CHAPTER 2

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

OVERVIEW
A dollar in the hand today is worth more than
a dollar to be received in the future because,
if you had it now, you could invest that dollar
and earn interest. Of all the techniques used
in finance, none is more important than the
concept of time value of money, also called
discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis. Future
value and present value techniques can be
applied to a single cash flow (lump sum),

ordinary annuities, annuities due, and uneven

cash flow streams. Future and present values
can be calculated using, a regular calculator, a
calculator with financial functions, or a
spreadsheet program. When compounding
occurs more frequently than once a year, the
effective rate of interest is greater than the
quoted rate.

OUTLINE
Time lines are used to help visualize what is happening in time value of money problems.
Cash flows are placed directly below the tick marks, and interest rates are shown directly
above the time line; unknown cash flows are indicated by a symbol for the particular item
that is missing. Thus, to find the future value of $100 after 5 years at 5 percent interest, the
following time line can be set up:
Time:

0
|
Cash flows: -100

5%

1
|

2
|

3
|

4
|

5
|
FV5 = ?

Finding the future value (FV), or compounding, is the process of going from today's values
(or present values) to future amounts (or future values). It can be calculated as
FVn = PV(1 + i)n = PV(FVIFi,n),
where PV = present value, or beginning amount; i = interest rate per year; and n = number
of periods involved in the analysis. FVIFi,n, the Future Value Interest Factor, is a shorthand way of writing the equation. This equation can be solved in one of three ways:
numerically with a regular calculator, with a financial calculator, or with a spreadsheet
program. For calculations, assume the following data that were presented in the time line

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-2

above: present value (PV) = $100, interest rate (i) = 5%, and number of years (n) = 5.
To solve numerically, use a regular calculator to find 1 + i = 1.05 raised to the fifth power,
which equals 1.2763. Multiply this figure by PV = $100 to get the final answer of
FV = $127.63 .
5

With a financial calculator, the future value can be found by using the time value of money
input keys, where N = number of periods, I = interest rate per period, PV = present value,
PMT = payment, and FV = future value. By entering N = 5, I = 5, PV = -100, and PMT =
0, and then pressing the FV key, the answer 127.63 is displayed.
Some financial calculators require that all cash flows be designated as either
inflows or outflows, thus an outflow must be entered as a negative number (for
example,
PV = -100 instead of PV = 100).
Some calculators require you to press a Compute key before pressing the FV
key.
Spreadsheet programs are ideally suited for solving time value of money problems. The
spreadsheet itself becomes a time line.
1
2
3
4

A
Interest rate
Time
Cash flow
Future value

B
.05
0
-100

105.00

110.25

115.76

121.55

127.63

Row 4 contains the spreadsheet formula for future value.

The Excel formula in Cell G4 is written as =-$B$3*(1+$B$1)^G2. This gives us
flexibility to change the interest rate in Cell B1 to see how the future value changes
with changes in interest rates.
An alternative Excel formula in Cell G4 could have been entered. This is the FV
function, and it is =FV(5%,5,0,-100,1). The first argument of this formula is the
interest rate, the second the number of periods, the third the annual payments, the
fourth is the present value, and the fifth indicates that payments are all made at the
end rather than the beginning of each year.

Note that small rounding differences will often occur among the various solution methods.
In general, you should use the easiest approach.
A graph of the compounding process shows how any sum grows over time at various interest
rates. The greater the interest rate, the faster the growth rate.

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-3

Finding present values is called discounting, and it is simply the reverse of compounding.
In general, the present value of a cash flow due n years in the future is the amount which, if
it were on hand today, would grow to equal the future amount. By solving for PV in the
future value equation, the present value, or discounting, equation can be developed and
written in several forms:
1
FV n
PV =
= FV n

n
(1 + i )
1+ i

= FV n ( PVIF i, n ).

PVIFi,n, the Present Value Interest Factor, is a short-hand way of writing the equation.
To solve for the present value of $127.63 discounted back 5 years at a 5% opportunity cost
rate, one can utilize any of the four solution methods:
Numerical solution: Divide $127.63 by 1.05 five times to get PV = $100.
Financial calculator solution: Enter N = 5, I = 5, PMT = 0, and FV = 127.63, and
then press the PV key to get PV = -100.
Spreadsheet solution:
1
2
3
4

A
Interest rate
Time
Cash flow
Present value

C
.05
0

D
1
0

E
2
0

F
3
0

G
4
0

5
127.63

100

Any of three formulas could be entered using Excel in Cell B4:

(1) =G3/(1+$B$1)^G2, (2) =NPV($B$1,C3:G3), or (3) =PV(B1,G2,0,G3). The
second formula finds the present value of each number in the range of cells from C3
to G3, discounted at 5 percent. The third formula find the present value of G3, when
discounted for G2 periods at a rate of B1.
A graph of the discounting process shows how the present value of any sum to be received in
the future diminishes as the years to receipt increases. At relatively high interest rates,
funds due in the future are worth very little today, and even at a relatively low discount
rate, the present value of a sum due in the very distant future is quite small.
There are four variables in the time value of money compounding and discounting
equations: PV, FV, i, and n. If three of the four variables are known, you can find the value
of the fourth.
If we are given PV, FV, and n, we can determine i by substituting the known values into
either the present value or future value equations, and then solve for i. Thus, if you can
buy a security at a price of $78.35 which will pay you $100 after 5 years, what is the
interest rate earned on the investment?

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-4

Numerical solution: Solve for i in the following equation using the exponential
feature of a regular calculator: $100 = $78.35(1 + i)5.
Financial calculator solution: Enter N = 5, PV = -78.35, PMT = 0, and FV = 100,
then press the I key, and I = 5 is displayed.
Spreadsheet solution:

1
2
3
4

A
Time
Cash flow
Interest rate

B
0
-78.35
5%

D
1
0

E
2
0

F
3
0

G
4
0

5
100

The Excel formula in Cell B3 is entered as =IRR(B2:G2). The formula

calculates the internal rate of return, and its argument is the range of the cash flows.
Alternatively, you could enter =Rate(G1,0,B2,G2), which finds the rate given G1
periods, a present value of B2, and a future value of G2.

