ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Establishing a dialogue on risks from electromagnetic fields.
1.Electromagnetic fields adverse effects 2.Risk 3.Risk assessment handbooks 4.Risk management handbooks
5.Communication 6.Environmental exposure 7. Guidelines

ISBN 92 4 154571 2

(NLM/LC Classification: QT34)

World Health Organization 2002

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ON RISKS FROM
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

RADIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

DEPARTMENT OF PROTECTION OF THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
GENEVA, SWITZERLAND
2002

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

WE ALSO ARE INDEBTED TO THE FOLLOWING PEOPLE FOR THEIR HELPFUL COMMENTS

The WHO thanks all individuals who contributed to this handbook, which was initiated by two conferences:
Risk Perception,Risk Communication and its Application to Electromagnetic Field Exposure, organized by the World
Health Organization (WHO) and the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP), in Vienna, Austria (1997); and Electromagnetic Fields Risk Perception and Communication, organized by
WHO, in Ottawa, Canada, (1998). Working Group meetings were held to finalize the publication in Geneva
(1999, 2001) and in New York (2000).
SPECIAL THANKS ARE DUE TO THE PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS WHO DRAFTED THIS DOCUMENT

Dr Patricia Bonner, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA

Professor Ray Kemp, Galson Sciences Ltd., Oakham, United Kingdom
Dr Leeka Kheifets, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Dr Christopher Portier, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, North Carolina, USA
Dr Michael Repacholi, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Dr Jack Sahl, J. Sahl & Associates, Claremont, California, USA
Dr Emilie van Deventer, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Dr Evi Vogel, Bavarian Ministry for Regional Development and Environmental Affairs,
Munich, Germany and WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Dr William H. Bailey, Exponent Health Group, New York, New York, USA
Dr Ulf Bergqvist, University of Linkping, Linkping, Sweden ()
Dr Caron Chess, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Mr Michael Dolan, Federation of the Electronics Industry, London, United Kingdom
Dr Marilyn Fingerhut, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Mr Matt Gillen, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Washington, DC, USA
Dr Gordon Hester, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, USA
Ms Shaiela Kandel, Ministry of the Environment, Israel
Dr Holger Kastenholz, Centre for Technology Assessment, Stuttgart, Germany
Dr Alastair McKinlay, National Radiological Protection Board, UK
Dr Tom McManus, Department of Public Enterprise, Dublin, Ireland
Dr Vlasta Mercier, Swiss Federal Office of Public Health, Bern, Switzerland
Mr Holger Schtz, Research Centre Jlich, Germany
Dr Daniel Wartenberg, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Dr Mary Wolfe, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, North Carolina, USA

Funding was kindly provided by the World Health Organization,Department of Protection of the Human
Environment, the Austrian Ministry of Health, the German Ministry for the Environment,Nature Conservation and
Nuclear Safety, the German Bavarian Ministry for Regional Development and Environmental Affairs, and the U.S.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
PHOTO CREDITS

Agence France Presse (p.52,bottom) Getty Images (p.26) Narda Safety Test Solutions GmbH (p.52,top)
Photospin (pp. vi, viii, xii, 8, 10, 50) Photodisc (pp. 2, 18, 58) UK National Radiological Protection Board
(pp. 2, 4, 6, 22)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
FOREWORD

ii
vii

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH

THE PRESENT EVIDENCE

What happens when you are exposed to electromagnetic fields?

Biological effects and health effects
Conclusions from scientific research

3
4
5

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION

DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

Multiple determinants of the EMF risk issue

How is risk perceived?
The need for risk communication
Managing EMF risk communication
WHEN TO COMMUNICATE
WITH WHOM TO COMMUNICATE
WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
HOW TO COMMUNICATE

11
15
19
23
24
29
33
43

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES

THE PRESENT SITUATION

51

Who decides on guidelines?

What are guidelines based on?
Why is a higher reduction factor applied for general public exposure guidelines?
Precautionary approaches and the Precautionary Principle
Science-based and precautionary approaches for EMF
What is the World Health Organization doing?

51
51
53
55
55
57

GLOSSARY
FURTHER READING

60
64

????

