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Tugasan Graf Fungsi

This document summarizes a research paper investigating the transition from lower secondary to upper secondary school in Norway, specifically regarding the teaching and learning of functions. The researcher aims to understand how students' conceptions of functions develop between 10th and 11th grade, and how the topic is taught differently at lower vs. upper secondary school. The study uses a sociocultural theoretical framework and will analyze both the "teaching aspect" through observations and interviews, and the "learning aspect" by examining students' concept formation and understanding through conversations and work. Functions were chosen as the mathematical focus since they are relevant to both school levels.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
57 views16 pages

Tugasan Graf Fungsi

This document summarizes a research paper investigating the transition from lower secondary to upper secondary school in Norway, specifically regarding the teaching and learning of functions. The researcher aims to understand how students' conceptions of functions develop between 10th and 11th grade, and how the topic is taught differently at lower vs. upper secondary school. The study uses a sociocultural theoretical framework and will analyze both the "teaching aspect" through observations and interviews, and the "learning aspect" by examining students' concept formation and understanding through conversations and work. Functions were chosen as the mathematical focus since they are relevant to both school levels.

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http://www.math.unipa.it/~grim/YESS-5/PaperNilsen.

pdf

LEARNING AND TEACHING FUNCTIONS AND THE TRANSITION FROM


LOWER SECONDARY TO UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL
Hans Kristian Nilsen
Sr-Trndelag University College, Norway
(PhD student)
INTRODUCTION
In Norway, the transition between different phases of schooling, particularly in
relation to the
learning and teaching of mathematics, is an area where little research has been
done. The major part
of the international research in this field concerns the transition from upper
secondary school to
university/university college (often denoted as the secondary-tertiary transition)
(Gueudet, 2008;
Guzmn et al., 1998). My own experiences as a student and a teacher, at both lower
and upper
secondary school levels have led me to believe that the traditions and beliefs in
these institutions
differ in ways which in turn might affect students learning.
Kindergarden
(1-5 years)
University/univ
ersity college
(20- )
Upper
secondary
vocational or

general study
program
(17-19)
Lower
Secondary
school
(14-16)
Primary
school
(6-13)
Figure 1: Transitions in the Norwegian school system.
As a PhD student (in my third year), I have chosen this transition as the focus of my
research. It is
important to note that in Norway, upper secondary schooling is divided in two main
programmes:
the vocational programmes, which are orientated towards practical professions and
the general
study program, which aims to prepare students for higher education. The curriculum
is different in
these programmes and is considered to be more theoretical at the general study
program. This is
also the case for mathematics as a subject. Both of these programmes are included
in this research.
Further, I have chosen to focus on functions as this is an area highly relevant to
both levels of
schooling, and personally I find the development of students conceptual
understanding of functions
to be an interesting research area. It is also possible to expand this area of research,
for example by

taking the universities/university colleges into consideration, as the learning and


teaching of
functions is an important issue in several of these study programmes.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
How do the students conceptions of functions develop from the 10th grade at lower
secondary
school to the 11th grade at upper secondary school?
How do the students argue for their conception of functions at lower secondary
and
upper secondary school?
How do the students argue for their conception of the slope of a function at lower
secondary and upper secondary school?
How do the students at upper secondary, general study programme, relate the
slope
of a function to the concept of differentiation?
2
How is the topic of functions mediated at lower secondary compared to upper
secondary school?
How is the concept of functions presented at lower secondary compared to upper
secondary school?
How is the slope of a function presented at lower secondary compared to upper
secondary school, and in which way is this related to the concept of differentiation
at
upper secondary, general study programme?
How do the teachers argue for the way that they are teaching functions?
How do the students experience these two areas of learning (lower secondary and
upper secondary) when it comes to the teaching and learning of mathematics, and
functions in particular?
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

I illustrate an overview of my theoretical framework by the use of the sketch below:

Figure 2: An overview of my theoretical basis


As indicated in the model above, I will use two perspectives for analyzing
respectively what I call
the teaching aspect and the learning aspect of the actual transition from lower
to upper
secondary school. In the teaching category, I will consider aspects which can be
regarded as
external to the individual student. Examples of this could be the teaching methods
used and how the
teachers approach the subject of functions. This information is mainly provided
through
observations and interviews. Another example could be the applied textbooks, and
the different
exercises given to the students. It will also be interesting to investigate upon
whether the (later
described) use- and/or exchange value is dominating in the mathematics teaching.
Studying these
issues, I find it useful to apply the institutional perspective as this provides me with
an appropriate
analytical tool for analyzing the actual teaching situations. I will also argue that the
institutional
perspective is coherent with the overarching socio-cultural perspective.
When it comes to students learning I will be working within the frames of sociocultural theory of
learning. The core of this will be the students engagement in mathematical
activities (provided by
Socio-cultural perspective
Institutional perspective
Brousseau, G. (1997); Chevallard, Y.