Likewise, if we are given PV, FV, and i, we can determine n by substituting the known values
into either the present value or future value equations, and then solve for n. Thus, if you
can buy a security with a 5 percent interest rate at a price of $78.35 today, how long will
it take for your investment to return $100?
Numerical solution: Solve for n in the following equation using the natural
logarithm feature of a regular calculator: $100 = $78.35(1 + .05)n.
Financial calculator solution: Enter I = 5, PV = -78.35, PMT = 0, and FV = 100,
then press the N key, and N = 5 is displayed.
Spreadsheet solution: Enter the formula =NPER(.05,0,-78.35,100), which finds
the number of periods, given a rate of 5%, a present value of 78.35, and a future
value of 100.
An annuity is a series of equal payments made at fixed intervals for a specified number of
periods. If the payments occur at the end of each period, as they typically do, the annuity is
an ordinary (or deferred) annuity. If the payments occur at the beginning of each period, it
is called an annuity due.
The future value of an annuity is the total amount one would have at the end of the annuity
period if each payment were invested at a given interest rate and held to the end of the
annuity period.
Defining FVAn as the compound sum of an ordinary annuity of n years, and PMT
as the periodic payment, we can write

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-5

(1 i) n 1
PMT( FVIFAi,n ).
FVA n PMT (1 + i ) = PMT

i
t =1

n -t

FVIFAi,n is the future value interest factor for an ordinary annuity. This is a shorthand notation for the formula shown above.
For example, the future value of a 3-year, 5 percent ordinary annuity of $100 per
year would be $100(3.1525) = $315.25.
The same calculation can be made using the financial function keys of a
calculator. Enter N = 3, I = 5, PV = 0, and PMT = -100. Then press the FV key, and
315.25 is displayed.
Most spreadsheets have a built-in function to find the future value of an annuity.
In Excel the formula would be written as =FV(.05,3,-100).
For an annuity due, each payment is compounded for one additional period, so the
future value of the entire annuity is equal to the future value of an ordinary annuity
compounded for one additional period. Thus:

FVAn (Annuity due) = PMT(FVIFAi,n)(1 + i).

For example, the future value of a 3-year, 5 percent annuity due of $100 per year
is $100(3.1525)(1.05) = $331.01.
Most financial calculators have a switch, or key, marked DUE or BEG that
permits you to switch from end-of-period payments (an ordinary annuity) to
beginning-of-period payments (an annuity due). Switch your calculator to BEG
mode, and calculate as you would for an ordinary annuity. Do not forget to switch
your calculator back to END mode when you are finished.
For an annuity due, the spreadsheet formula is written as =FV(.05,3,-100,0,1).
The fourth term in the formula, 0, means that no extra payment is made at t = 0, and
the last term, 1, tells the computer that this is an annuity due.

The present value of an annuity is the single (lump sum) payment today that would be
equivalent to the annuity payments spread over the annuity period. It is the amount today
that would permit withdrawals of an equal amount (PMT) at the end (or beginning for an
annuity due) of each period for n periods.
Defining PVAn as the present value of an ordinary annuity of n years and PMT as
the periodic payment, we can write
1

t
n
n
1
(1 i)
PVA n PMT
PMT
PMT (PVIFA i,n ).
1
+
i
i

t =1

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-6

PVIFAi,n is the present value interest factor for an ordinary annuity. This is a
short-hand notation for the formula shown above.
For example, an annuity of $100 per year for 3 years at 5 percent would have a
present value of $100(2.7232) = $272.32.
Using a financial calculator, enter N = 3, I = 5, PMT = -100, and FV = 0, and then
press the PV key, for an answer of $272.32.
Spreadsheet solution:

1
2
3
4

A
Interest rate
Time
Cash flow
Present value

C
.05
0

D
1
100

E
2
100

3
100

$272.32

Two formulas can be used to solve this problem. Excels NPV formula can be
entered in Cell B4: =NPV($B$1,C3:E3). The second formula that can be used is
Excels PV annuity function: =PV(.05,3,-100).
The present value for an annuity due is

PVAn (Annuity due) = PMT(PVIFAi,n)(1 + i).

For example, the present value of a 3-year, 5 percent annuity due of $100 is
$100(2.7232)(1.05) = $285.94.
Using a financial calculator, switch to the BEG mode, and then enter N = 3, I =
5, PMT = -100 , and FV = 0, and then press PV to get the answer, $285.94. Again, do
not forget to switch your calculator back to END mode when you are finished.
For an annuity due, the spreadsheet formula is written as =PV(.05,3,-100,0,1).
The fourth term in the formula, 0, means that you are not making any additional
payments at t = 3, and the last term, 1, tells the computer that this is an annuity due.

An annuity that goes on indefinitely is called a perpetuity. The payments of a perpetuity

constitute an infinite series.
The present value of a perpetuity is:
PV (Perpetuity) = Payment/Interest rate = PMT/i.
For example, if the interest rate were 12 percent, a perpetuity of $1,000 a year would have a
present value of $1,000/0.12 = $8,333.33.
Many financial decisions require the analysis of uneven, or nonconstant, cash flows rather
than a stream of fixed payments such as an annuity.

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-7

The present value of an uneven stream of income is the sum of the PVs of the individual cash
flow components. Similarly, the future value of an uneven stream of income is the sum
of the FVs of the individual cash flow components.
With a financial calculator, enter each cash flow (beginning with the t = 0 cash
flow) into the cash flow register, CF j, enter the appropriate interest rate, and then
press the NPV key to obtain the PV of the cash flow stream.
Spreadsheets are especially useful for solving problems with uneven cash flows.
1
2
3
4

A
Interest rate
Time
Cash flow
Present value

B
.06
0

1
100

2
200

3
200

4
200

5
200

I
6
0

7
1,000

1,413.19

The Excel spreadsheet formula in Cell B4 is written as =NPV(B1,C3:I3).

Some calculators have a net future value (NFV) key which allows you to obtain
the FV of an uneven cash flow stream.

