents that carry current information about
the society. Earlier newspapers were not daily publications as we see now. They were published
weekly or bi-weekly. This was due o the absence of adequate technology and newsgathering
system. By the early 19th century, power press was invented. This led to fast printing. Invention
of telegraph and teleprinter also helped us gather news from remote places. This all facilitated
the introduction of daily newspapers.
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The first newspaper was Publick Occurrences published by Ben Harris in 1690. The first
newspaper published in India was the Bengal Gazzet by James Augustus Hicky in 1780. It is also
called Hickys Gazette.
Newspapers are primary mass medium from which people receive news. The research
results show that newspapers reach more people than any other medium do. And, by every
measure, newspaper industry overpower all other media, be it in advertising revenue and in the
size of audience.
Unlike other mass media, newspapers influence people in a many significant ways. A
newspaper article or news is valued more than television or radio programmes. And, newspaper
content is considered more credible and accurate. Capability to be used for future reference make
newspapers peoples favorable medium, especially for the middle and working class for they can
use it after their working hours.. Diversity of content is another feature this medium. It can carry
a rich mix of news, features, articles, columns, cartoons, graphics, editorial etc. And, readers can
select what they want from the entire content. Some people prefer sports page and they read it
first while others look for political news and some other for stock market. Selectivity and content
diversity make newspapers a real mass medium. This is not possible in the case of radio and
television.
In any society, the traditional newspapers are part of their culture and social system. They
talk about their newspapers affectionately because they give them information, education,
entertainment, more over ways for socialization and legitimization of new values. In democratic
society, the Press is the Fourth Estate. At primary level, the Press means newspapers.
Of the print media, newspapers are the most read one. It is assumed that 3 out of every 4
literates read newspapers. In United States of America, daily newspapers reach 185 million
people a day. For advertisers, newspaper is a medium of choice since it attract active readers
(active audience) compared to any other media.
Even then newspapers are facing many challenges from electronic media and new media.
Newspapers are printed products created on a regular (weekly or daily) basis and
published in multiple copies, containing mainly updated information about happenings in the
society. Regular newspapers were not in circulation till 17th century because of the absence of
adequate printing or duplication technology.

Role of Newspapers
In their early years, newspapers were centre of debate and they were run by scholars,
political leaders, reformers and revolutionaries. The main mission of the Press in its infant stage
was to argue with government for better life conditions and freedom of the people. Because of
their capability to raise public opinion and alternative thinking, the Press at that time is called by
media historians as adversarial press. During this period, governments imposed stringent
licensing systems and taxes on newspapers. In spite of these measures, English newspapers
continued their battle against colonial policies of the Britain. The public anger created by the
Press culminated in the American Revolutionary War. The newspapers in other countries may
also have same kind of stories to tell. The early newspapers, both in English and in local

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languages in India also formed public opinion against the British policies and at last resulted in
the withdrawal of English forces from Indian soil.
Advances in printing technology encouraged newspapers to adopt new modes of
production and distribution which led to mass circulation of the medium. Circulation means the
number of newspapers people paid for or received free in one publishing cycle. The steam
powered cylinder press invented by Hoe and Company and development of low-cost newsprint
were the innovations in printing sector. These made it possible to print thousands of copies in a
short time and sell them at a price low enough that even working people could afford. It was
then newspapers became the real mass medium. During 1800s, with their popularity newspapers
were sold on the street at a low price. So they are called penny papers. Newspaper circulation
increased into tens of thousands due to the popularity they gained over decades and more and
more innovations were introduced in printing sector. Rotary press with revolving types and
offset press are some of them.

Characteristics of Newspapers
Primarily newspapers are print media even though digital age offers online newspapers
and e-newspapers. That is why it has all the features that any print medium has. Major features
of mass media are given below:
Predominance of news-oriented content: There are thee types of content in newspapers: news,
views and advertisements. Of these news overshadows the others because newspapers are
primarily meant for the dissemination of news.
Regular periodicity: Newspapers may be published daily or weekly. Periodicity may vary but,
regularity should be kept. Every newspaper keeps a particular regularity in publication.
Future reference facility: Being a print medium, newspapers can be kept for future use. This
archiving ability makes newspapers one of the main sources of historical research.
Choice of the time of use: Unlike television and radio, we can read newspapers at any time.
Some read in the morning while others in the evening after work. This facility increases the
popularity of newspapers.
The Literates medium: Unlike television and radio, newspaper demands literacy from the part
of the audience.
Low cost: Compared to other media, newspaper is a cost effective medium. Anybody can afford
a newspaper as it needs no hidden charges or other accessories. Electronic media requires power
supply and the new media need digital technology.
Multiple Users: Many readers can read a copy of the newspaper simultaneously or separately.
Textual Medium: Text is the soul of newspapers, though they carry images and graphics.

Types of Newspapers
Newspapers can be categorized into various types based on their page size/format,
content type, periodicity, time of publication, area of circulation and type of the users.
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By Page Size/Page Format

By size, newspapers can be divided into three: Calendar, Tabloid and Berliner

Broadsheet is the largest of the various newspaper formats and is characterized by

long vertical pages (typically 22 inches / 559 millimetres or more). The term derives
from types of popular prints usually just of a single sheet, sold on the streets and
containing various types of material, from ballads to political satire. The first
broadsheet newspaper was published in 1618. Most of the Malayalam newspapers
are in broadsheet format.

Broadsheet newspaper

Tabloid is a smaller newspaper format per spread mostly used for a weekly or semiweekly

alternative

newspaper

that

focuses

on

local-interest

stories

and

entertainment. The tabloid newspaper format is particularly popular in the United

Kingdom where its page dimensions are roughly 430 280 mm (16.9 in 11.0 in).
Tehelka, well known Indian news weekly is in tabloid format.

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Tabloid newspaper

Berliner is a newspaper format with pages normally measuring about 470 315 mm
(18.5 12.4 in). The Berliner format is slightly taller and marginally wider than the
tabloid format; and is both narrower and shorter than the broadsheet format. The
Berliner format is used by many European newspapers, including dailies such as Le
Monde in France, and The Guardian in the United Kingdom.

Berliner format
By time of publication

Morning Dailies
Evening Dailies

By Content
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By content type, newspapers are mainly classified as general newspapers, political

newspapers, and financial/business newspapers. Some other categories are also possible, but not
in currency.

By Periodicity
Dailies and weeklies are two type of newspapers based on the periodicity. Dailies are
newspapers that are published at least five times a week and weeklies are those published once a
week.
In the West, Sunday newspapers are a common scene. But in India, newspapers publish
literary / entertainment/ cultural supplements for leisure reading.

By Circulation Area

National Dailies: Their primary area of circulation is across the nation. Wall Street
Journal, USA Today are national dailies of the USA. Guardian, Sun and Independent are
British dailies. The Hindu, Times of India and Hindustan Times are national dailies in
India.

Hometown newspapers: Town-centric newspapers focusing issues on that particular city

is called hometown newspapers. Midday of Mumbai is an example.

Metropolitan dailies: Dailies concentrate on the affairs of a metro city. Examples: Metro
Vartha of Malayala Manorama.

By Audience

Community Newspapers: Newspapers published on and by a community. Eg. Newsday

based in New York. Deepika in Malayalam.

Religious Newspapers: Newspapers published by religious organizations, focusing on

religious news with a mission of propagation. Eg. Punybhoomi

Immigrant and Ethnic Newspaper: Newspapers published by ethnic groups living in

alien lands as expatriates like Indians in the Gulf countries. Benjamin Franklins
Philadelphische Zeitung in 1732 is the first of its kind. Gulf Madhyamam published from
the Middle East is first full-fledged ethnic media in Malayalam.

By Language

English

Vernacular

Braille: Newspapers published for the blind.

Structure of a Newspaper Organization

In general newspapers have six main departments under the direct supervision of the
publisher, who manages the companys entire operations. The departments are:

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Business Section which includes Purchase Section, Accounting Section, Payroll Section,
Human Resources Section, Planning and Development Section.

Editorial Section: Editorial Desk, Field, Library and Resources Section and IT Section.

Production Section : Design Section, Composing Section, Plate Making Section and
Printing and Packing Section

Marketing Section: Market Research Section, Promotion Section and Public Relations
Section.

Advertising Section: Accounts Section, Sales Section and Customer Service Section.

Circulation Section: It manages the prompt delivery of the newspaper and circulation
promotion methods.

Newspaper Production
In discussing the production of newspaper, we shall focus on two areas: content creation
and printing.