FOREWORD

Public concern over the possible health effects

from electromagnetic fields (EMF) has led to the
preparation of this handbook. Potential risks of
EMF exposure from facilities such as power lines
or mobile phone base stations present a difficult
set of challenges for decision-makers. The
challenges include determining if there is a hazard
from EMF exposure and what the potential
health impact is, i.e. risk assessment; recognizing
the reasons why the public may be concerned, i.e.
risk perception; and implementing policies that
protect public health and respond to public
concerns, i.e. risk management. Responding to
these challenges requires the involvement of
individuals or organizations with the right set of
competencies, combining relevant scientific

expertise, strong communication skills

and good judgement in the
management and regulatory areas. This
will be true in any context, be it local,
regional or even national or global.
WHY A DIALOGUE?

Many governmental and private

organizations have learned a
fundamental, albeit sometimes painful,
lesson; that it is dangerous to assume
that impacted communities do not
want, or are incapable of meaningful
input to decisions about siting new
EMF facilities or approving new
technologies prior to their use. It is
vii

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

therefore crucial to establish a dialogue

between all individuals and groups impacted
by such issues. The ingredients for effective
dialogue include consultation with
stakeholders, acknowledgement of scientific
uncertainty, consideration of alternatives, and
a fair and transparent decision-making
process. Failure to do these things can result
in loss of trust and flawed decision-making as
well as project delays and increased costs.
WHO NEEDS THIS HANDBOOK?

This handbook is intended to support

decision-makers faced with a combination of
public controversy, scientific uncertainty, and
the need to operate existing facilities and/or
the requirement to site new facilities
appropriately. Its goal is to improve the
decision-making process by reducing

viii

misunderstandings and improving trust

through better dialogue. Community
dialogue, if implemented successfully, helps
to establish a decision-making process that is
open, consistent, fair and predictable. It can
also help achieve the timely approval of new
facilities while protecting the health and
safety of the community.
It is expected that many other public officials,
private groups and non-governmental
organizations will also find this information
useful.This guide may assist the general public
when interacting with government agencies that
regulate environmental health,and with
companies whose facilities may be sources of
concern.References and suggestions for further
reading are provided for those who seek more
information.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH

THE PRESENT EVIDENCE

Electromagnetic fields (EMF) occur in nature and

thus have always been present on earth.However,
during the twentieth century,environmental
exposure to man-made sources of EMF steadily
increased due to electricity demand,ever-advancing
wireless technologies and changes in work practices
and social behaviour.Everyone is exposed to a
complex mix of electric and magnetic fields at many
different frequencies,at home and at work.

power lines,household electrical

appliances and computers,and highfrequency or radiofrequency fields,for
which the main sources are radar,radio
and television broadcast facilities,mobile
telephones and their base stations,
induction heaters and anti-theft devices.

Unlike ionizing radiation (such as

gamma rays given off by radioactive
materials,cosmic rays and X-rays) found
Potential health effects of man-made EMF have
in the upper part of the electromagnetic
been a topic of scientific interest since the late
spectrum,EMF are much too weak to
1800s,and have received particular attention
break the bonds that hold molecules in
during the last 30 years.EMF can be broadly
cells together and,therefore,cannot
divided into static and low-frequency electric and
magnetic fields,where the common sources include produce ionization.This is why EMF are
1

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE PRESENT EVIDENCE

called non-ionizing radiations (NIR).Figure 1

displays the relative position of NIR in the
wider electromagnetic spectrum.Infrared,
visible,ultraviolet and ionizing radiation will
not be considered further in this handbook.

body while at radio frequencies the fields are

partially absorbed and penetrate only a short
depth into the tissue.

The effects of external exposure to EMF on

the human body and its cells depend mainly
on the EMF frequency and magnitude or
strength. The frequency simply describes the
number of oscillations or cycles per second.
At low frequencies, EMF passes through the

At radiofrequencies (RF),the fields only

penetrate a short distance into the body.The
energy of these fields is absorbed and
transformed into the movement of molecules.
Friction between rapidly moving molecules
results in a temperature rise.This effect is used

Low-frequency electric fields influence the

distribution of electric charges at the surface of
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU ARE EXPOSED conducting tissues and cause electric current to
TO ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS?
flow in the body (Fig.2A).Low-frequency
magnetic fields induce circulating currents within
Electrical currents exist naturally in the
the human body (Fig.2B).The strength of
human body and are an essential part of
normal bodily functions. All nerves relay their these induced currents depends on the
intensity of the outside magnetic field and the
signals by transmitting electric impulses.
size of the loop through which the current
Most biochemical reactions, from those
associated with digestion to those involved in flows.When sufficiently large,these currents
can cause stimulation of nerves and muscles.
brain activity, involve electrical processes.