If one knows the relevant cash flows, the effective interest rate can be calculated efficiently
with either a financial calculator or a spreadsheet program. Using a financial calculator,
enter each cash flow (beginning with the t = 0 cash flow) into the cash flow register, CF j,
and then press the IRR key to obtain the interest rate of an uneven cash flow stream.
Semiannual, quarterly, and other compounding periods more frequent than an annual
basis are often used in financial transactions. Compounding on a nonannual basis requires
an adjustment to both the compounding and discounting procedures discussed previously.
The effective annual rate (EAR or EFF%) is the rate that would have produced the final
compounded value under annual compounding. The effective annual percentage rate is
given by the following formula:
Effective annual rate (EAR) = EFF% = (1 + iNom/m)m 1.0,
where iNom is the nominal, or quoted, interest rate and m is the number of compounding
periods per year. The EAR is useful in comparing securities with different compounding
periods.
For example, to find the effective annual rate if the nominal rate is 6 percent and semiannual
compounding is used, we have:
EAR = (1 + 0.06/2)2 1.0 = 6.09%.
For annual compounding use the formula to find the future value of a single payment (lump
sum):

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-8

FVn = PV(1 + i)n.

When compounding occurs more frequently than once a year, use this formula:
FVn = PV(1 + iNom/m)mn.
Here m is the number of times per year compounding occurs, and n is the number of years.
The amount to which $1,000 will grow after 5 years if quarterly compounding is applied to a
nominal 8 percent interest rate is found as follows:
FVn = $1,000(1 + 0.08/4)(4)(5) = $1,000(1.02)20 = $1,485.95.
Financial calculator solution: Enter N = 20, I = 2, PV = -1000, and PMT = 0, and
then press the FV key to find FV = $1,485.95.
Spreadsheet solution: The spreadsheet developed to find the future value of a
lump sum under quarterly compounding would look like the one for annual
compounding, with two changes: The interest rate would be quartered, and the
timeline would show four times as many periods.

The present value of a 5-year future investment equal to $1,485.95, with an 8 percent
nominal interest rate, compounded quarterly, is found as follows:
$1,485.95 PV 1 0.08 / 4
$1,485.95
PV
= $1,000.
20
(1.02 )
( 4 )( 5)

Financial calculator solution: Enter N = 20, I = 2, PMT = 0, and FV = 1485.95,

and then press the PV key to find PV = -$1,000.00.

Spreadsheet solution: The spreadsheet developed to find the present value of a

lump sum under quarterly compounding would look like the one for annual
compounding, with two changes: The interest rate would be quartered, and the time
line would show four times as many periods.

The nominal rate is the rate that is quoted by borrowers and lenders. Nominal rates can
only be compared with one another if the instruments being compared use the same
number of compounding periods per year. Note also that the nominal rate is never shown
on a time line, or used as an input in a financial calculator, unless compounding occurs only
once a year. In general, nonannual compounding can be handled one of two ways.
State everything on a periodic rather than on an annual basis. Thus, n = 6 periods rather than
n = 3 years and i = 3% instead of i = 6% with semiannual compounding.

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

2-9

Find the effective annual rate (EAR) with the equation below and then use the EAR as the
rate over the given number of years.

EAR = 1 + i Nom
m

1.0.

Fractional time periods are used when payments occur within periods, instead of at either
the beginning or the end of periods. Solving these problems requires using the fraction of
the time period for n, number of periods, and then solving either numerically, with a
spreadsheet program, or with a financial calculator. (Some older calculators will produce
incorrect answers because of their internal solution programs.)
An important application of compound interest involves amortized loans, which are paid
off in equal installments over time.
The amount of each payment, PMT, is found as follows:
PMT(PVIFAi,n), so PMT = PV of the annuity/PVIFAi,n.

PV of the annuity =

With a financial calculator, enter N (number of years), I (interest rate), PV (amount

borrowed), and FV = 0, and then press the PMT key to find the periodic payment.
The spreadsheet is ideal for developing amortization tables. The set up is similar to the table
in the text, but you would want to include input cells for the interest rate, principal
value, and the length of the loan.
Each payment consists partly of interest and partly of the repayment of principal. This
breakdown is often developed in a loan amortization schedule.
The interest component is largest in the first period, and it declines over the life of
the loan.
The repayment of principal is smallest in the first period, and it increases
thereafter.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
Definitional
1.

The beginning value of an account or investment in a project is known as its _________

_______.

2.

Using a savings account as an example, the difference between the account's present
value and its future value at the end of the period is due to __________ earned during the
period.

3.

The equation FVn = PV(1 + i)n determines the future value of a sum at the end of n
periods. The factor (1 + i)n is known as the ________ _______ __________ ________.

4.

The process of finding present values is often referred to as _____________ and is the
reverse of the _____________ process.

5.

The PVIFi,n for a 5-year, 5 percent investment is 0.7835. This value is the ____________
of the FVIFi,n for 5 years at 5 percent.

6.

For a given number of time periods, the PVIFi,n will decline as the __________ ______
increases.

7.

A series of payments of a constant amount for a specified number of periods is a(n)

_________. If the payments occur at the end of each period it is a(n) __________
annuity, while if the payments occur at the beginning of each period it is an annuity
_____.

8.

The present value of an uneven stream of future payments is the _____ of the PVs of the
individual payments.

9.

Since different types of investments use different compounding periods, it is important to

distinguish between the quoted, or _________, rate and the ___________ annual interest
rate.

10.

When compounding occurs more than once a year, divide the _________ ______ by the
number of times compounding occurs and multiply the years by the number of
_____________ _________ per year.

11.

______ _______ are used to help visualize what is happening in time value of money
problems.

12.

An annuity that goes on indefinitely is called a(n) ____________.

13.

___________ loans are those which are paid off in equal installments over time.

14.

The breakdown of each payment as partly interest and partly principal is developed in
a(n) ______ ______________ __________.

Conceptual
15.

If a bank uses quarterly compounding for savings accounts, the nominal rate will be
greater than the effective annual rate (EAR).
a. True

16.

If money has time value (that is, i > 0), the future value of some amount of money will
always be more than the amount invested. The present value of some amount to be
received in the future is always less than the amount to be received.
a. True

17.

The discount rate decreases.

The cash flows are extended over a longer period of time.
The discount rate increases.
Statements b and c are both correct.
Statements a and b are both correct.

As the discount rate increases without limit, the present value of a future cash inflow
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

19.

b. False

You have determined the profitability of a planned project by finding the present value of
all the cash flows from that project. Which of the following would cause the project to
look less appealing, that is, have a lower present value?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

18.

b. False

Gets larger without limit.

Stays unchanged.
Approaches zero.
Gets smaller without limit; that is, approaches minus infinity.
Goes to ein.