Content Creation
The process of content creation of a newspaper depends on its periodicity (dailies or
weeklies) and nature of circulation.
In general, publisher of the newspaper is in charge of all of a newspapers operations,
including financial matters such as getting advertisements, circulation, legal matters, human
resource management, accounts etc.), production issues (procurement of production materials
like newsprints, machinery etc.) and editorial issues (general policy regarding the perspectives
and style of presentation of the non-advertising matters).
The publisher sets the advertising-editorial ratio subject to the rules and regulations
framed by the governments and controlling agencies. Ad-editorial radio helps us define the
balance between the amount of space separately available for advertisements and editorial
matters. Typical ratio between editorial/news and advertisements is 60:40 in most countries. The
space allotted for news/editorial content is called news hole and the space available for
advertisements is called pay hole.
Editor is the person responsible to manage all operations to fill the news hole while
advertising manager under the guidance of the publisher will take care of the pay hole. There
will be an array of professionals like Managing Editor, Assistant Editor, Resident Editor, News
Editor, Chief Sub Editor, Sub Editor and reporters in the field to assist the Editor in his
operations.
The editorial department has two distinct teams working in tandem:

News gatherers (reporters)

News processors (editors)

News gatherers are field staff while news processors as the desk staff.
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Reporters gather news independently or under the guidance of the desk. They report
news according to the content types required for the newspapers. In a typical urban newspaper,
the sections based on content types might be entertainment, finance, sports, fashion
television/radio, politics, culture and foreign news.

Production Process
Once the news is identified, it is reported by the field staff and edited by those in the
desk. Next starts the production stage. The first step in this phase is newspaper design. In some
newspaper firms, sub editors themselves design pages; in others layout artists do the job. With
the Desk Top Publishing (DTP), it has been easy for any computer literate to design newspaper
pages. QuarkExpress and Adobe InDesign are the commonly used software for page design in
Indian newspapers. Pages are set according to the dummy, a skeleton of the newspaper page,
given by the advertising department after marking the space for advertisements of the day.
Designer/Sub Editor arranges news stories and news photos on the pages according to their
importance. To make the pages visually attractive, pages are arranged keeping

Symmetry : Visual balance of the text and graphics

Colour balance : Visual balance of the various color used.

Judicious use of white space : To provide enough white space to avoid messy design

Readability criteria : To make the page functionally readable

Legibility : Clarity and visibility of the text and graphics

Consistency : Standardization of the design for newspaper branding

House style: Standards devised by each newspaper organization should be followed in

design.

Now, the page is ready. It is handed over to senior editors like chief sub editor, news
editor, assistant editor or any such supervising staff for scrutiny and approval. After the
approval, the pages will go to plate making section. Earlier the plates were made after filming the
pages. But, advances in technology help skip this step. Now, pages can be directly transferred to
plates (Plates are aluminum sheets on which images of the pages are printed using special
chemicals). These plates are mounted on to printing machines for printing. Printed newspapers
are packed for transportation to the newspaper agents.
In a newspaper organization, every task has a time limit. Otherwise, we will not get
newspapers early morning everyday. The time limit for completing an assignment is called deadline.
Very good internal communication is essential for better function of a newspaper
organization. Reporters should inform what is up there in the field. Editors should inform each
other about the stories allotted to each page. Designer should consult with the sub editor about
arranging news on a page and with the printer about the technicalities of printing. Advertising
department should give advertisement details on time and marketing section should inform the
editorial section about the market needs. In short, everybody should go hand in hand for
successful functioning of a newspaper organization.
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Recent Trends
Newspaper industry adopted technological advances over the years, ranging from
moveable metallic types to the latest version PoD machines- (Print on Demand machine prints
only the required number of copies and can print earlier copies in memory as and when
required). The adoption of innovation doesnt confine to printing technology only; it reflects in
newsgathering, editing, designing, printing, distribution and audience research.

Online newspapers
Online newspapers are newspaper exist on World Wide Web. It is electronic version of the
newspaper with all the characteristics of new media. Online newspapers are interactive and have
multimedia content. They are accessible worldwide and very cost effective to publish and circulate.
Typically, online newspapers have two versions: web newspaper and e-papers. E-papers are electronic
version of a days real newspaper mostly in Portable Document Format (PDF) available on the Web,
while online newspaper or web newspapers are websites fully dedicated to news and other newspaper
contents.

e-paper

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Online newspaper

Magazines and Periodicals

Unlike newspapers, magazines are periodical publications carrying non-news items.
Andrew Bradfords American Magazine and Benjamin Fralkins General Magazine are considered
as the first magazines. They were published in 1740s. Earlier magazines were as expensive as
books. So they were affordable only to the wealthy people. Those days purchasing magazines
was a status symbol. Invention of power press led to the exponential growth of magazines across
the world. Most of the early magazines were started by newspaper organizations. Magazines are
considered as mass medium that spread culture and nationalism.
Magazine is originally a French word which means storehouse. In journalistic terms,
magazine is a collection of materials like stories, ads, poems, and other items that editors believe
will interest audiences. The Spectator published Joseph Addison of England in 1711 is considered
to be the first full-fledged magazine in English.
Regular publication of magazines started in the United Kingdom in the eighteenth century as a
result of enhanced freedom permitted by Parliament, for public discussion and arguments about

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government. The earlier magazines focused on political and literary affairs. Famous writers of
the day contributed to the magazines.
Because most people illiterates and magazines were costlier, magazine reading remained
an elitist affair during the initial period. After England, the culture of magazine publishing and
reading spread to British colonies world over. America and India were colonies where magazines
were published even in the second half of 18th century. Benjamin Franklin started magazine
publication in America. In India, Christian missionaries concentrated in Culcutta and Madras
launched magazines aiming at religious propagation. Earlier magazines can not be considered as
mass media since they served only a small section of the society.

Development of Magazines
Rise in education, innovation of cost effective production, advances printing technology,
new techniques in photography, transportation facilities, emergence of new writers, growth of
reading culture, political freedom to discuss social issues and inclusion of diverse content and
huge population growth, rise in advertisement revenue prompted mass production and
distribution of magazines, first in Europe and America, then in eastern countries like India in the
middle of 19th century.
After their incarnation as a mass medium, magazines started to attract special segments
of the audience like women, children, professionals etc. The first trend was the rise of women
magazines. The most important milestone was the publication of Godeys Ladys Book launched by
Louis A Godey in 1830 in the USA. It had more 150,000 readers in 1850.
Industrial growth after industrial revolution and market boom led to an influx of
advertisements to mass media. Magazines benefited from this opportunity. Frank Munsey, an
American magazine owner showed advertising could pay most of production costs of a
magazine. His low pricing attracted millions. He used hose large numbers to attract more
advertisers. This is how magazine industry expanded as lucrative business in media sector.
Sensational news, celebrity lives, muckraking, fictions like novels, short stories etc were the
trends in magazines in the early 20th century.
In the later part of the 20th century, wide reach of television posed challenges to
magazines as television programming imitated magazines in their content and presentation
targeting magazine audiences.

Characteristics of Magazines

What makes magazines different from books and newspapers? Magazines are not
published daily like newspapers. Periodicity f magazines are longer than that of normal
newspapers. In general, they are published weekly, biweekly or monthly.
Unlike loose sheets of newspapers, magazines are produced as bound volumes.
Most of the magazines are meant for light reading and mainly for entertainment, rather
than serious reading for information gathering as in the case of books and newspapers.
Magazines contain diverse content ranging from poems to comics and cartoons to photo
feature.

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Magazines most often than not target special, segmented audience while newspapers are
for general readers.
Magazines generally focus on special areas like culture, politics, current affairs, health,
wealth, womens and childrens life.
Magazines printed in high quality papers as they are to be used for a longer period.
Newspapers are printed using cheap newsprints as they are meant for one-day use.
Normally, magazines do not have different editions as in the case of newspapers. They
have only one print cycle, except for some international news and financial magazines
like NewsWeek, Time, Forbes, and Fortune which publish various regional editions for
Asia, Africa.
Magazines provide room for in-depth analysis and criticism as the publishers get more
time for preparation.
Magazines are easier to preserve than newspapers

Role and Scope of Magazines

Like newspapers, magazines also play vital role in defining modern society. Role and
scope of magazines are to judged in terms of their content and focus, not in a generalized way.
General interest magazines and cultural and literary magazines form a social mindset that
shapes our cultural identity and consciousness. In a democratic society political and cultural
magazines trigger heated discussions on vital issues that touch the lives of the marginalized and
the downtrodden.
On the other hand, consumer magazines prompt the society to purchase more, consume
more and perish. Same is the case fashion magazines also. They create media hype about
ballooned celebrity lives and misguide the audience. They only help the big business of fashion
world and related cultural and entertainment industry.
Women magazines general objective is women empowerment. But, this basic task is not
performed in most cases as magazines are succumbed to advertising pressure. For example,
women magazines publish advertisements depicting ideal body images of women considering
them as visual treat for the male audience.