FIGURE 1. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

in domestic applications such as warming up

food in microwave ovens,and in many
industrial applications such as plastic welding

or metal heating.The levels of RF fields to

which people are normally exposed in our
living environment are much lower than those
needed to produce significant heating.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND
HEALTH EFFECTS

B
FIGURE 2. A Electric fields do not penetrate

the body significantly but they do build up a

charge on its surface, while B exposure to
magnetic fields causes circulating currents
to flow in the body.

Biological effects are measurable responses of

organisms or cells to a stimulus or to a change
in the environment.Such responses,e.g.
increased heart rate after drinking coffee or
falling asleep in a stuffy room,are not
necessarily harmful to health.Reacting to
changes in the environment is a normal part of
life.However,the body might not possess
adequate compensation mechanisms to
mitigate all environmental changes or stresses.
Prolonged environmental exposure,even if
minor,may constitute a health hazard if it
results in stress.In humans,an adverse health
effect results from a biological effect that causes
detectable impairment in the health or wellbeing of exposed individuals.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE PRESENT EVIDENCE

carcinogenicity of static and extemely low

frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields.Using
the standard IARC classification that weighs
human,animal and laboratory evidence,ELF
magnetic fields were classified as possibly
carcinogenic to humans based on epidemiological
studies of childhood leukaemia.An example of
a well-known agent classified in the same
category is coffee,which may increase risk of
CONCLUSIONS FROM SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH kidney cancer,while at the same time be
LOW-FREQUENCY FIELDS
protective against bowel cancer.Possibly
carcinogenic to humans is a classification
Scientific knowledge about the health effects
used to denote an agent for which there is
of EMF is substantial and is based on a large
limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans
number of epidemiological,animal and invitro studies.Many health outcomes ranging and less than sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity in experimental animals.
from reproductive defects to cardiovascular
Evidence for all other cancers in children and
and neurodegenerative diseases have been
examined,but the most consistent evidence to adults,as well as other types of exposures (i.e.
date concerns childhood leukemia.In 2001,an static fields and ELF electric fields) was
considered inadequate to classify either due to
expert scientific working group of WHOs
International Agency for Research on Cancer insufficient or inconsistent scientific
information.While the classification of ELF
(IARC) reviewed studies related to the
Complying with exposure limits
recommended in national and international
guidelines helps to control risks from
exposures to EMFs that may be harmful to
human health. The present debate is centred
on whether long-term, low level exposure
below the exposure limits can cause adverse
health effects or influence peoples well being.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE PRESENT EVIDENCE

health effects. Several recent epidemiological

studies of mobile phone users found no
convincing evidence of increased brain cancer
risk. However, the technology is too recent to
rule out possible long-term effects. Mobile
phone handsets and base stations present
HIGH-FREQUENCY FIELDS
quite different exposure situations. RF
Concerning radiofrequency fields,the balance of exposure is far higher for mobile phone users
than for those living near cellular base
evidence to date suggests that exposure to low
level RF fields (such as those emitted by mobile stations. Apart from infrequent signals used
phones and their base stations) does not cause to maintain links with nearby base stations,
handsets transmit RF energy only while a call
adverse health effects.Some scientists have
is being made. However, base stations are
reported minor effects of mobile phone use,
continuously transmitting signals, although
including changes in brain activity,reaction
the levels to which the public are exposed are
times,and sleep patterns.In so far as these
extremely small, even if they live nearby.
effects have been confirmed,they appear to lie
within the normal bounds of human variation.
Given the widespread use of technology, the
Presently, research efforts are concentrated on degree of scientific uncertainty, and the levels
whether long-term,low level RF exposure, even of public apprehension, rigorous scientific
studies and clear communication with the
at levels too low to cause significant
public are needed.
temperature elevation, can cause adverse
magnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to
humans has been made by IARC,it remains
possible that there are other explanations for
the observed association between exposure to
ELF magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia.