Which of the following statements is most correct?

a. For all positive values of i and n, FVIFi,n 1.0 and PVIFAi,n n.
b. You may use the annuity formula to find the present value of an uneven series of

payments.
c. If a bank uses quarterly compounding for savings accounts, the nominal rate will be
greater than the effective annual rate.
d. The present value of a future sum decreases as either the nominal interest rate or the
number of discounting periods per year increases.
e. All of the above statements are false.
20.

Which of the following statements is most correct?

a. Except in situations where compounding occurs annually, the periodic interest rate
exceeds the nominal interest rate.
b. The effective annual rate always exceeds the nominal rate, no matter how few or
many compounding periods occur each year.
c. If compounding occurs more frequently than once a year, and if payments are made at
times other than at the end of compounding periods, it is impossible to determine
present or future values, even with a financial calculator. The reason is that under
these conditions, the basic assumptions of discounted cash flow analysis are not met.
d. Assume that compounding occurs quarterly, that the nominal interest rate is 8 percent,
and that you need to find the present value of $1,000 due 6 months from today. You
could get the correct answer by discounting the $1,000 at 2 percent for 2 periods.
e. Statements a, b, c, and d are all false.

SELF-TEST PROBLEMS
(Note: In working these problems, you may get an answer which differs from ours by a few cents
due to differences in rounding. This should not concern you; just pick the closest answer.)
1.

Assume that you purchase a 6-year, 8 percent savings certificate for $1,000. If interest is
compounded annually, what will be the value of the certificate when it matures?

a. $630.17
2.

c. 9.5%

d. 10.5%

e. 11.5%

b. 15 years

c. 18 years

d. 20 years

e. 23 years

You are offered an investment opportunity with the guarantee that your investment will
double in 5 years. Assuming annual compounding, what annual rate of return would this
investment provide?
b. 100.00%

c. 14.87%

d. 20.00%

e. 18.74%

You decide to begin saving toward the purchase of a new car in five years. If you put
$1,000 at the end of each of the next 5 years in a savings account paying 6 percent
compounded annually, how much will you accumulate after 5 years?
a. $6,691.13

7.

b. 8.5%

At an inflation rate of 9 percent, the purchasing power of $1 would be cut in half in just
over 8 years (some calculators round to 9 years). How long, to the nearest year, would it
take for the purchasing power of $1 to be cut in half if the inflation rate were only 4
percent?

a. 40.00%

6.

e. $1,766.33

A friend promises to pay you $600 two years from now if you loan him $500 today. What
annual interest rate is your friend offering?

a. 12 years
5.

d. $1,586.90

The semiannual is worth $14.10 more than the annual.

The semiannual is worth $14.10 less than the annual.
The semiannual is worth $21.54 more than the annual.
The semiannual is worth $21.54 less than the annual.
The semiannual is worth the same as the annual.

a. 7.5%
4.

c. $1,677.10

A savings certificate similar to the one in the previous problem is available with the
exception that interest is compounded semiannually. What is the difference between the
ending value of the savings certificate compounded semiannually and the one
compounded annually?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

3.

b. $1,469.33

b. $5,637.10

c. $1,338.23

d. $5,975.33

e. $5,732.00

Refer to Self-Test Problem 6. What would be the ending amount if the payments were
made at the beginning of each year?
a. $6,691.13

b. $5,637.10

c. 1,338.23

d. $5,975.33

e. $5,732.00

8.

Refer to Self-Test Problem 6. What would be the ending amount if $500 payments were
made at the end of each 6-month period for 5 years and the account paid 6 percent
compounded semiannually?
a. $6,691.13

9.

b. $1,718.19

c. $531.82

d. $5,971.30

e. $649.37

b. $4,800.00

c. $3,369.89

d. $4,060.56

e. $4,632.37

b. 9.8%

c. 10.0%

d. 5.1%

e. 11.2%

If you would like to accumulate $7,500 over the next 5 years, how much must you
deposit each six months, starting six months from now, given a 6 percent interest rate and
semiannual compounding?
a. $1,330.47

13.

e. $5,732.00

You have applied for a mortgage of $60,000 to finance the purchase of a new home. The
bank will require you to make annual payments of $7,047.55 at the end of each of the
next 20 years. Determine the interest rate in effect on this mortgage.
a. 8.0%

12.

d. $5,975.33

How much would you be willing to pay today for an investment that would return $800
each year at the end of each of the next 6 years? Assume a discount rate of 5 percent.
a. $5,441.53

11.

c. $1,338.23

Calculate the present value of $1,000 to be received at the end of 8 years. Assume an
interest rate of 7 percent.
a. $582.00

10.

b. $5,637.10

b. $879.23

c. $654.22

d. $569.00

e. $732.67

A company is offering bonds which pay $100 per year indefinitely. If you require a 12
percent return on these bonds (that is, the discount rate is 12 percent) what is the value of
each bond?
a. $1,000.00

b. $962.00

c. $904.67

d. $866.67

e. $833.33

14.

What is the present value (t = 0) of the following cash flows if the discount rate is 12
percent?
0

12%

|
0
a. $4,782.43
15.

|
2,000

|
2,000

|
2,000

|
3,000

|
-4,000

b. $4,440.50

c. $4,221.79

d. $4,041.23

e. $3,997.98

b. 12.55%

c. 12.68%

d. 12.75%

e. 13.00%

b. 19.56%

c. 17.11%

d. 18.41%

e. 16.88%

Self-Test Problem 11 refers to a 20-year mortgage of $60,000. This is an amortized loan.

How much principal will be repaid in the second year?
a. $1,152.30

18.

Martha Mills, manager of Plaza Gold Emporium, wants to sell on credit, giving
customers 4 months in which to pay. However, Martha will have to borrow from her
bank to carry the accounts payable. The bank will charge a nominal 18 percent, but with
monthly compounding. Martha wants to quote a nominal rate to her customers (all of
whom are expected to pay on time at the end of 4 months) which will exactly cover her
financing costs. What nominal annual rate should she quote to her credit customers?
(Note: Interest factor tables cannot be used to solve this problem.)
a. 15.44%

17.