Types of Magazines
Magazines are of different types. Five major categories are: .
General Interest Magazines: Magazines covering wide variety of topics aimed at a broad
audience. They occasionally offer investigative stories and burning social issues.
Eamples:. The Week, Outlook, India Today, Readers Digest, National Geographic.

Business Magazines: Also called trade magazines. They focus on topics related to a
particular occupation, profession, or industry.
Consumer Magazines: Consumer magazines also aim at genera public in their private
and non-business lives. They are called consumer magazines as their readers prompted to
consume products and services advertised in them. In modern age, most of the womens
magazines are ended up as consumer magazines. Health ,tourism and IT magazines are
not exceptions.

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Literary Reviews: Those magazines which publish literary-oriented content including

fiction and non-fiction like literary and cultural studies. Time Literary Survey
andBhashaposhini are examples.
Academic Reviews: These are publications of serious nature focusing on academic
research articles and available mainly through subscription or mail order. Eg. Economic
and Political Weekly, Communication Research, Journal of Communication etc.
News Magazines: News magazines stress the news based content and analysis. Time,
News Week, Tehelka etc.
Comic Books: Periodicals that tell stories through pictures as well as words and meant
for purely entertainment and contain comic pictures and picture stories, puzzles and the
like. Their focused audience is children. Examples: Amar Chitra Katha, Fantom, Green
Lantern.

Books
Books are bound pages of written or printed messages of considerable length, mostly on
one topic. Being meant for circulation, they are produced using durable materials and in a
portable form. The Papyrus (from which the word paper derived) rolls of the Chinese are
considered as ancestors of modern books.
The concept of books existed in China and in Babylonian way back in 3000 B.C. While the
Chinese used papyrus rolls made of bamboo strips, the Babylonians used clay tablets. In Rome,
animal skins were used to prepare books. Introduction of paper production advanced the book
production. But, absence of easy printing method blocked its mass production. So, earlier books
were handwritten and they were called manuscripts.
The Chinese invented a method for printing using wooden blocks in 400 A.D. But, it was
not developed enough to print books. Invention of movable metallic types by Johannes
Guttenberg revolutionized printing, thereby book production.
Before the invention of movable metallic types, books were expensive and large in size.
They were affordable only to the wealthy, aristocratic people like political and religious leaders
and business men. Guttenbergs invention changed the situation. printers could reduce price
when books were made available to more people. The first book published using the metallic
moveable types was the Bible.

Characteristics of Books

Books are portable and compact, and thus have an advantage over other media forms.

Unlike other print media, books most often deal with a single subject. Thus, we can read
books piece by piece for days or weeks with convenient intervals, without losing
concentration.

While newspapers and magazines get old soon due to their time limitations, books
remain afresh since they deal with subjects significant for a longer period.

Unlike magazines and newspapers, books are stored for longer period in public or private
libraries.

Content in the books is in an organized manner so that readers can access to the
interested parts easily.

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Books have index which helps reader some sort of navigation from one subject to the
other.

Books are stored for future reference.

Books are published after adequate verification and research. So, the content of the books
is more authentic than that of newspapers and magazines.

The language level of the books is audience specific or subject specific while newspaper
or magazine language is general in nature.

Scope of Book Publishing

The mass production of books certainly revolutionized cultural and thinking pattern by
accelerating the exchange of ideas and information among more people. As books are of
permanent nature they are considered as repository of knowledge. In the past, contribution of a
nation or a person was taken into account based on the number of books produced. Books are
creators of culture. Reading is considered ones cultural index.
Books created a special culture in 15th and 16th century Europe. With the production of
books, education through public institution was developed and started to include more people.
The book culture paved the way for new cultural elite called writers/authors. Gradually they
became recognized public opinion leaders. In any country books were major contributors to
national culture and identity. Moreover, books enrich the media sector also by being adapted to
movies and documentaries or encouraging the production of various genres in literature like
short stories, novels and poetry.
Despite technological advancement, book reading remains the most enduring media
using habit. Research results show that books are strongly returning stimulating reading culture
even during this age of visuals. In modern time, book production has been a lucrative industry of
billions plus dollars.

Publishing as an Industry
Publishing was considered to be an emerging industry after the Industrial revolution.
Industrial Revolution spurred the emergence of a new middle class who tend to use books for
information and entertainment. To cater to their needs, more publishing houses were started in
Europe, America and Asia. Emergence of new knowledge areas like economics, management etc.
also urged the rise of publishing houses which produce academic books. Eg. McGraw Hill,
Penguin, MacMillan, Harper and Row, Rutledge, Harper Collins. In addition to this, Universities
and other higher learning centres also started their publication wings. Eg. Oxford University
Press. Book industry is a $25 billion business in the United States. In India also, it is lucrative
business with well organized national and international networks.

Publishing in India
Establishment of printing presses by Christian missionaries in Madras, Culcutta and Goa
inspired book publishing in India in 16th century. The early books were in English and meant for
religious propagation. Considering the public demand, publishers started to launch books of
general nature and in vernacular languages.
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Emergence of social consciousness after the World War II encouraged reading culture and
thus publishing industry. After Independence, education system in the country was rejuvenated
and several publishers moved into textbook publishing for academic community. However, since
our educational system was molded on western models, major British and American publishers
imported academic books to India or started their branches in the country.

Government Initiatives
Indian Government also took initiatives to promote book reading culture starting
National Book Development Council (1967), National Book Trust, The Childrens Book Trust,
The Sahitya Akademi, National Libraries etc.
Kerala Sahitya Academy, Sahitya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham, National Book Stall,
Kerala Language Institute, BookMark, Kerala Library Council some of the efforts of Kerala
Government to promote book reading culture.
Kerala is a good market for book publishers because of a blooming bilingual readership
in the State. Malayalees read both Malayalam and English books. There is an explosion of
academic and non-academic publishers in the State in the last decade. DC Books, Paico, Poorna,
IPH, Current, NBS are some of the oldest publishing houses in Kerala. Recently leading
newspaper firms like Mathrubhumi and Manorama also entered the book industry. Presence of
multinational publishers is another trend. Penguin with a tie-up with big media firms launched
their operations in the State.

Who read books?

Book reading is a general habit. But, its readers are diverse. Children are avid readers of
books and recently publishing industry focuses on childrens literature. J.K Rowlings Haripotter
series created a new momentum in childrens book sector. Government and private agencies
publish childrens books with an aim of inculcating reading culture in young minds. Central
Governments Childrens Book Trust of India and Balasahitya Institute of Kerala Government are
examples.
Academic community including students, teachers, scholars and researchers are another
important segment of book audience. They read both academic texts and fictions.
The third category is general readers ranging from house wives to labors and politicians
to businessmen.

Types of Books
Books are categorized according to their content type and target audience. Based on
nature of the content books can be categorized generally as fiction and non-fiction. Fictions
include stories, novels, poems etc. while non-fictions comprise of academic and reference books.
But, as commercial commodity books are categorized according to their uses and users.
Following are the major types of books in modern book industry:
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Trade Books
Professional Books
Textbooks
Paperbacks
Religious books
Reference Books
University-Press Books

Trade books include hardbound and paperback books targeting general readers. They
are sold at retail outlets. Trade books are categorized as adult books and childrens books. Adult
trade books include fiction, current non-fiction, biographies, literary classics, hobby books, and
books on self-help , popular science, travel, technology etc.
Childrens book categories range from preschool picture books to young reader books.
Drawing and coloring books, cartoon books, comic books, childrens fiction are sub categories of
childrens books.
Professional Books target occupational groups such as engineers, doctors, managers,
lawyers, technicians etc. These books are not for general readers and are mainly sold through
direct mail order to the publishing houses or distributors. Emergence of specialized jobs made
the professional book publishing a profitable business.
Textbooks are for academic community. They are segmented as elementary-high school
books (el-hi), vocational education, college texts, study aids (guides), pocket editions, student
editions etc. Because of their mass production, textbooks are low priced books.
Paperbacks are low-priced books having cheaper, flexible covers and pages. They lack
durability as meant for use and throw. Traditionally, books were produced with hardbound
decorated covers. After 1870s paperbacks began to attract middle and working class readers
sparking a new reading wave all over the world. Paperbacks became more popular in the second
half of 20th century.
In America, a new type of paperbacks called mass-market paperback is available. They
target mass market and sold through drugstores, supermarkets, malls etc unlike traditional
paperbacks sold through bookstores. Mass-market paperbacks content includes fictions and
other uncomplicated subjects.
Religious books find new life recently with the rise of a spiritual wave across the world.
The very purpose of religious books, as name indicates, is propagation. The best-selling book of
all time is the Bible, in all its diverse versions. Religious books include holy texts, hymnals and
inspirational books.
Reference books include encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, handbooks, almanacs etc.
University-Press Books are non-commercial books aim at academic world. Oxford
University Press, Chicago University Press, Harvard University Press are leading University
publishers. They focus on both reference books like dictionaries (Eg. Oxford Dictionary) and
encyclopedias and academic texts. Universities in Kerala also have publication divisions which
publish quality academic texts covering university syllabi.