(2005); Gueudet, G. (2008)


Historical development:
Boyer (1959); Klein (1897);
Kleiner (1989
Students conceptions:
Vygotsky (1987); Pierce (1998);
Presmeg (2005); Tall & Vinner
(1981); Sfard (1991)
Textbook and task
analysis
Fucntions as a
boundary object
Star & Griesemer
(1989)
Sociocultural teories of
learning Vygotsky (1978; 1981;
1987); Cole (1985); Lerman
(2000) ; Pozzi et al (1998)
TEACHING LEARNING
3
conversations, interviews and handwritten material). Important here is the students
concept
formation and their conceptual understanding of the function concept. It is also of
interest, as stated
in my research questions in the previous section, how these conceptual
understandings actually
develop. The socio-cultural perspective serves as a fundamental basis in this
research, overarching

both teaching and learning.


The socio-cultural perspective
Acknowledging the fact that learning is a complex issue, which takes place in a
certain social
context within a given culture, this perspective to a great extent matches with my
own assumptions
and beliefs. In addition, it is evident that the concept of mediation is an essential
part of this
research.

The following can serve as examples of psychological tools, and their complex
systems:
language; various systems for counting; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol
systems;
works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps, and mechanical drawings; all sorts
of
conventional signs; and so on (Vygotsky, 1981c, p. 137)
The quotation above contains some examples of what Vygotsky described as
meditational means.
Students hand-written materials, their work at computers, their answers and
arguing during
interviews and conversations, all related to the learning of mathematics (and in this
case, functions)
are all examples of such mediating means. Hence, in addition to the personal
convictions
mentioned above, this important role of mediation also brings in the pragmatic
dimension in the
construction of my theoretical platform
Concept formation
By basing my argumentation on the Vygotskian understanding of signs as mediating
tools, I will

approach concept formation from a perspective more in line with the sociocultural way of
thinking. Rooted in Pierce (1998), Presmeg (2005) describes signs through a triad,
consisting of a
representamen, an object and an interprentant. One can regard the representamen
as the sign itself,
for example the linear expression y = 2x 3. A classification of this expression
(sign) in terms of
being a function, an algebraic expression or a linear equation will relate to the
object.
Interpreting this sign, in terms of acting on it through different representations, for
example to
draw a straight line through a two-dimensional plane intersecting the y-axis at -3,
making a value
table or performing algebraic manipulations will all be acts of the interpretant.
Figure 3: A representation of a nested chaining of three signs. (Presmeg, 2005, p.
107)
4
This interpretant involves meaning making: it is the result of trying to make sense
of the
relationship of the other two components, the object and the representamen. It is
important
to note that the entire first sign with its three components constitutes the second
object, and
the entire second sign constitutes the third object, which thus include both the first
and the
second signs. Each object may thus be thought of as the reification of the processes
in the
previous sign
The role of students own interpretations in forming mathematical concepts is
prominent most of

Vygotskys work. Vygotsky separates between pseudoconcepts, concepts as we


might use them in
our everyday language and true concepts as they are defined and used for
example within science
and scientific research (Vygotsky, 1987). Working with students understanding of
the function
concept, it was apparent to me that some students maintained different
pseudoconcepts, some of
them pointing more in the direction of what function and functions mean in
everyday life, than what
it actually mean in a pure mathematical sense. In the possible transition from
pseudoconcepts to true
concepts, Vygotsky emphasises the importance of instruction:
Conscious instruction of the pupil in new concepts (i.e. new forms of the word) is
not only
possible but may actually be the source for a higher form of development of the
childs own
concepts, particularly those that have developed prior to conscious instruction!
(Vygotsky,
1987, p. 172)
Functions as a boundary object
I think it is an advantage that the focus of the mathematical content considered in
such a
comparative study as this, is regarded as relevant to both the parties involved. In
accordance to the
elaborations above, it is evident that functions are a major subject within school
mathematics (as
within mathematics as a whole). It is also evident (from the Norwegian curricula),
that functions are
prominent at both lower and upper secondary school.
Boundary objects are objects that are both plastic enough to adapt to local needs
and

constraints of several parties employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a


common
identity across sites (Star & Griesemer, 1989, p. 46)
The notion of boundary concept is used by Star & Griesemer (1989) as an analytical
concept
which both inhabit several intersecting worlds and satisfy the informational
requirements of each
of them (p. 393). It is my intention that conceiving of functions as a boundary
object will justify
the mathematical focus of this study as it (hopefully) creates a common ground
for teachers and
researchers interesting in developing mathematics teaching and the related
transition between lower
and upper secondary school.