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION

DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

Modern technology offers powerful tools to

stimulate a whole range of benefits for society,
in addition to economic development. However,
technological progress in the broadest sense has
always been associated with hazards and risks,
both perceived and real. Industrial, commercial
and household applications of EMF are no
exception. Around the start of the twentieth
century people were worried about the possible
health effects of light bulbs and the fields
emanating from the wires on poles connecting
land-based telephone systems. No adverse
health effects appeared, and these technologies
were gradually accepted as part of normal
lifestyle. Understanding and adjusting to newly
introduced technologies depends partly on how

the new technology is presented and

how its risks and benefits are
interpreted by an ever more wary
public.
Throughout the world, some members
of the general public have indicated
concern that exposure to EMF from
such sources as high voltage power
lines, radar, mobile telephones and
their base stations could lead to
adverse health consequences,
especially in children. As a result, the
construction of new power lines and
mobile telephone networks has met
with considerable opposition in some
9

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

countries. Public worry about new

technologies often stems from unfamiliarity
and a sense of danger from forces that they
cannot sense.
Recent history has shown that lack of
knowledge about health consequences of
technological advances may not be the sole
reason for social opposition to innovations.
Disregard for differences in risk perception
that are not adequately reflected in
communication among scientists,
governments, industry and the public, is also
to blame. It is for this reason that risk
perception and risk communication are major
aspects of the EMF issue.
This section aims to provide governments,
industry and members of the public with a
framework to establish and maintain
effective communication about EMF
associated health risks.

DEFINING RISK

In trying to understand peoples perception of

risk, it is important to distinguish between a
health hazard and a health risk. A hazard can
be an object or a set of circumstances that
could potentially harm a persons health. Risk
is the likelihood, or probability, that a person
will be harmed by a particular hazard.
HAZARD AND RISK
Driving a car is a potential health hazard. Driving a

car fast presents a risk. The higher the speed, the

more risk is associated with the driving.
Every activity has an associated risk. It is possible to
diminish risks by avoiding specific activities, but one
cannot abolish risk entirely. In the real world, there is
no such thing as a zero risk.

MULTIPLE DETERMINANTS OF
THE EMF RISK ISSUE

Scientists assess health risk by weighing and

critically evaluating all of the available scientific
evidence to develop a sound risk assessment (see
Box,page 13).The public may perform its own
11

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

assessment of risk by an entirely different

process,often not based on quantifiable
information.Ultimately this perceived risk
could take on an importance as great as a
measurable risk in determining commercial
investment and government policy.
BASICS OF RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk assessment is an organized process used to
describe and estimate the likelihood of adverse health
outcomes from environmental exposures to an agent.
The four steps in the process are:
1. Hazard identification: the identification of a
potentially hazardous agent or exposure situation
(e.g., a particular substance or energy source)
2. Dose-response assessment: the estimation of the
relationship between dose or exposure to the agent
or situation and the incidence and/or severity of
an effect
3. Exposure assessment: the assessment of the
extent of exposure or potential exposure in actual
situations
4. Risk characterization: the synthesis and summary
of information about a potentially hazardous
situation in a form useful to decision-makers and
stakeholders.

FIGURE 3. EVALUATING, INTERPRETING AND

REGULATING RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH EMF

The factors that shape risk perception of

individuals include basic societal and
personal values (e.g. traditions, customs) as
well as previous experience with technological
projects (e.g. dams, power plants). These
factors may explain local concerns, possible
biases or hidden agendas or assumptions.
Careful attention to the social dimensions of
any project allows policy makers and
managers to make informed decisions as part
of a thorough risk management programme.
Ultimately, risk management must take into
account both measured and perceived risk to
be effective (Figure 3).
The identification of problems and the
scientific risk assessment of those problems
are key steps to defining a successful risk
management programme.To respond to that
assessment,such a programme should
incorporate actions and strategies,e.g.finding
options,making decisions,implementing
13

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

RANGE OF RISK MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

DECISION TO TAKE NO FORMAL ACTION is an
appropriate response in cases where the risk is
considered very small, or the evidence is insufficient
to support formal actions. This response is often
combined with watchful waiting, i.e. monitoring the
results of research and measurements and the
decisions being made by standard-setters,
regulators, and others.
COMMUNICATION PROGRAMMES can be used
to help people understand the issues, become
involved in the process and make their own choices
about what to do.
RESEARCH fills gaps in our knowledge, helps to
identify problems, and allows for a better
assessment of risk in the future.
CAUTIONARY APPROACHES are policies and
actions that individuals, organizations or
governments take to minimize or avoid future
potential health or environmental impacts. These
may include voluntary self-regulation to avoid or
reduce exposure, if easily achievable.