Structure of Publishing Organization

Publishing is the production of texts and documents. The production process involves
three stages:
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Pre-Production: All activities including finding topic, author, market study, negotiation,
entry into agreement etc.
Production: Procurement manuscript, editing, proofreading, designing and organization
are the processes at production stage.
Post Production: Promotion and marketing are the major post production activities.

Organization of Publishing Industry

A professional publishing organization is structured to cater to these production stages.
Thus it includes divisions like

Management Division: This section deals with the overall management of the human
resources and infrastructure, fund mobilization and internal and external organization of
the publishing firm.
Editorial Division: Editorial division frame the editorial policy of the firm along with
other activities such identification of topics, editing, proofreading, style manual
preparation, research etc. Creative design of the book is also a part of the editorial team.
Production Division : Printing, binding, packing etc come under the purview of
production division.
Marketing Division : This division is to sell the product. Promotional campaigns,
publicity, advertisements etc are organized by marketing division.
Accounts Division: They are the money managers. They keep accounts, audit financial
transactions, conduct cost analysis and prepare budgets.

Technological Development
Tremendous developments in information technology during the last two decades have
had high influence on book production. Introduction of Desk Top Publishing changed the mode
of composing book pages and helped to skip steps like type setting, block making etc in
traditional book publishing. Desk Top Publishing is the digital page design technique using
software like PageMaker, In Design, and Microsoft Word etc.
Digital publishing is another revolutionary shift occurred in book business. E-book or
electronic book or digital books are paperless books produced electronically and displayed on
computer/Ipod/mobile phone screens. Electronic books overcome the disadvantages of paper
books. Thy are cost effective, interactive with multimedia content, easy to duplicate, need less
space for preservation and send online across the world within seconds. Being paperless, they
are eco-friendly too.

Careers in Publishing
Job opportunities in book publishing are immense. You can be a book editor if you have
command over language and general knowledge. Freelance or in-house authors are positions
available in the field. Freelance author is free of organizational conditions and doing his job as a
hobby or as par time. In-house authors on the payrolls of the publishing firms. They are just like
any other salaried staff and conduct research and write books under the direction of the firm.
Graphic designer is an inevitable part of any publishing firm of today as book is
considered as a visual product too. But, good artistic sense and command over appropriate
graphic design tools are the qualifications. Publication manages and proofreaders are other
careers available in the field.
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MODULE IV
ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Objectives
This Unit will give an understanding of

The nature of electronic media and their types

The origin and growth of radio as a mass medium

The origin and growth of television as a mass medium

Latest development in broadcast media sector

Introduction
Mass media that use electronic or electromechanical energy for transmission of messages
are called electronic media. Major electronic media are radio, television, video and audio records,
CDs and DVDs etc. Of these, radio and television messages are transmitted via air waves or
radio signals. The process of transmitting messages via radio waves or signals is called
broadcasting. The literary meaning of broadcasting is to scatter seed over a broad area rather
than in particular place. Possibly because of the ability to spread messages to diverse audiences
through radio waves, the technique is called broadcasting.

Major broadcasting media are:

Telephone broadcasting, existed between 1881 and 1932 is considered the earliest form of
electronic broadcasting..

Radio broadcasting was started experimentally in 1906 and commercially in1920. It is

the mechanism of transmitting audio through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to
an antenna and, thus, to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to
broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both.

Television broadcasting (telecast), started experimentally in 1925, commercially in the

1930s. This technology of airing video revolutionized the modern communication system.

Cable Media: Cable radio started in 1928) and cable television (began in 1932): are the
components of cable media. In both, messages are transmitted via coaxial cable, serving
principally as transmission mediums for programming produced at either radio or
television stations, with limited production of cable-dedicated programming.

Satellite television (from 1974) and satellite radio (from circa 1990): meant for direct-tohome broadcast programming (as opposed to studio network uplinks and downlinks),
provides a mix of traditional radio or television broadcast programming, or both, with
satellite-dedicated programming.

Webcasting of video/television (from circa 1993) and audio/radio (from circa 1994)
streams: offers a mix of traditional radio and television station broadcast programming
with internet-dedicated webcast programming.

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The original method of transmitting television or radio signals using radio waves, is
increasingly being replaced by higher quality digital broadcasting (television and radio),
transmitted in a digital data stream.
By definition, digital broadcasting is an advanced system of broadcasting radio (DAB or
DRB) or television (DTV) in digital pulses rather than waves and which gives improved quality
and/or more channels of content. There are currently two quality levels in television, standard
definition (SDTV) and high definition (HDTV). Transmitted in binary format, digital television
produces good picture quality and digital radio offers high sound quality. Let us have a glance
on the technology behind major electronic media: radio and television,

Origin and growth of Radio

Samuel Morses invention of telegraph in 1842 prompted scientists to find out ways to
transmit messages over air. In 1895, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in the effort.
For further development of the mechanism, he started the Marconi Company in England and
started commercial production of radio transmitters for military purpose. Marconis device was
sophisticated by Reginald Fessenden and started transmission of sound over radio transmitters,
instead of textual signals.
It was US inventor Lee De Forest who made radio transmission much clearer with his
Audion vacuum tube. He also envisaged stations sending continuous music, news and other
programmes over radio waves. The idea came to be known as Broadcasting. The first radio
stations were set up in Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in the 1920s. Following the USA,
European countries also started radio stations for broadcasting news and entertainment content.
The colonial powers like Briton and France set radio stations in Asian and African countries in
the early years of 20th century.

Radio Broadcasting
Radio is everywhere as the signals reach every nook and cranny. It is wonder to hear that
there are 6.6 radio receivers on average in American homes. Indian officer radio broadcaster All
India Radio reaches 98.25 percent of the population of India. Remember that India is the second
largest populated country in the world. According to an estimate, there 111 million radio sets in
Indian households.
John Vivian, describing the ubiquity of radio, says: People wake up with clock radios,
jog with headset radios, party with boom boxes and commute with car radios. People listen to
sports events on the radio even if they are in the stadium. According to Arbitron, a company
that surveys radio listenership, more people receive their morning news from radio than from
any other medium.

Characteristics of Radio as a Mass Medium

The radio is a powerful mass medium. Unlike other mass media, radio has a lot of
advantages, both technical and message wise, to reach maximum number of people.

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Radio is a cost effective medium.

Radio sets are not at all a luxury now unlike olden days when radio sets were not affordable
for common people. Advancement of technology made radio production and transmission
less expensive. Unlike other media, production format is sound which can be produced at a
minimum rate.

Radio is a Public Medium

Radio can be accessed by any number of people simultaneously without much technical
paraphernalia. Any body can listen to radio as it functions as a background medium.

Radio is accessible for the Illiterates

Literacy is not a prerequisite for listening radio. In developing and under developing
countries it becomes a popular medium because of these characteristics. Majority of the
population in those countries is illiterate. They shows a special affinity towards radio as they can
overcome the deficiency of illiteracy through radio programmes.

Radio is a mobile medium

We can listen to radio while we are moving. As Vivian explained earlier, we can listen to
radio while driving car, jogging, walking or doing any job.

Radio is a background medium

Specialty of a background medium is that it can be used while doing other jobs.
Housewives listen to radio while preparing food in the kitchen. Given this feature, radio has
been now available with home appliances like refrigerator, washing machine etc. as an inbuilt
gadget.

Radio is an Audio Medium

Being an audio medium, radio is accessible to the visually challenged also.

Radio needs less energy

Radio consumes very less energy. In that sense it is an environment friendly medium.
Since there is not need for power supply for operation radio sets, it gains popularity in remote
villages without electricity.

Radio is a speedy Medium

Radio is the fastest medium as it requires no much time for preparation and transmission
of news. Instant live broadcasting with less equipment is possible in radio section.
These characteristics extend the scope of radio as a mass medium.

Types of Radio Stations

Commercial Stations: Stations under this category support themselves financially by selling time
on their airwaves to advertisers. In America, vast majority of stations come under this category
whereas in India, most of the stations are government funded ones under the umbrella of
Akashvani.
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Non-Commercial Stations: Non-Commercial Stations do not receive financial support from

advertisers in the sense of airing commercials. They are normally funded by the governments. In
some countries like America, donations from private foundations and organization are the major
sources of income of non-commercial stations.
AM and FM Stations: This categorization is purely based on the type of waves used for
transmitting radio messages. Both AM and FM radio stations transmit a carrier wave that is some
changed or modulated to carry audio signal such as music or voice. With AM (Amplitude
Modulation) radio, the amplitude or strength of the carrier waves vibration fluctuates with the
sound. With FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, the strength of the carrier wave remains
constant, and instead it is the frequency or number of vibration within the wave that changes
based on sound.