What is the effective annual percentage rate (EAR) of 12 percent compounded monthly?
a. 12.00%

16.

b. $1,725.70

c. $5,895.25

d. $7,047.55

e. $1,047.55

You have $1,000 invested in an account which pays 16 percent compounded annually. A
commission agent (called a finder) can locate for you an equally safe deposit which
will pay 16 percent, compounded quarterly, for 2 years. What is the maximum amount
you should be willing to pay him now as a fee for locating the new account?
a. $10.92

b. $13.78

c. $16.14

d. $16.81

e. $21.13

19.

The present value (t = 0) of the following cash flow stream is $11,958.20 when
discounted at 12 percent annually. What is the value of the missing t = 2 cash flow?
0

12%

|
PV = 11,958.20
a. $4,000.00
20.

|
4,000

c. $5,000.00

4
|
4,000
d. $5,500.00

e. $6,000.00

b. 14

c. 15

d. 16

e. 17

b. $526.17

c. $3,978.95

d. $2,000.00

e. $750.02

Assume that you inherited some money. A friend of yours is working as an unpaid intern
at a local brokerage firm, and her boss is selling some securities which call for five
payments, $75 at the end of each of the next 4 years, plus a payment of $1,075 at the end
of Year 5. Your friend says she can get you some of these securities at a cost of $960
each. Your money is now invested in a bank that pays an 8 percent nominal (quoted)
interest rate, but with quarterly compounding. You regard the securities as being just as
safe, and as liquid, as your bank deposit, so your required effective annual rate of return
on the securities is the same as that on your bank deposit. You must calculate the value of
the securities to decide whether they are a good investment. What is their present value
to you?
a. $957.75

23.

b. $4,500.00

|
?

Assume that your aunt sold her house on December 31 and that she took a mortgage in
the amount of $50,000 as part of the payment. The mortgage has a stated (or nominal)
interest rate of 8 percent, but it calls for payments every 6 months, beginning on June 30,
and the mortgage is to be amortized over 20 years. Now, one year later, your aunt must
file Schedule B of her tax return with the IRS informing them of the interest that was
included in the two payments made during the year. (This interest will be income to your
aunt and a deduction to the buyer of the house.) What is the total amount of interest that
was paid during the first year?
a. $1,978.95

22.

|
2,000

Today is your birthday, and you decide to start saving for your college education. You
will begin college on your 18th birthday and will need $4,000 per year at the end of each
of the following 4 years. You will make a deposit 1 year from today in an account paying
12 percent annually and continue to make an identical deposit each year up to and
including the year you begin college. If a deposit amount of $2,542.05 will allow you to
reach your goal, what birthday are you celebrating today?
a. 13

21.

b. $888.66

c. $923.44

d. $1,015.25

e. $970.51

Your company is planning to borrow $500,000 on a 5-year, 7 percent, annual payment,

fully amortized term loan. What fraction of the payment made at the end of the second
year will represent repayment of principal?

a. 76.29%
24.

b. 14.16%

e. 60.27%

c. 13.55%

d. 13.12%

e. 12.88%

d. $19,559.42
e. $20,378.82

You plan to buy a new HDTV. The dealer offers to sell the set to you on credit. You will
have 3 months in which to pay, but the dealer says you will be charged a 15 percent
interest rate; that is, the nominal rate is 15 percent, quarterly compounding. As an
alternative to buying on credit, you can borrow the funds from your bank, but the bank
will make you pay interest each month. At what nominal bank interest rate should you be
indifferent between the two types of credit?
a. 13.7643%

27.

d. 49.72%

Assume that you have $15,000 in a bank account that pays 5 percent annual interest. You
plan to go back to school for a combination MBA/law degree 5 years from today. It will
take you an additional 5 years to complete your graduate studies. You figure you will
need a fixed income of $25,000 in today's dollars; that is, you will need $25,000 of
today's dollars during your first year and each subsequent year. (Thus, your real income
will decline while you are in school.) You will withdraw funds for your annual expenses
at the beginning of each year. Inflation is expected to occur at the rate of 3 percent per
year. How much must you save during each of the next 5 years in order to achieve your
goal? The first increment of savings will be deposited one year from today.
a. $20,241.66
b. $19,224.55
c. $18,792.11

26.

c. 50.28%

Your firm can borrow from its bank for one month. The loan will have to be rolled
over at the end of the month, but you are sure the rollover will be allowed. The nominal
interest rate is 14 percent, but interest will have to be paid at the end of each month, so
the bank interest rate is 14 percent, monthly compounding. Alternatively, your firm can
borrow from an insurance company at a nominal rate which would involve quarterly
compounding. What nominal quarterly rate would be equivalent to the rate charged by
the bank? (Note: Interest factor tables cannot be used to solve this problem.)
a. 12.44%

25.

b. 42.82%

b. 14.2107%

c. 14.8163%

d. 15.5397%

e. 15.3984%

Assume that your father is now 40 years old, that he plans to retire in 20 years, and that
he expects to live for 25 years after he retires, that is, until he is 85. He wants a fixed
retirement income that has the same purchasing power at the time he retires as $75,000
has today (he realizes that the real value of his retirement income will decline year-byyear after he retires). His retirement income will begin the day he retires, 20 years from

today, and he will then get 24 additional annual payments. Inflation is expected to be 4
percent per year from today forward; he currently has $200,000 saved up; and he expects
to earn a return on his savings of 7 percent per year, annual compounding. To the nearest
dollar, how much must he save during each of the next 20 years (with deposits being
made at the end of each year) to meet his retirement goal?
a. $31,105.90
b. $35,709.25
c. $54,332.88

d. $41,987.33
e. $62,191.25

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

present value
interest
future value interest factor
discounting; compounding
reciprocal
interest rate
annuity; ordinary; due

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

sum
nominal; effective
nominal rate; compounding periods
Time lines
perpetuity
Amortized
loan amortization schedule

15.

b. The EAR is always greater than or equal to the nominal rate.

16.

a. Both these statements are correct.

17.

d. The slower the cash flows come in and the higher the interest rate, the lower the
present value.

18.

c. As the discount rate increases, the present value of a future sum decreases and
eventually approaches zero.

19.

d. As a future sum is discounted over more and more periods, the present value will get
smaller and smaller. Likewise, as the discount rate increases, the present value of a
future sum decreases and eventually approaches zero.