14

REGULATIONS are formal steps taken by

government to limit both the occurrence and
consequences of potentially risky events. Standards
with limits may be imposed with methods to show
compliance or they may state objectives to be
achieved without being prescriptive.
LIMITING EXPOSURE or banning the source of
exposure altogether are options to be used when the
degree of certainty of harm is high. The degree of
certainty and the severity of harm are two important
factors in deciding the type of actions to be taken.
TECHNICAL OPTIONS should be used to reduce
risk (or perceived risk). These may include the
consideration of burying power lines, or site sharing
for mobile phone base stations.
MITIGATION involves making physical changes in the
system to reduce exposure and, ultimately, risk.
Mitigation may mean redesigning the system, installing
shielding or introducing protective equipment.
COMPENSATION is sometimes offered in response
to higher exposures in a workplace or environment.
People may be willing to accept something of value
in exchange for accepting increased exposure.

those decisions,and evaluating the process.

These components are not independent,nor
do they occur in a predetermined order.
Rather,each element is driven by the urgency
of the need for a decision,and the availability
of information and resources.While there is a
range of risk management options (see Box,
page 14),emphasis in this handbook is placed
on the second option,namely communication
programmes.

acceptable. On the other hand, many people

do not. Inherent acceptability in personal
risk-taking is the ability to control it.

However, there are situations where

individuals may feel that they do not have
control. This is especially true when it comes
to exposure to EMF where the fields are
invisible, the risk is not easily quantifiable,
and the degree of exposure is beyond
immediate control. This is further
HOW IS RISK PERCEIVED?
exacerbated when individuals do not perceive
Many factors influence a persons decision to direct benefit from exposure. In this context,
public response will depend on the
take or reject a risk. People perceive risks as
perception of that risk based on external
negligible, acceptable, tolerable, or
factors. These include available scientific
unacceptable, in comparison to perceived
information, the media and other forms of
benefits. These perceptions depend on
personal factors, external factors as well as the information dissemination, the economic
nature of the risk. Personal factors include age, situation of the individual and community,
sex, and cultural or educational backgrounds. opinion movements, and the structure of the
regulatory process and political decisionSome people, for example, find the risks
making in the community (Figure 4).
associated with taking street drugs as
15

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

The nature of the risk can also lead to different

perceptions.The greater the number of factors
adding to the publics perception of risk,the
greater the potential for concern.Surveys have
found that the following pairs of characteristics
of a situation generally affect risk perception.
FAMILIAR VS. UNFAMILIAR TECHNOLOGY.

Familiarity with a given technology or a

situation helps reduce the level of the
perceived risk.The perceived risk
increases when the technology or
situation, such as EMF, is new,
unfamiliar, or hard-to-comprehend.
Perception about the level of risk can be
significantly increased if there is an
incomplete scientific understanding
about potential health effects from a
particular situation or technology.

PERSONAL CONTROL VS. LACK OF CONTROL

OVER A SITUATION. If people do not have

any say about installation of power lines

FIGURE 4. FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS

and mobile telephone base stations,

especially near their homes, schools or play
areas, they tend to perceive the risk from
such EMF facilities as being high.
VOLUNTARY VS. INVOLUNTARY EXPOSURE.

People feel much less at risk when the

choice is theirs. Those who do not use
mobile telephones may perceive the risk as
high from the relatively low RF fields
emitted from mobile telephone base
stations. However, mobile telephone users
generally perceive as low the risk from the
much more intense RF fields from their
voluntarily chosen handsets.
DREADED VS. NOT DREADED OUTCOME.