Structure of a Radio Station

A radio station has four distinct divisions under a general manager. The sections are:
Management Department: takes care of the overall administration of the station. It has internal
and external administration responsibilities. The department is further divided under Business
manager, Accounting Manager, Human Resource Manager, Public Relations Manager,
Promotion Manager etc.
Programming Department : This is an important component that specially deals with the media
related responsibilities of the station. This can be again segmented as News Programmes and
Non-news programmes or as news and operations
Programme Director: He/she is the in charge of all works related to programme planning,
research, production and permitting for transmission. There are two types of staff under
Programme Director : The first category include On air talent, DJs, Reporters who are normally
not on the regular payroll of the station. They are invited for specific purpose. Some radio
stations which focus on news programmes appoint reporters on permanent basis. The other
category includes Production Director, Music Director, Sports Director, Programme Executives
who are directly responsibility for the production and supervision of the segment allotted to
them.
Engineering Department: The technical aspects of the station are handled by this department
under the supervision of Chief Engineer and Asst Engineers
Sales Department: It is another important section which monitor and ensure financial flow to
the station. The Sales Department is organized on the basis of the business model followed by the
station. Normally, commercial broadcasting stations may have Account Executive,
Advertisement Managers, and Retail Sales Representatives in the Sales Department.

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Radio practices
For the better understanding of the practical aspects of radio production one should
know about the programme types, their characteristics, qualities of programme producer, and
those who work behind the production process.

Radio Programmes
Radio programmes can be categorized into two: News and Non-News (Entertainment)
Programmes.
Policy of the country or the individual organizations determines the nature of their
programme mix. In the United States of America, radio is more an entertainment medium than a
news channel. In India, it has a perfect mix since the mission of the AIR requires such a policy
given the socio-cultural settings in India.

News
News is important because it keeps us informed as to what is happening in our own
community and what is happening in other communities which impinge upon our own. It
satisfies our curiosity and concern and it provides us with basic facts which enable us to make up
our minds and so join in the general discussion which leads to community action.

News bulletin
News bulletins have assumed increasing importance in radio broadcasting in recent
years. In the early days of radio there was seldom more than one bulletin a day and it was
broadcast after the evening newspapers reached the streets and had been sold. As radio stations
built up their own news staffs the number of bulletins increased. Many stations today have
several long bulletins interspersed with hourly or even half-hourly news summaries.

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Newsreel
It is more usual to separate comment from the news by including it in news talks and
newsreels. The daily newsreel of fifteen or more minutes duration is a popular form of news
broadcasting. It contains eye-witness accounts, extracts of speeches and reports of other events,
commentaries, short talks and interviews in much the same way as a newspaper includes
pictures and feature articles.

Documentaries
The documentary programme is a story of something. It is generally between 15 and 60
minutes in length-the actual length is usually related to the size of the subject and the way in
which it is treated. An industrial or agricultural development may warrant up to 30 minutes,
while a historical re-enactment or archive programme (that is one using previously recorded
historical material) may require 45 or 60 minutes.

Magazine Programme
The regular radio magazine programme, derived from the newsreel, is a useful outlet for
a great deal of informational and soft news material which cannot be programmed elsewhere.
Magazine programmes vary in length; usually either 15 or 30 minutes. They consist of short
talks, interviews, on-the-spot reports and eye-witness accounts of events, commentaries, music
and sometimes poetry and short stories.

Talk Programmes
Talks were the earliest form of spoken word broadcasting. They are the simplest form and
can still be the most effective. A good radio talk, well constructed and well delivered, can sparkle
like a gem against the back ground of other programmes which make up the broadcast day. It
can have all the authority of the printed word coupled with the warmth which comes from
person to person contact.

Talk
The radio talk is neither a lecture nor a public address. The audience does not have to stay
and listen nor can it see the speaker and be attracted by the way he uses his hands and his eyes.
Everything in a radio talk has to be carried in the words: the familiar words we all use.
The best of radio talks is a friendly chat built around one subject. It is a spoken
composition and like any composition it needs a unified structure: it has a clearly defined
beginning, middle and an end. The words it uses are the action-words of everyday speech. It
introduces the subject in an ear-catching way, explains it simply, develops its argument and then
summarizes what it has said

Interview
The radio interview is a lively variation of the talk. It considerably expands the potential
pool of talks contributors by bringing to the microphone people who have something to say but
who cannot write talks or are too busy to do so. It is a popular form of talks broadcasting as most
of us like to hear-or overhear-other people talking, and it is a very useful form particularly in
countries where there are many language There are several kinds of radio interview but
essentially they can all be classified under two headings:
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The personality interview which seeks to bring out the personality of the interviewee and
tells us something about his life and ideas.
The information interview which seeks out facts.

Discussion
The discussion programme provides a platform for the exchange of ideas. The ideas may
be important ones which concern us as individuals, as members of a community or as nationals
of a country; or they may be ideas intended simply to entertain us. The discussion may be serious
or light-hearted, but its purpose is always to set us thinking.

Entertainments
Light entertainment is a rather loose term used by many stations to cover a wide field of
programming: book and short story readings; serialized drama, particularly light and humorous
drama; variety programmes featuring light musical entertainment, comics, community singing;
some types of listeners letter programmes; quizzes and panel games

Music
Music fills by far the greater part of the broadcast day. The general tone and character of a
station's music does more to establish the image of a station than any of its other activities.
It is in the nature of all of us to enjoy music. We enjoy it for its rhythms, its melodies and
its harmonies. Some music is predominantly melodic-it has memorable tunes-while other music
is dominated by its harmonic structure-the way in which notes and groups of notes make
pleasant sounds when heard together. European music gives a great deal of emphasis to melody
while Indian and Arabic music regards harmony as being more important.

Classification of Music
Some authorities classify music under four headings:

Primitive music-music with no written score, no known composers and of ancient origin.
Folk music-also with no written score but sometimes with known composers; generally of
more recent origin.
Popular music-sometimes with a written score, composers frequently known, marked
melodies.
Art music-a written score, composers invariably known, a classical structure.

Radio Drama
There are three methods of presenting radio plays: (a) as completely self-contained plays
of 30, 45 or 60 minutes in length; (b) as serial dramas of 15 or 30 minutes in length in which the
action goes forward from one episode to another; (c) as series drama, each broadcast generally
lasting for 30 minutes and completing one whole episode of a continued story; the principal
characters reappear in new situations in each new drama in the series.

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Radio Advertising
A station which carries advertising obtains it either directly from an advertiser or
indirectly through an agency representing an advertiser. Where an account is obtained through
an agency the agency prepares the advertisements- called copy or commercials-and listens to the
station to make sure they are properly broadcast and at the times contracted for. Where a station
obtains an account direct from the advertiser the station generally writes the copy.

Writing Radio Scripts

Radio writing differs from writing for publication imprint because the medium is
different. Broadcasting is a form of living publication; it is not static but something which moves
forward in present time. This calls for a different approach-a difference in style.
The reader of a newspaper or a magazine can select or reject paragraphs or whole stories
as the fancy takes him. When he is not clear in his understanding of the authors meaning he can
always re-read. This is not so of radio. The listener has to take everything as it comes or not listen
at all. When he is unclear he has no means of referring back to clarify a point. A radio-script
writer must therefore seek to hold the listeners rapt attention and go to considerable pains to
ensure that the meaning is clear and understandable at every stage of a talk or story as it
progresses. Another distinctive characteristic of radio writing is that things heard on the radio
appear to the listener to be happening now. A broadcast is not a report of something past and
gone-even the act of news reading is something taking place at the same time as it is heard.
Above all radio writing is writing for the spoken word and everyday speech should be the guide
to the words we use and the manner in which we use them. In talking with one another we use
familiar words. W e assemble what we have to say in short phrases and seldom put our ideas
together in the kind of lengthy paragraphs which we may write. W e put forward our ideas
directly, not cluttered with small details nor involved in rambling parenthesis. From these
characteristics of radio writing we may deduce a series of rules.

Tips to write good radio scripts

Unesco Document on radio production advanced the following suggestions to ensure the
quality of radio scripts.

Use words which are in everyday use and are readily understood by the majority of
people. This does not mean to say that we should use only simple words to the exclusion
of all others. Where it is necessary to use an unfamiliar word it should be explained or
enlarged upon in a short explanatory sentence or a short parenthesis.