20.

d. Statement a is false because the periodic interest rate is equal to the nominal rate
divided by the number of compounding periods, so it will be equal to or smaller than
the nominal rate. Statement b is false because the EAR will equal the nominal rate if
there is one compounding period per year (annual compounding). Statement c is false
because we can determine present or future values under the stated conditions.
Statement d is correct; using a financial calculator, enter N = 2, I = 2, PMT = 0, and
FV = 1000 to find PV = -961.1688.

SOLUTIONS TO SELF-TEST PROBLEMS

1.

d.

0 8% 1
|
|
-1,000

2
|

3
|

4
|

5
|

6
|
FV6 = ?

FVn = PV(FVIFi,n) = $1,000(1+0.08)6 = $1,000(1.5869) = $1,586.90.

With a financial calculator, input N = 6, I = 8, PV = -1000, PMT = 0, and solve for
FV = $1,586.87.

2.

a.

0
0 4% 1
|
|
-1,000

1
2
|

3
|

2
4
|

5
|

3
6
|

7
|

4
8
|

9
|

5
10
|

11
|

6 Years
12 Periods
|
FV = ?

FVIFi,n = (1+0.04)12 = 1.6010. Thus, FVn = $1,000(1.6010) = $1,601.00.

difference, $1,601.00 - $1,586.90 = $14.10, is the additional interest.

The

With a financial calculator, input N = 12, I = 4, PV = -1000, and PMT = 0, and then
solve for FV = $1,601.03. The difference, $1,601.03 - $1,586.87 = $14.16.
3.

c.

0 i=?
|
-500

1
|

2
|
600

$600 = $500(1+i)2
$600/$500 = (1+i)2
(1+i)2 = 1.200
(1+i) = (1.200)1/2 =1.0954
i = 0.0954 = 9.54%.
With a financial calculator, input N = 2, PV = -500, PMT = 0, FV = 600, and solve for

I = 9.54%.

4.

c.

0 4%
|
1.00

N=?
|
0.50

With a financial calculator, input I = 4, PV = -1.00, PMT = 0, and FV = 0.50. Solve

for N = 17.67 18 years.

5.

c.

0 i=? 1
|
|
-1

2
|

3
|

4
|

5
|
2

Assume any value for the present value and double it:
FV5= PV(FVIFi,5)
$2/$1 = (1+i)5
(1+i)5 = 2
(1+i) = (2)1/5 =1.1487
i = 0.1487 = 14.87%.
With a financial calculator, input N = 5, PV = -1, PMT = 0, FV = 2, and solve for

I = 14.87%.

6.

b. 0 6%
|

1
|
-1,000

2
|
-1,000

3
|
-1,000

4
5
|
|
-1,000
-1,000
FVA5 = ?

FVA5 = PMT(FVIFA6%,5) = $1,000([(1+i)n-1]/i) = $1,000(5.6371)=$5,637.10.

FVA5 = $1,000([(1+0.06)5-1]/0.06) = $5,637.10.
With a financial calculator, input N = 5, I = 6, PV = 0, PMT = -1000, and solve for
FV = $5,637.09.

7.

d.

0 6%
|
-1,000

1
|
-1,000

2
|
-1,000

3
|
-1,000

4
5
|
|
-1,000 FVA5 = ?

FVA5(Annuity due) = PMT(FVIFA6%,5)(1 + i) = $1,000(5.6371)(1.06) = $5,975.33.

See above for calculation of FVIFA6%,5.
FVA5(Annuity due) = $1,000(5.6371)(1.06) = $5,975.33.
With a financial calculator, switch to BEG mode, then input N = 5, I = 6, PV = 0,
PMT = -1000 , and solve for FV = $5,975.32. Be sure to switch back to END
mode.
8.

e. 0
0 3% 1
|
|

1
2
|

3
|

2
4
|

5
|

3
6
|

7
|

4
8
|

9
|

5 Years
10 Periods
|

-500 -500

-500

-500

-500

-500

-500

-500

-500

-500

FVA10 = ?
FVA10 = PMT(FVIFA3%,10) = $500([(1+i)n-1]/i).
FVA10 = $500([(1+0.03)10-1]/0.03) =$500(11.464) = $5,732.00.
With a financial calculator, input N = 10, I = 3, PV = 0, PMT = -500, and solve for
FV = $5,731.94.

9.

a.

0 7% 1
|
|
PV = ?

2
|

3
|

4
|

5
|

6
|

7
|

8
|
1,000

PV = FV8(PVIF7%,8) = $1,000(1/(1+0.07)8) = $1,000(0.5820) = $582.00.

With a financial calculator, input N = 8, I = 7, PMT = 0, FV = 1000, and solve for
PV = - $582.01.
(Note: Annual compounding is assumed if not otherwise specified.)

10.

d.

0 5% 1
|
|
PVA = ?
800

2
|
800

3
|
800

4
|
800

5
|
800

6
|
800

PVA6 = PMT(PVIFA5%,6) = PMT [(1-[1/(1+i)n])/i] = $800 [(1-[1/(1+0.05)6])/0.05]

PVA6 = $800(5.0757) = $4,060.56.
With a financial calculator, input N = 6, I = 5, PMT = 800, FV = 0, and solve for
PV = - $4,060.55 .
11.

c.

0 i=? 1
2
3
|
|
|
|
60,000 -7,047.55 -7,047.55 -7,047.55

20
|
-7,047.55

The amount of the mortgage ($60,000) is the present value of a 20-year ordinary
annuity with payments of $7,047.55. Therefore,
With a financial calculator, input N = 20, PV = 60000, PMT = -7047.55, FV = 0, and
solve for I = 10.00%.

12.

c. 0
1
2
3
4
0 3% 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-PMT
-PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT -PMT

5 Years
10 Periods
|
7,500

FVA10 = PMT(FVIFA3%,10)
FVIFA3%,10 = [(1+i)n-1]/i =[(1+0.03)10-1]/0.03 = 11.464.
$7,500 = PMT(11.464)
PMT = $654.22.
With a financial calculator, input N = 10, I = 3, PV = 0, FV = 7500, and solve for
PMT = -$654.23.
13.

e. PV = PMT/i = $100/0.12 = $833.33.

14.

b. PV = $2,000/1.12 + $2,000/1.122 + $2,000/1.123 + $3,000/1.124 -$4,000/1.125

= $4,440.50.
With a financial calculator, using the cash flow register, CF j, input 0; 2000; 2000;
2000; 3000; and -4000. Enter I = 12 and solve for NPV = $4,440.51.