Some diseases and health conditions, such

as cancer, or severe and lingering pain and
disability, are more feared than others.
Thus, even a small possibility of cancer,
especially in children, from a potential
hazard such as EMF exposure receives
significant public attention.
17

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

the construction of EMF sources that,in their

exposed to RF fields from mobile telephone opinion,might affect their health.They want
to have some control and be part of the
base stations,but do not have a mobile
decision-making process.Unless an effective
telephone,or if they are exposed to the
system of public information and
electric and magnetic fields from a high
communication among scientists,
voltage transmission line that does not
governments,the industry and the public is
provide power to their community,they
may not perceive any direct benefit from the established,new EMF technologies will be
installation and are less likely to accept the mistrusted and feared.
associated risk.
THE NEED FOR RISK COMMUNICATION
FAIR VS. UNFAIR EXPOSURE. Issues of social
justice may be raised because of unfair EMF Today, communication with the public about
exposure.For example,if facilities were
environmental risks from technology plays an
installed in poor neighbourhoods for
important role. According to the U.S.
economic reasons (e.g.cheaper land),the
National Research Council, risk
local community would unfairly bear the
communication is an interactive process of
potential risks.
exchange of information and opinion among
individuals, groups and institutions. It
Reducing perceived risk involves countering
involves multiple messages about the nature
the factors associated with personal risk.
of risk and other messages, not strictly about
Communities feel they have a right to know
risks, that express concerns, opinions, or
what is proposed and planned with respect to reactions to risk messages or to legal and
DIRECT VS. INDIRECT BENEFITS. If people are

19

EMF RISK COMMUNICATION: DEALING WITH PUBLIC PERCEPTION

institutional arrangements for risk

management. Risk communication is
therefore not only a presentation of the
scientific calculation of risk, but also a forum
for discussion on broader issues of ethical
and moral concern.
Environmental issues that involve
uncertainty as to health risks require

FIGURE 5. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

supportable decisions. To that end, scientists

must communicate scientific evidence clearly;
government agencies must inform people
about safety regulations and policy measures;
and concerned citizens must decide to what
extent they are willing to accept such risk. In
this process, it is important that
communication between these stakeholders
be done clearly and effectively (Figure 5).

21

MANAGING EMF RISK COMMUNICATION

As the public becomes increasingly aware of
environmental health issues,there has been
concurrently a decreasing sense of trust in public
officials,technical and scientific experts,and
industrial managers,especially in large private and
public businesses. Also,many sections of the
public believe that the pace of scientific and
technological change is too fast for governments to
manage. Moreover,in politically open societies,

people are ready to act and are able to

become involved. Individuals,
community-based organizations,and
non-governmental organizations are
willing to intervene with action to direct
decisions or to disrupt activities if they
are excluded from the decision process.
Such a societal trend has increased the
need for effective communication
between all stakeholders.
A successful approach to planning and
evaluating risk communication should
consider all aspects and parties involved.
This section provides an introduction to
communication on the EMF issue
through the four-step process described
in the following pages.

23

WHEN TO COMMUNICATE
KEY QUESTIONS
When should you enter into a dialogue?
Is there sufficient planning time?
Can you quickly research who and what influences

community opinions?
When do you include the stakeholders? When do
you plan the process, set the goals and outline the
options? When are decisions made?

There is often significant public anxiety

over particular sources of EMF, such as
transmission lines and mobile phone base
stations. This anxiety can lead to strong
objections to the siting of such facilities.
When community opposition builds, it is
often because the communication process
was not started early enough to ensure
public trust and understanding.
Successful communication about a project
requires planning and skill. It is important

24

to anticipate information needs: know

what to share and when to share it.
Establishing a dialogue as early as possible
provides several benefits.First,the public will
see the communicator as acting in a
responsible manner and demonstrating
concern about the issue.Avoiding delays in
providing information and discussion will
also dispel controversy,and decrease the
likelihood of having to rectify misinformation
and misunderstandings.One should take
clues from the stakeholders,and use what is
learned to improve communication planning
and implementation.Initiating risk
communication proves that one is trying to
build a relationship with stakeholders,and
that,in itself,can be almost as important as
what is communicated.

WHEN TO COMMUNICATE
The communication process passes through
different stages.At the beginning of the
dialogue,there is a need to provide
information and knowledge.This will
increase awareness,and sometimes concern,
on the part of the different stakeholders.At
this stage,it will become important to
continue communication,through an open
dialogue,with all parties involved before
setting policies.When it comes to planning
a new project,for example,building a power
line or installing a mobile phone base
station,the industry should start immediate
communication with regional and local
authorities as well as interested stakeholders
(landowners,concerned citizens,
environmental groups).