Sentences should be kept short. But we must avoid a series of short staccato sentences
which would make a speech sound jerky. Variety in sentence length makes a speech
sound interesting. In general, however, the length should tend to be short rather than
long. A sentence should never be longer than the number of words we can easily carry on
a breath.

Avoid dependent clauses and clumsy inversions. Dependent clauses and inverted clauses
are quite common in written matter but we seldom use them in normal speech. For
example we may write: Longing for a cold drink, as he had walked many miles that day

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under a hot sun, Festus walked into the first bar he came to in the village. In radio style
the idea may be better expressed this way: Festus was thirsty. He had walked many
miles that day and the sun had been agonizingly hot. He entered the first bar he came to
in the village.

Use descriptive words where possible but use them with care. The radio listener has only
words to guide him and to sketch pictures which he would otherwise see with his eyes.
The use of a descriptive word helps him to see the picture. In the example above
agonizingly hot says more than simply Under a hot sun. But descriptive words can be
over-used if a script is filled with them. Descriptive words are better than figures where it
is possible to use them- (twenty minutes walk away says more to the listener than ca mile
away.

Speech has rhythm and speech rhythms should be kept in mind when writing radio
script. A radio script should flow with the fluency of poetry. It helps to carry the listener
along and it holds his attention. Some of the best of radio dramas and radio
documentaries have been written by poets who have a flair for the rhythms of language.

A radio script should display an element of nowness. Whatever the broadcast, as far as the
listener is concerned, it is happening now. It is an immediate and a personal experience.
This should always be kept in mind when writing for radio. The choice of viewpoint from
which a script is written, the choice of words, the authors approach and the enthusiasm
with which he writes all have a bearing on the sense of immediacy.

Producing Radio Programme

As per the guidelines of the Unesco document which details how to produce profession
radio programmes, a radio producer should have: a good grasp of the language in which he
works so that he can edit scripts and advise speakers on correct pronunciation, a manner which
wins the co-operation of artists, a skill in instructing and directing other people at the
microphone, a good general knowledge and an interest in community affairs, a sense of
responsibility, the ability to take the initiative and the enthusiasm to experiment, a creative turn
of mind and a flair for showmanship, an ear for sound and the ability to conceive ideas in terms
of sound, a thorough knowledge of the technical facilities and of the techniques of radio, a
specialist interest. The outline makes no reference to educational qualifications although some
are implied. On this matter it is worth noting a Unesco recommendation regarding the
recruitment of broadcasting personnel: Present standards are suitable but possession of
certificates should not be mandatory. The emphases should be on talent, creative ability and an
aptitude for broadcasting.

Origin and growth of Television

By definition, television broadcasting is the transmission of visual images, generally with
accompanying sound, in the form of electromagnetic waves that when received can be
reconverted into visual images. On January 23, 1926, John Logie Baird of Scotland gave the
world's first public demonstration of a mechanical television apparatus to the members of the
Royal Institution at his laboratory. These were images of living human faces, not outlines with
complete tonal gradations of light and shade. On April 7, 1927 Bell Telephone Labs and AT&T
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give a USA public mechanical television demonstration over both wire and radio
circuits. Pictures and sound were sent by wire from Washington D.C., to New York
City. However it took further eight year for the beginning of practically feasible television
broadcasting.
Between 1935 and 1938, the Nazi government under Adolph Hitler in Germany operated
the worlds first regular television service, with propaganda broadcasts to specially equipped
theatres. It was after the end of World War II in 1946 that commercial television came into being
in the United States. In the same year, Peter Goldmark introduced color television system. His
system produced color pictures by having a red-blue-green wheel spin in front of a cathode ray
tube. In 1948, Cable television is introduced in Pennsylvania as a means of bringing television to
rural areas. Cable television is the process of sending TV signals to subscribers through wires or
fiber optic cables. In 1950s, television gained widespread acceptance in the United States and in
some European countries.
The development of satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and
encouraged businessmen to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the
rise of subscription television channels, such as Home Box Office (HBO) and Showtime in the
U.S., and Sky Television in the U.K. Satellite transmission means sending television signal using
satellites in the orbit. Satellite transmission paved the way for Conditional Access System, a
digital mode of transmitting TV channels through a set-top box (STB). The transmission signals
are encrypted and viewers need to buy a set-top box to receive and decrypt the signal. Direct To
Home (DTH) service was also made possible with the help of satellite transmission technology.
As of 2010, over 500 TV Satellite television channels are broadcast in India. This includes
channels from the state-owned Doordarshan, News Corporation owned STAR TV, Sony owned
Sony Entertainment Television, Sun Network and Zee TV. Now, Direct To Home service is
provided by Airtel Digital TV, BIG TV owned by Reliance, DD Direct Plus, DishTV, Sun Direct
DTH etc.
The latest incarnation in television technology is Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) in
which audio and video are transmitted using internet file transmission protocols and viewers
watch programmes on computer screens instead of television sets.

Television Broadcasting
Television is one of the most popular inventions of the last century. Every day we spend
hours with television. It is a reality that we cannot imagine a day without television
consumption. Our imagination of the world is formed with television.
According to the A.C. Nielsen Company, a well known research organization, the
average American watches more than 4 hours of TV each day (or 28 hours/week, or 2 months of
nonstop TV-watching per year). In a 65-year life, that person will have spent 9 years glued to the
tube. Percentage of households that possess at least one television: 99 Number of TV sets in the
average U.S. household: 2.24. Percentage of U.S. homes with three or more TV sets: 66 .Number
of hours per day that TV is on in an average U.S. home: 6 hours, 47 minutes . From this statistics
we get how television influences man. This is the case of the United States of America. The
situations in other countries are also no different.
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Characteristics of Television as a Mass Medium

Audio Visual Medium

Radio is audio medium while television is audio visual, means it carries moving pictures
and sound.

Live Medium

With these magical features of television, it enables us to view the events any where in the
world live while sitting in our drawing rooms.

Domestic Medium

Film is also an audio visual medium. It is not live. And, for watching films, we have to
theatre. Most of us watch television in home environment because this medium is conceived
to be so. So, it is called a domestic medium.

Popular Medium

Literacy is not a barrier in watching television while newspaper reading requires literacy.
Any illiterate can get information and entertainment from television. In that sense, it is really
a popular medium any type of people can use.

Transitory Medium

You can read todays newspaper in the evening or in the morning. But, television
programmes are to be watched while they are telecast. Television has not archival facility. So,
it is called as a transitory medium. Radio has also the same characteristics.

Expensive Medium

In every term, television is expensive. Television set is costlier than a radio set or newspaper.
Setting up a television station involves millions of rupees. Transmission facilities and
programme production also require a lot of money.

Air wave delivery

Unlike newspapers which delivered door to door, television messages are transmitted
through air waves. So, it does not have complicated distribution system.

Good for documentary information

Like any other medium, television can also be used for information dissemination. With its
audio-visual capacity, television is more apt for providing documentary information as we
can detail functions, process and other details in a live mode.

Types of Television Transmission Systems

Technological advancements define and redefine the mode of delivery of television
messages. The prominent ways of television transmission are given below.

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TV Broadcasting
It is over-the air transmission of audio visual signals from towers owned by television
stations on frequencies allotted to them by Ministry of Communication. People can receive the
signals without charge by simply turning on a television on a set. Sometimes, we need an
antenna for receiving signals.

Cable TV
By definition, Cable TV is the process of sending TV signals to subscribers through a wire.
Transmission of messages via cable was invented in 1929 and commercially utilized in 1940s.
Cable television system was popularized in 1970s in America. The earliest cable systems were, in
effect, strategically placed antennas with very long cables connecting them to subscribers' home
sets. Because the signal from the antenna became weaker as it traveled through the length of
cable, cable providers had to insert amplifiers at regular intervals to boost the strength of the
signal and make it acceptable for viewing. With invention of optical fibers, it has been easy to
transmit signal in a speedy way without loosing picture quality.
Today, cable systems deliver hundreds of channels to some millions of homes, while also
providing a growing number of people with high-speed Internet access. Some cable systems
even let you make telephone calls and receive new programming technologies!

Satellite Transmission
It is transmission of television signals through satellites put in the orbit for
communication purpose. It enables the households to receive signals directly from the satellites
using dish antennas. This is also called Direct to Home (DTH) Satellite Services. It is digital
technology that delivers up to 150 channels to a plate-sized receiver on subscribers house. For
this, we have to use a set box to convert digital signals received by the antennas into audio visual
format.

Home Video
It is not related with television transmission process. It refers to the pre-recoded video
either sold or hired for home use. Most of the content are of entertainment nature. Educational
documentaries are also available as part of this method. Earlier VHS/Betamax video cassettes
played in Videocassette Recorders (VCR) were available. Now, these are now replaced with
VCDs, DVDs( Digital Versatile Discs), USB Drives and Blue Ray Discs.

