Topic 5.

5: Organic analysis

Tests for functional groups

C)
Alkenes (C
i) Reaction with bromine water (electrophilic addition)
3
3
Shake 1 cm of the compound with 1 cm of bromine water (or bubble it through if a gas) in the dark. If the orange
bromine is decolourised, this confirms an alkene
CH2 + Br2
BrCH2CH2Br
e.g.
H2C
ii) Reaction with acidified potassium manganate(VII) (oxidative addition)
3
3
Shake 1 cm of the compound with 1 cm of potassium manganate(VII) solution acidified with a little dilute sulphuric acid
(or bubble it through if a gas). If the purple manganate(VII) is decolourised, this confirms an alkene
+

CH2 + [O] + H2O

H2C

e.g.

KMnO 4 , H / OH

HOH2CCH2OH

Halogenoalkanes (R-X)
Reaction with aqueous sodium hydroxide (nucleophilic substitution)
3
3
Add 1 cm of the compound to 1 cm of aqueous sodium hydroxide in a test tube and heat to 50C in a water bath; neutralise
3
excess hydroxide with dilute nitric acid; add 1 cm of aqueous silver nitrate
White ppt of AgCl R-Cl; cream ppt of AgBr R-Br; yellow ppt of AgI R-I
-

e.g.

R-X + OH

aqueous KOH
warm

ROH + X

Alcohols (R-OH)
Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride
3
Add a spatula measure of PCl5 solid to 1 cm of the liquid to be tested. An exothermic reaction which evolves steamy fumes
(HCl) which turn damp litmus red and form a white smoke with ammonia gas confirms the presence of an OH group in the
molecule. As this also gives a positive result with water (H-OH) and carboxylic acids (RCOOH), you must also be sure that
the unknown is dry and neutral before you can confirm it is an alcohol
ROH + PCl5

e.g.

RCl + POCl3 + HCl

Once you have confirmed an alcohol is present, you may need to identify it as primary, secondary or tertiary
a) Primary alcohols (RCH2OH)
Oxidise with potassium dichromate acidified with a little dilute sulphuric acid, distilling off the product. If the product
shows a positive test for an aldehyde (see below) the unknown must be a primary alcohol
RCH2OH + [O]

e.g.

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , H

distil off product

R C

+ H2O

b) Secondary alcohols (R2CHOH)

Oxidise with potassium dichromate acidified with a little dilute sulphuric acid, distilling off the product. If the product
shows a positive test for a carbonyl group but a negative test for an aldehyde (see below) the product must be a ketone
and the unknown must be a secondary alcohol
R2CHOH + [O]

e.g.

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , H

distil off product

R C

+ H2O

c) Tertiary alcohols (R3COH)

Attempt to oxidise by warming with potassium dichromate acidified with a little dilute sulphuric acid. If the potassium
dichromate remains orange, no oxidation has taken place and the unknown must be a tertiary alcohol
R3COH + [O]

e.g.

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , H

no reaction

d) Compounds containing CH(CH3)OH the iodoform (triiodomethane) reaction

3
3
To 2 cm of aqueous sodium hydroxide add 1 cm of the unknown followed by a few drops of iodine solution, stopper
and shake well. The production of a pale yellow crystalline precipitate (of triiodomethane) confirms the presence of either
the -CH(CH3)OH group (present in secondary methyl alcohols or ethanol) or a methyl ketone (see below) which must be
distinguished by additional tests.
e.g.

RCH(CH3)OH + 6 OH + 4 I2

CHI3 + RCOO + 5 I + 5 H2O

O)
Carbonyl compounds (R2C
Reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (condensation)
3
Add a few drops of the unknown to 1cm of a solution of 2,4-DNP in methanol. A dense yellow or orange precipitate
confirms the presence of a carbonyl group

O 2N
R
e.g.