The institutional perspective


I find the study of transitions, implying students shifting between two different
institutions to be
valuable not only for the sake of comparison, but also because it enables the
researcher to study the
issues of teaching and learning from different perspectives. An institutional
perspective opens up
for this, as it provides the researcher with the possibilities of analysing different
cultural aspects of
transition. As the cultural context are investigated and clearly defined to play a role
in students
learning, I find it evident that this perspective is in accordance with the underlying
assumptions of
the socio-cultural perspective.
Questioning this change of cultures can lead researchers to consider precise
mathematical

content, and develop detailed transposition studies. It can also lead researchers to
study more
general institutional expectations (Gueudet, 2008, p. 245)
5
This institutional perspective is rooted in Brousseaus (1997) Theory of didactical
situations and
Chevallards anthropological theory of didactics. A key notion in Brousseaus
theory is didactical
transposition.
Teachers isolate certain notions and properties, taking them away from the
network of
activities which provide their origin, meaning, motivation and use. They transpose
them into
a classroom context. (Brousseau, 1997, p. 21).
Use- and exchange value
Studying the transition between school and college in England, Hernandez-Martinez
(2009)
suggests that The Maths discourse at school is about exchange value, [as
opposite to use
value] which is influenced by the performativity system in which schools compete.
Further he
suggests that the Maths discourse at college is about use value. Students are
asked for a certain
level of abstraction and understanding of the mathematical concepts to be used, all
in a relatively
short period of time. The Marxist terms use value and exchange value are used
to separate
between the purposes of the mathematical discussions at the institutions. It would
be of interest to
see if similar findings may also apply for this study.
METHODOLOGY

As I believe in the multiple constructed nature of social phenomena, this makes me


positioned in
the ontology of constructivism (or constructionism). Constructionism is an
ontological position
(often also referred to as constructivism) that asserts that social phenomena and
their meanings are
continually being accomplished by social actors (Bryman, 2004, p. 17)
Within this paradigm the methodology is qualitative, based on the hermeneutic
tradition, where
contextual factors are described (Mertens, 2005; Geertz, 1973). As a basis for my
subsequent
analysis I draw upon what Mertens (2005, p. 8) labels to the constructivists
paradigm, the
naturalistic paradigm of Lincoln & Guba (1985). The well-elaborated principles of
this
paradigm consist of five axioms:
1) Realities are multiple, constructed, and holistic.
2) Knower and known are interactive, inseparable.
3) Only time- and context bound working hypotheses (idiographic statements) are
possible.
4) All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping, so that it is impossible
to
distinguish causes from effects.
5) Inquiry is value-bound.
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 37)
Samples and data collection
Five different classes in five different lower secondary schools participated in this
research. Two of
these schools are private schools while the other three are public. The private
schools were included

in an attempt to seek some diversity in the sample, while the public schools were
somewhat
randomly selected, with the only criteria being that they, due to practical reasons,
were located
within a reasonable distance from my working place. As the Norwegian school
system is quite
homogenous I believe that these schools are representative to their area. The
headmasters were
contacted via telephone and their school was invited to participate. The number of
students willing
to participate from each class varied from three to ten. In total 33 students
participated and I am
currently conducting follow-up research on 12 of these as they entered upper
secondary school. I
have chosen the follow-up students on the basis of three criterions: equal gender
distribution,
students at both vocational and general study programmes, and variations of skills
(on the basis of
their marks). My purpose is to gain a rich material with some diversity. My data
collection at lower
secondary school mainly consisted of five phases: Observations of the teacher
teaching, recorded
conversations with the students engaging in mathematics in the classroom,
interviews with the
students, collection of students handwritten material and an interview with their
teacher. This
6
provides me with a diverse material which allows me to study mathematics
education from various
perspectives. The data collection at upper secondary school is done in a similar way.
My use of
research instruments did vary somewhat from school to school, primarily due to the
fact that some

teachers imposed restrictions for example on my use of a video camera. I have


mainly applied semistructured
interviews (Kvale, 1997). The figure below shows how the distribution of the 12
participating students.
Figure 4: Distribution of the 12 participating students. (The number in parenthesis
indicates the number of
students in each class. LS: Lower secondary, US: Upper secondary, VS: Vocational
study programme and
GS: General study program).
ANALYSIS
[These days (May, 2010) I am working with my data-analysis. As this work is
conducted in this
very moment it is hard to elaborate on my finding in this paper. Hopefully some of
this work is
ready for discussion at the summer school, and I hope to have the opportunity to
discuss also this
aspect with you in Palermo, even if no written material is provided at this point.]
7
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Chevallard, Y. (2005). Steps Towards a New Epistemology in Mathematics Education.


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