Structure of a Television Station

A television station has five major sections under the General Manager. News Section,
Sales Section, Programming Section, Engineering Section and Business Section. Who comes
under each section is detailed in the graph given below.

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The General Manager: At a television station, the general manager oversees departments. The
GM is in charge of guiding the people who run the individual departments. Those departments
normally include: news, production, sales, promotions and engineering. All departments impact
how a news product is presented on the air.
The news department gathers, writes and edits the stories for a daily newscast. News
departments consist of several job titles, including news director, assignment editor, executive
producer, producers, reporters, anchors and photographers. Each position is important to
providing quality programming. ( job titles may vary according to the size and policy of the
station)
The sales department generates revenue for the station by getting companies to buy commercial
spots.
The programme production department puts on air what the news department creates.
Production departments often include a director, technical director, audio operator, master
control operator and camera operators.
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The engineering department takes care of the technical aspect of a newscast and the station
itself. When something breaks, they are the people employees in other departments call on.
The Business department works with companies that buy commercials, creating a concept for
the commercial and editing it to create an on-air product. Employees in the promotions
department also create commercials to advertise the station.

Careers
News Director, Assistant News Director, Managing Editor, Executive Producer
Assignment Editor ,News Producer, News Anchor ,Weathercaster (Meteorologists), Sports
Anchor, News, Reporter News Writer, News Assistant, Sports Reporter Photographer, Video
Editor ,Graphics Specialist, Internet Specialist are some of the careers available in the television
journalism sector.

Film
Like television, film is also an audio visual medium. It is the most popular medium of the
last century. The technology behind the cinema was invented by Lois Lumiere and his borther
Auguste Lumiere who are famously known as Lumiere brothers. But, their invention of moving
picture technique was just an extension of photography. Their equipment called
cinematographe was a compact, portable machine with an inbuilt camera and projector. They
exhibited actualities in life like arrival of a train, workers leaving a factory and such real events
with their equipment.
Georges Melies of France utilized the motion picture technology to tell stories and to
show magical events, fantasies and dream like events using elaborated sets and editing
techniques. It was with the efforts of Melies that cinema became a mass medium. His film Voyage
to the Moon produced in 1902 was famous for its novelty in treatment.

Growth of Cinema
After exploration of this potential of the medium, film started to grow as an independent
cultural/entertainment industry, attracting millions of people world over. Realistic treatment of
the stories was the narrative styles of earliest feature films. Pioneers like Eisenstein, Pudovkin,
both are Russians, revolutionized cinema with their attractive realistic style of narration and
editing techniques. Gradually, as an active medium with mass support, film began to develop its
own language using the potential of the mixing of verbal and non-verbal communication
methods.
Innovations like sound recording, sophisticated cameras, editing techniques, exhibition
pattern, production styles and narrative methods made cinema more impressive and attractive.
Earlier history of cinema can be divided into Silent Era and the Era of Talkies. Silent Era refers
to the period during which films were produced without sound due to the absence of adequate
technology. The power of the cinema during the silent era was the power of their stories. Talkies
mean the films with sound.
Another categorization of the history of cinema was on the basis of the colour of visuals.
Earlier films were produced in Black and White films. Colour films revolutionized the medium
as the audiences were hugely attracted to colour film as it provided them with a colorful real life
visual experience.
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Cinema as a mass medium

Film influences society more than any other medium. The impact of film is easily visible
in the popular culture. The fashion and life styles of the masses are defined by the films. While
news media provide people with information, films entertain them. Because of this nature of the
medium, film is called as a cultural medium.
More than a mass medium, film is an industry also. It deals with billions of dollars
everyday. Film industry involves a lot of expensive technology and huge financial transactions.
Moreover, films were and still are used as political tools, especially for propaganda. Adolph
Hitlers propaganda films during the world war were the best case in point. Now, cinema is
more business than a political tool. During this time of globalization, films cross borders and
function as transmitters culture and method of financial flow.

Cinema as an Industry
The film industry is an umbrella term to denote the technology, economics and human
resources in film business. It includes production houses/companies, studios, production
techniques like cinematography, acting, editing, and screenwriting, directing and marketing
methods like distribution, promotion and festival organizations.
In terms of technical quality and financial quantity, film industry of the United States of
America is the biggest one in the world. Hollywood is the dedicated centre of film production in
the USA. With its multi-lingual character and tremendous mass support, Indian film industry is
also reckoned with one in the world. Other major countries which excel in film production are
China, Egypt, Italy, Japan, France, UK and Iran. Iran is very famous for the artistic value of
Iranian cinemas.

Types of Films
Films can be mainly categorized in to two: Documentaries and Feature Films.
Documentaries are realistic films based on a specific topic and its shed light into various aspects
of the subject matter. It is informative/educative in nature. It is a non-fiction narrative without
actors. Typically a documentary is a journalistic record of an event, person, or place. On the other
hand, feature films are movies of at least 40-45 minutes (2 reels) long intended for theatrical
release.
Film Genres: Apart from this division in general nature, films can be segmented according to the
treatment of the content. Following are the major genres of films. Comedy, Drama, Romance,
Action/Adventure, Mystery/Suspense, Westerns, Horror, Fantasy, Science Fiction, Musicals,
Film noir are of some the types of films.
Major Players in Movie Industry: Warner Brothers, Walt Disney, Columbia Picutres, Twentieth
Century Fox, Paramount and Universal are the major tycoons who rule the movie industry in the
world.

Careers in Film
Producer, director, screenplay writer, lyricist, music composer, actors, make-up artist, sound
recordist, film editors, director Art Director, Cinematographer, Director of Photography,
Property Master, Camera Operator, Camera Loader, Focus Puller, Electrician, Equipment
operator, , Dolly Grip, Best Boy (Chief Assistant), Foley Artist, etc.
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MODULE V
NEW MEDIA
Objectives
After completing this module, you will get a basic understanding of

The Internet and its evolution

New media and the characteristics
Social media and other web based communication formats
How to write for the web
Technical writing

History of the Internet

The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing
before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this
unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Net (both the World Wide Web and the InternetNote the difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web: The Internet is a computer network
consisting of a worldwide network of computer networks and cables that use the TCP/IP network protocols
to facilitate data transmission and exchange. The World Wide Web is a computer network consisting of a
collection of internet sites that offer text, graphics, sound and animation resources through the hypertext
transfer protocol.) is fundamentally a tool to allow people around the globe to communicate with
each other. Until the early 1990s, the Internet was simply a network of computers used to
transmit government data and enable academic research and conversations. With the advent of
the World Wide Web by Tim Berners Lee in early 1990s and online subscription service providers
such as America OnLine (AOL), CompuServe and Prodigy, the Internet traffic began its
exponential upswing.
According to Silicon Valley Historical Association, following the brief time line of the
growth and evolution of the Internat
1957 : The USSR launches the first satellite, Sputnik. To compete against the USSR's success at
launching the first satellite, the United States Department of Defense creates the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA). ARPA is responsible for the development of new technology
for use by the military.
1969 : The first host-to-host Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
connection is made on October 25, 1969, between the University of California at Los Angeles, and
the Stanford Research Institute, Inc. (SRI) in Menlo Park, California. ARPANET is the world's
first operational packet switching network and the core network of a set that came to compose
the global Internet.
1972 : ARPANET begins to be used for communicating email.
1973 : The term Internet begins to be used.
1976 : Comet, the first commercial email software, is offered by the Computer Corporation of
America for $40,000.
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1981 : Al Gore coins the term for the Internet The Information Superhighway.
1990 : The phrase World Wide Web is coined by Tim Berners-Lee.
1992 : Internet registration begins for .com, .net. .org, .edu, and .gov.
1993 :The Internet takes off as part of the worlds fastest growing information network and the
MOSAIC Web Browser is born on the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign campus.
The World Wide Web is developed in CERN, the Institute for Particle Physics in Switzerland.
1995 : The independent programming language, JAVA, is created by Jim Gosling at Sun
Microsystems. And, Yahoo! is founded in Santa Clara, California, and provides a web search
engine, email service, mapping and more.
2001 : Wikipedia is launched.
2004 : Facebook is founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
2005 : YouTube launches.
2006 : Twitter is founded in San Francisco, California.
2011 : Twitter and Facebook are the primary means of communication for the Arab Spring

Defining New Media

New media can be defined as interactive forms of communication that use the Internet,
including podcasts, blogs, vlogs, social networks, text messaging, wikis, virtual worlds and all
other computer aided communication formats available online. New media makes it possible for
anyone to create, modify, and share content and share it with others, using relatively simple tools
that are often free or inexpensive. New media requires a computer or mobile device with Internet
access.
New media tools can:

Connect people with information and services.