R1

H
C O + H

N N
H

NO2

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , H

O 2N
N N

R2

NO2

+ H2O

Once a carbonyl group has been identified, it may be confirmed as either an aldehyde or ketone by one of the following
procedures:

a) Aldehydes (RCHO)
Aldehydes are reducing agents; they may be oxidised to carboxylic acids (in acidic solution) or their salts (in alkaline
solution). Positive tests for aldehydes (i.e. to distinguish them from ketones) depend on this fact.
i) Acidified potassium dichromate
3
3
3
Add 1 cm of dilute sulphuric acid to 1 cm of potassium dichromate solution. Add 1 cm of the unknown and heat to
50 C in a water bath. If the colour changes from orange to green, the dichromate(VI) has been reduced to
chromium(III) and an aldehyde is confirmed.
e.g.

3 RCHO + Cr2O7

2-

heat

+ 8H

3 RCOOH + 2 Cr

3+

+ 4 H2O

ii) Tollens reagent (silver mirror test)

3
Add a few drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide to 1 cm of silver nitrate solution to produce a precipitate of silver
3
oxide. Add just enough aqueous ammonia to redissolve this precipitate and form a colourless solution. Add 1 cm of
the unknown and heat in a water bath at 50 C for a few minutes. If a silver mirror is formed on the inside of the test
tube, this confirms the presence of an aldehyde.
e.g.

heat

RCHO + 2 Ag(NH3)2 + 3 OH

RCOO + Ag + 4 NH3 + 2 H2O

iii) Fehlings (or Benedicts) solution

Both Fehlings and Benedicts solutions contain complexed copper(II) ions in an alkaline solution.
3
3
To 1 cm of freshly prepared Fehlings (or Benedicts) solution add 1 cm of the unknown and heat in a water bath at
50 C for a few minutes. If a red precipitate of copper(I) oxide is formed, this confirms the presence of an aldehyde.
e.g.

2+

RCHO + 2 Cu(L-L)2

heat

+ 5 OH

RCOO + Cu2O + L-L + 3 H2O

b) Ketones (R2CO)
Ketones are not reducing agents; they may not be oxidised to carboxylic acids. If a carbonyl compound gives negative
results with any of the tests above it confirms the presence of a ketone.
i) Methyl ketones (RCOCH3) the iodoform (triiodomethane) reaction
Methyl ketones undergo the iodoform reaction (for experimental details see methyl secondary alcohols). The
production of a pale yellow crystalline precipitate confirms the presence of a methyl secondary alcohol or a methyl
ketone (which must be distinguished by additional tests).
e.g.

CHI3 + RCOO + 3 I + 3 H2O

RCOCH3 + 4 OH + 3 I2

Carboxylic acids (RCOOH)

There is no single test for a carboxylic acid, but they may be confirmed by a combination of tests
i) Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride
Carboxylic acids contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group. They therefore react with PCl5 in the same manner as described for
alcohols above
ii) Reaction with water
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, i.e. they are only partially ionised in aqueous solution. Most are reasonably soluble,
giving a solution with a pH in the range 3-5. Some long-chain carboxylic acids may be only sparingly soluble, giving a
solution with a pH only marginally below 7.
e.g.

RCOO + H3O

RCOOH + H2O

iii) Reaction with sodium carbonate (or hydrogencarbonate)

Carboxylic acids are weak acids, but generally acidic enough to react with both sodium carbonate and sodium
3
3
hydrogencarbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas. So, add 1cm of the unknown to 1 cm of sodium carbonate solution
(or a spatula measure of the solid). If effervescence occurs, collect a sample of the gas in a disposable pipette and
3
bubble through 1 cm of lime water. If the lime water turns cloudy this confirms CO2 has been evolved and the unknown
is an acid. This distinguishes carboxylic acids from weaker acids, such as phenol, which do not react with sodium
carbonate.
e.g.

2 RCOOH + Na2CO3

2 RCOO Na + CO2 + H2O

iv) Reaction with an alcohol (esterification)

3
3
To 1 cm of ethanol in a test tube add 1 cm of the unknown followed by a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
3
(catalyst). Heat to 50 C in a water bath for five minutes. Pour the product into a beaker containing 20 cm of sodium
carbonate solution (to neutralise any excess acid). If the product smells of glue or pear drops an ester has been formed
and the unknown is confirmed as a carboxylic acid.

O
e.g.

O
R

OH

HO

R'

+ H2O

R'