15.

c. EAR = (1 + iNom/m)m ) 1.0

= (1 + 0.12/12)12 ) 1.0
= (1.01)12 ) 1.0
= 1.1268 ) 1.0
= 0.1268 = 12.68%.
With a financial calculator, enter P/YR = 12 and NOM% = 12, and then solve for

EFF% = 12.68%.

16.

d. Here we want to have the same effective annual rate on the credit extended as on the
bank loan that will be used to finance the credit extension.
First, we must find the EAR = EFF% on the bank loan. With a financial calculator,
enter P/YR = 12, NOM% = 18, and press EFF% to get EAR = 19.56%.
Because 4 months of credit is being given there are 3 credit periods in a year, so enter
P/YR = 3, EFF% = EAR = 19.56, and press NOM% to find the nominal rate of
18.41%. Therefore, if Martha charges an 18.41% nominal rate and gives credit for 4
months, she will cover the cost of her bank loan.
Alternative solution: First, we need to find the effective annual rate charged by the
bank:

EAR = (1 + iNom/m)m ) 1
= (1 + 0.18/12)12 ) 1
= (1.0150)12 ) 1 = 19.56%.
Now, we can find the nominal rate Martha must quote her customers so that her
financing costs are exactly covered:
19.56% = (1 + iNom/3)3 ) 1
1.1956 = (1 + iNom/3)3
1.0614 = 1 + iNom/3
0.0614 = iNom/3
iNom = 18.41%.
17.

a.
Year
1
2

18.

Payment
$7,047.55
7,047.55

Interest
$6,000.00
5,895.25

Repayment on
Principal
$1,047.55
1,152.30

Remaining
Principal Balance
$58,952.45
57,800.15

d. Currently: FVn = $1,000(1+0.16)2 = $1,000(1.3456) = $1,345.60.

With a financial calculator, input N = 2, I = 16, PV = -1000, PMT = 0, and solve for
FV = $1,345.60.
New account: FVn = $1,000(1 + iNom/m)mn = $1,000(1.3686) = $1,368.60.
With a financial calculator, input N = 8, I = 4, PV = -1000, PMT = 0, and solve for
FV = $1,368.57.
Thus, the new account will be worth $1,368.60 ) $1,345.60 = $23.00 more after 2
years. With a financial calculator, the new account will be worth $22.97 more after 2
years.
PV of difference = $23(PVIF4%,8) = $23 (1/(1+0.04)8) = $23(0.7307) = $16.81.
With a financial calculator, input N = 8, I = 4, PMT = 0, FV = 22.97, and solve for
PV $16.78.
Therefore, the most you should be willing to pay the finder for locating the new
account is $16.81.

19.

e.

$11,958.20 = $2,000(PVIF12%,1) + CF2(PVIF12%,2)

+ $4,000(PVIF12%,3) + $4,000(PVIF12%,4)
$11,958.20 = $2,000(1/1.12) + CF2(1/1.122) + $4,000(1/1.123) + $4,000(1/1.124)

$11,958.20 = $2,000(0.8929) + CF2(0.7972) + $4,000(0.7118) + $4,000(0.6355)

$11,958.20 = $7,175.00 + (0.7972)CF2
(0.7972)CF2 = $4,783.20
CF2 = $6,000.00.

20.

With a financial calculator, input cash flows into the cash flow register, using
- 11,958.20 as the cash flow for time 0 (CF0), and using 0 as the value for the
unknown cash flow, input I = 12, and then press the NPV key to solve for the present
value of the unknown cash flow, $4,783.29. This value should be compounded by
(1.12)2, so that $4,783.29(1.2544) = $6,000.16.
b. First, how much must you accumulate on your 18th birthday?
PVAn =$4,000(PVIFA12%,4)=$4,000[(1-[1/(1+i)n])/i]=$4,000[(1-[1/(1+0.12)4])/0.12]
PVAn = $4,000(3.0373) = $12,149.20.
Present birthday = ?
? 12%
18 12% 19
|
|
|
|
|
2,542.05 2,542.05 2,542.05 4,000

20
|
4,000

21
|
4,000

22
|
4,000

Todays
Birthday

3,571.43
3,188.78
2,847.12
2,542.07
Total FV needed = $12,149.40

Using a financial calculator (with the calculator set for an ordinary annuity), enter
N = 4, I = 12, PMT = 4000, FV = 0, and solve for PV = -$12,149.40. This is the
amount (or lump sum) that must be present in your bank account on your 18th
birthday in order for you to be able to withdraw $4,000 at the end of each year for the
next 4 years.
Now, how many payments of $2,542.05 must you make to accumulate $12,149.20?
Using a financial calculator, enter I = 12, PV = 0, PMT = -2542.05, FV = 12149.40,
and solve for N = 4. Therefore, if you make payments at 18, 17, 16, and 15, you are
now 14.

21.

c. This can be done with a calculator by specifying an interest rate of 4 percent per
period for 40 periods.
N = 20 x 2 = 40.
I = 8/2 = 4.
PV = -50000.
FV = 0.
PMT = $2,526.17.
Set up an amortization table:
Beginning
Balance
$50,000.00
49,473.83

Period
1
2

Payment
$2,526.17
2,526.17

Payment of
Principal
$526.17

Interest
$2,000.00
1,978.95
$3,978.95

Ending
Balance
$49,473.83

You can really just work the problem with a financial calculator using the
amortization function. Find the interest in each 6-month period, sum them, and you
have the answer. Even simpler, with some calculators such as the HP-17B, just input
2 for periods and press INT to get the interest during the first year, $3,978.95.
22.

e.

0 2%

12

16

20

PV = ? 0

0 75 0

0 75 0

0 75 0

0 75 0

0 1,075

Input the cash flows in the cash flow register, input I = 2, and solve for NPV =
$970.51.
Alternatively, find the equivalent annual interest rate: I=(1+.02)4=0.08243=8.243%.
Now use your financial calculator: N = 5, I = 8.243, PMT = 75, FV = 1000, and solve
for PV =
23.

a. Input N = 5, I = 7, PV = -500000, and FV = 0 to solve for PMT = $121,945.35.