Collaborate with other peopleincluding those within their organization or community.
Create new content, services, communities, and channels of communication that help
people deliver information and services.

Characteristics of New Media

Over the traditional media like newspapers, television and radio, new media have the
following advantages:

Capacity to overcomes the lack of time and space though it is limited with screen size,
downloading time, server capacity etc.

Flexibility: New media can handle variety of forms for the information it presents
words, pictures, audio, video, and graphics.

Immediacy: New media can deliver information immediately, often as events are
unfolding.

Immediacy is variety : New media can cover different aspects of news at a time

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Hypertextuality : New media can connect one format of information with other formats
and sources of information through hyperlinks.

Interactivity: New media have human-machine communication system.

Multimediality: Unlike traditional media, new media can contain various types of media
format on a single platform. We can watch television and listen to radio, and read
newspapers on a webpage.

Cost effective. Compared to other media, webpage production is cost effective and
environment friendly.

Extended Access: We can get access to the web or new media sources wherever we are.

Social Media Networks

Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define social media as "a group of Internet-based
applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that
allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Kietzmann says that social media
employ mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms via which
individuals and communities share, cocreate, discuss, and modify user-generated content. It
introduces substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations,
communities and individuals.
Different types of social media include collaborative projects such as Wikipedia, blogs
such as Blogger, social networking sites like Facebook, content communities like Youtube, and
virtual worlds like Second Life . As of 2012, social media has become one of the most powerful
sources for news updates through platforms such as Facebook, Blogger, Twitter, WordPress,
LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google+. Tumblr, MySpace and Wikia.
Social media differentiates from traditional/industrial media in many aspects such as
quality reach, frequency, usability, immediacy and permanence The internet usage effects of
social media as of 2012 are, according to Nielsen, that internet users continue to spend more time
in social media than any other site. At the same time, the total time spent on social media in the
U.S. across PC and mobile devices increased by 37 percent to 121 billion minutes in July 2012
compared to 88 billion minutes in July 2011.
Social media technologies take on many different forms including magazines, Internet
forums, weblogs, social blogs, microblogging, wikis, social networks, podcasts, photographs or
pictures, video, rating and social bookmarking. Kaplan and Haenlein created a classification
scheme with six different types of social media: collaborative projects (for example, Wikipedia),
blogs and microblogs (for example, Twitter), content communities (for example, YouTube), social
networking sites (for example, Facebook), virtual game worlds (e.g., World of Warcraft), and
virtual social worlds (e.g. Second Life). Technologies include: blogs, picture-sharing, vlogs, wallpostings, email, instant messaging, music-sharing, crowdsourcing and voice over IP, to name a
few. Many of these services can be integrated via social network aggregation platforms. Social
media network websites include sites like Facebook, Twitter, Bebo and MySpace.
(Kaplan Andreas M., Haenlein Michael, (2010), Users of the world, unite! The challenges and
opportunities of social media, Business Horizons, Vol. 53, Issue 1).
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Blogs
A blog is basically a journal that is available on the web. It is derived from the term Web
Log. The activity of updating a blog is "blogging" and someone who keeps a blog is a "blogger."
Blogs are typically updated daily using software that allows people with little or no technical
background to update and maintain the blog. Postings on a blog are almost always arranged in
chronological order with the most recent additions featured most prominently. It is common for
blogs to be available as RSS (Really Simplified Syndication) feeds. www.blogspot.com,
www.wordpress.org are some of the free blog hosting sites.

Vlogs
A video blog or video log, sometimes shortened to vlog is a form of blog for which the
medium is video, and is a form of web television. The word derived from the term Video Web
Log. On January 2, 2000, Adam Kontras posted a video alongside a blog entry aimed at
informing his friends and family of his cross-country move to Los Angeles in pursuit of show
business, marking the first post on what would later become the longest-running video blog in
history. (Kaminsky, Michael Sean (2010. Naked Lens: Video Blogging & Video Journaling to Reclaim the
YOU in YouTube. Organik Media, Inc)

Podcast
A podcast is a type of digital media consisting of an episodic series of audio radio, video,
PDF, or ePub files subscribed to and downloaded through web syndication or streamed online to
a computer or mobile device. The word is derived from "broadcast" and "pod" from the success
of the iPod, as podcasts are often listened to on portable media players.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcast)

News portals
A web portal is a web site that brings information together from diverse sources in a
uniform way. Usually, each information source gets its dedicated area on the page for displaying
information (a portlet); often, the user can configure which ones to display. Apart from the
standard search engines feature, web portals offer other services such as e-mail, stock prices,
information, databases and entertainment.
Portals provide a way for enterprises to provide a consistent look and feel with access
control and procedures for multiple applications and databases, which otherwise would have
been different entities altogether. Hence, news portal is a web portal dedicated to disseminate
news and related information. Normally, news portals are managed by media organizations and
media professionals.

Basics of Web Writing

Before getting down to writing for the web, we should have an understanding of how audience
use the web content. Users do not read on the Web; instead they scan the pages, trying to pick
out a few sentences or even parts of sentences to get the information they want and u sers do not
like long, scrolling pages: they prefer the text to be short and to the point . Similarly, users detest
anything that seems like marketing fluff or overly hyped language and prefer factual
information, because they can easily search for the alternative just with a mouse click.
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Taking these factors into account, the following principles are to be kept in mind while writing
for the Web.

Text Should be concise: If websites are too wordy, it's hard to read a lot of text on the
screen. It is better to have condensed information that's no bigger than one screen.
Text Should be scannable : We ensure the elements that enhance scanning include
headings, large type, bold text, highlighted text, bulleted lists, graphics, captions, topic
sentences, and tables of contents.
Bulleted items : Using bulleted items will help readers to easily locate the facts they
search for.
Users Like Summaries and the Inverted Pyramid Style Every reader tend to read a
summary and then go to the article if s/he is interested.
Hypertext is well-liked: Hyper texts and links help users to navigate from one page to
other and one site to the other. Creative use of hyperlinks the crux of the success of the
web. While writing for the web, writer should keep the hypertextual nature of the
content.
Graphics and text should complement one another : Graphics that add nothing to the text
are a distraction and waste of time . A graphic is good when it relates to the content, but
many are just trying to be flashy.
Users want to get their Information quickly. So, the content should be clear and well
organized with a logical transition.
Credible content creation : Credibility is an important issue on the web . Accurate and fair
good content with no grammatical errors increase believability of the content. External
links, fresh materials rather than the older ones, can increase credibility. People tend to
trust web sites that are more usable. Trust is especially critical for web sites that sell
products and services
Humor should be used with caution

Technical Writing and Documentation

The Society for Technical Communication (STC), a professional society for the
advancement of the theory and practice of technical communication defines technical writing as
a broad field including any form of communication that exhibits one or more of the following
characteristics: (1) communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer
applications, medical procedures, or environmental regulations; (2) communicating through
technology, such as web pages, help files, or social media sites; or (3) providing instructions
about how to do something, regardless of the task's technical nature.
Every day we read a lot of content written by technical writers. Help menu on our
computer screen, user manual we get along with the mobile phone we purchase, installation
guide of our printer are written by technical writers.. In addition to these, technical writers write
product release notes, product troubleshooting guides, tutorials, installation guides, marketing
documentation, e-learning modules, web content, legal disclaimers, business proposals, and
white papers. In the present day corporate world, technical writing is a high profile handsomely
paid job
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Good technical writing clarifies technical terms, adding useful information that is clear
and easy to understand for the intended audience. Technical writers usually begin their work by
learning the purpose of the document that they will create, gathering information from existing
documentation and from subject-matter experts and write documents and publish them after
required editing and vetting. A good technical writer needs strong language and teaching skills
and must understand how to communicate with technology.

References

Alred, Gerald J. Handbook of Technical Writing, Sage, New Delhi

Arlington, VA, The First Amendment Handbook.: The Reporters Committee for Freedom of
the Press, 2003.

Campell, Richard : Media and Culture, An Introduction to Mass Communication, 2 nd Edition,

Bedford/St.martines, Boston.

Dominick, Joseph R: The Dynamics of Mass Communication, Harper and Row, New York

Lister, Martine: New Media: A Critical Introduction, MIT Press

Mamer, Bruce : Film Production Techniques, Thomson Warsworth, Singapore.

McQuil, Denis: McQuils Mass Communication Theory, Vistaar Publications, New Delhi.

Turow, Joseph: Media Today: An Introduction to Mass Communication, 3 rd Edition,

Routledge, London, 2010

Vivian, John: The Media of Mass Communication, 5 th Edition, Allyn and Bacon, Singapore,
2008

en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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