Year
1
2

Beginning
Balance
$500,000.00
413,054.65

Payment
$121,945.35
121,945.35

Payment of
Interest
Principal
$35,000.00 $86,945.35
28,913.83 93,031.52

The fraction that is principal is $93,031.52/$121,945.35 = 76.29%.

Ending
Balance
$413,054.65
320,023.13

24.

b. Start with a time line to picture the situation:

Bank: 14% nominal; EAR = 14.93%.
0
|

1
|

2
|

3
|

4
|

5
|

6
|

7
|

8
|

9
|

10
|

11
|

12
|

Insurance company: EAR = 14.93%; Nominal = 14.16%.

0
|

1
|

2
|

3
|

4
|

Here we must find the EAR on the bank loan and then find the quarterly nominal rate
for that EAR. The bank loan amounts to a nominal 14 percent, monthly
compounding.
Using the interest conversion feature of the calculator, or the EAR formula, we must
find the EAR on the bank loan. Enter P/YR = 12 and NOM% = 14, and then press
the EFF% key to find EAR bank loan = 14.93%.
Now, we can find the nominal rate with quarterly compounding that also has an EAR
of 14.93 percent. Enter P/YR = 4 and EFF% = 14.93, and then press the NOM% key
to get 14.16%. If the insurance company quotes a nominal rate of 14.16%, with
quarterly compounding, then the bank and insurance company loans would be
equivalent in the sense that they both have the same effective annual rate, 14.93%.
Alternative solution:
EAR = (1 + iNom/12)12 ) 1
= (1 + 0.14/12)12 ) 1
= 14.93%.
14.93% = (1 + iNom/4)4 ) 1
1.1493 = (1 + iNom/4)4
1.0354 = 1 + iNom/4
0.0354 = iNom/4
iNom = 14.16%.

25.

e. Inflation = 3%.
0

5%

|
PV = 15,000

PMT

PMT

PMT

PMT

10

PMT
School
-28,982 -28,982 -28,982 -28,982 -28,982

Grad.

Fixed income = $25,000(1.03)5 = $28,981.85.

1. Find the FV of $25,000 compounded for 5 years at 3 percent; that FV, $28,981.85,
is the amount you will need each year while you are in school. (Note: Your real
income will decline.)
2. You must have enough in 5 years to make the $28,981.85 payments to yourself.
These payments will begin as soon as you start school, so we are dealing with a
5-year, 5 percent interest rate annuity due. Set the calculator to BEG mode,
because we are dealing with an annuity due, and then enter N = 5, I = 5,
PMT = -28981.85, and FV = 0. Then press the PV key to find the PV,
$131,750.06. This is the amount you must have in your account 5 years from
today. (Do not forget to switch the calculator back to END mode.)
3. You now have $15,000. It will grow at 5 percent to $19,144.22 after 5 years.
Enter N = 5, I = 5, PV = -15000, and PMT = 0, to solve for FV = $19,144.22. You
can subtract this amount to determine the FV of the amount you must save:
$131,750.06 ) $19,144.22 = $112,605.84.
4. Therefore, you must accumulate an additional $112,605.84 by saving PMT per
year for 5 years, with the first PMT being deposited at the end of this year and
earning a 5 percent interest rate. Now we have an ordinary annuity, so be sure
you returned your calculator to END mode. Enter N = 5, I = 5, PV = 0, FV =
112605.84, and then press PMT to find the required payments, -$20,378.82.

26.

c. Find the EAR on the TV dealer's credit. Use the interest conversion feature of your
calculator. First, though, note that if you are charged a 15 percent nominal rate, you
will have to pay interest of 15%/4 = 3.75% after 3 months. The dealer then has the
use of the interest, so he can earn 3.75 percent on it for the next three months, and so
forth. Thus, we are dealing with quarterly compounding. The nominal rate is 15
percent, quarterly compounding.
Enter NOM% = 15, P/YR = 4, and then press EFF% to get EAR = 15.8650%. You
should be indifferent between the dealer credit and the bank loan if the bank loan has
an EAR of 15.8650 percent. The bank is using monthly compounding, or 12 periods
per year. To find the nominal rate at which you should be indifferent, enter P/YR =
12, EFF% = 15.8650, and then press NOM% to get NOM% = 14.8163%.
Conclusion: A loan that has a 14.8163 percent nominal rate with monthly
compounding is equivalent to a 15 percent nominal rate loan with quarterly
compounding. Both have an EAR of 15.8650 percent.
Alternative Solution
EAR = (1 + iNom/4)4 ) 1
= (1 + 0.15/4)4 ) 1
= (1.0375)4 ) 1
= 15.8650%.
15.8650%
1.15865
1.012347
iNom

= (1 + iNom/12)12 ) 1
= (1 + iNom/12)12
= 1 + iNom/12
= 14.8163%.

27.

a. Information given:
1. Will save for 20 years, then receive payments for 25 years.
2. Wants payments of $75,000 per year in today's dollars for first payment only.
Real income will decline. Inflation will be 4 percent. Therefore, to find the
inflated fixed payments, we have this time line:
0 4%
|
|
75,000

5
|

10
|

15
|

20
|
FV = ?

Enter N = 20, I = 4, PV = -75000, PMT = 0, and press FV to get FV =

$164,334.24.
3. He now has $200,000 in an account which pays 7 percent, annual compounding.
We need to find the FV of $200,000 after 20 years. Enter N = 20, I = 7,
PV = -200000, PMT = 0, and press FV to get FV = $773,936.89.
4. He wants to withdraw, or have payments of, $164,334.24 per year for 25 years,
with the first payment made at the beginning of the first retirement year. So, we
have a 25-year annuity due with PMT = $164,334.24, at an interest rate of 7
percent. (The interest rate is 7 percent annually, so no adjustment is required.)
Set the calculator to BEG mode, then enter N = 25, I = 7, PMT = -164334.24,
FV = 0, and press PV to get PV = $2,049,138.53. This amount must be on hand
to make the 25 payments.
5. Since the original $200,000, which grows to $773,936.89, will be available, he
must save enough to accumulate $2,049,138.53 $773,936.89 = $1,275,201.64.
6. The $1,275,201.64 is the FV of a 20-year ordinary annuity. The payments will be
deposited in the bank and earn 7 percent interest. Therefore, set the calculator to
END mode and enter N = 20, I = 7, PV = 0, FV = 1275201.64, and press PMT
to find PMT = $31,105.90.