MANAGING A TIME-SENSITIVE ISSUE

Public health and environmental health

issues have a dynamic life; they evolve with
time. The life cycle of an issue illustrates
how social pressure on decision-makers
develops with time (Figure 6). During the
early stages of the life cycle, when the
problem is dormant or just emerging,
public pressure is at a minimum. While the
problem may not yet be on the research
agenda, there can still be ample time to
research and analyse potential risks. As the
problem bursts into current public
awareness, often brought into the forefront
by a triggering event (e.g. due to media
attention, organized activist intervention,
the Internet, or simple word of mouth), it
is important to take action in the form of

25

WHEN TO COMMUNICATE
communication with the public. As the
problem reaches crisis proportions, a
decision must be taken but a hurried
outcome can leave all sides dissatisfied. As
the problem begins to diminish in
importance on the public agenda, time
should be made for a follow-up evaluation
of the issue and decisions made. The
transition between different phases within
the life cycle of an issue is dependent upon
the levels of awareness and pressure from
various stakeholders (Figure 6).

The earlier balanced information is

introduced,the more able the decisionmakers will be to prevent the issue reaching
the crisis stage.It is indeed much easier to
help people form opinions than to change
opinions.Once there is a crisis,it is
increasingly difficult to conduct effective risk
communication and to achieve successful
outcomes from the decision-making process
since there is less time to consider options
and to engage stakeholders in dialogue.
Because topics that can generate controversy

SOME DRIVING FORCES OF THE LIFE CYCLE

Lack of trust
Perception of a villain in the story (e.g., industry)
Misinformation
Belief that the majority is treating the minority unfairly
Media coverage
Intervention of activist groups and other highly motivated interest groups
Emotional dynamics in the public

FIGURE 6. THE RISK PERCEPTION LIFE CYCLE

(adapted from Evaluating Response Options, Judy Larkin,
Proceedings of the International Seminar on EMF Risk Perception and Communication, WHO 1999)

27

WHEN TO COMMUNICATE
opportunity to influence the life cycle can
arise from the timely publication of
scientific results. While international
scientific bodies have to respond publicly
to recent scientific discoveries in an
ADAPTING TO A DYNAMIC PROCESS
unbiased manner, decision-makers can
Throughout the life cycle of the issue, the prove to the stakeholders that their
concerns are taken seriously by adopting a
communication strategy will need to be
similar strategy. Indeed, risk surveillance is
tailored to the groups or individuals
a key component to ensure proper risk
concerned on an ad-hoc basis, and may
take a variety of forms to be most effective. management, as continuing information
The means of communication and actions is essential for monitoring and providing
should be appropriately modified, as new feedback to the ongoing risk management
process.
information becomes available. An
become even more critical in periods of
elections and other political events,it is
advisable to prepare strategies and have
options at hand for action.

28

WITH WHOM TO COMMUNICATE

KEY QUESTIONS

IDENTIFYING THE STAKEHOLDERS

Who will be most interested in this issue?

It is crucial to have a good understanding of

the playing field and in particular the key
players or stakeholders in the EMF issue.
Depending on the particular situation,the
communicator may need to consider several,
if not all,of the stakeholders (Figure 7).Each
of these groups needs to be included in the
communication process and will become,in
turn,the instigator or the recipient of the
communication.The roles of some of the key
stakeholders are discussed below.

What is known about the interests, fears, concerns,

attitudes and motivation of the stakeholders?

What authorities are responsible for determining
and implementing policy?
Are there organizations with whom to form effective
partnerships?
Who can provide advice or scientific expertise?

Developing effective communication about

risk depends upon identifying the key
stakeholders,those who have the strongest
interest or who can play the greatest role
toward developing understanding and
consensus among the relevant constituency.

The scientific community is an important

stakeholder as it provides technical
Identifying these stakeholders and recognizing information, and is therefore assumed to
be independent and apolitical. Scientists
their role often requires a substantial
investment in time and energy.Failure to make can help the public understand the benefits
and risks of EMF, and help regulators
this investment may compromise the
evaluate risk management options and
effectiveness of the message.
29

WITH WHOM TO COMMUNICATE

assess the consequences of different
decisions. They have the important role of
explaining available scientific information
in a way that helps people understand what
is known, where more information is
needed, what the main sources of
uncertainty are, and when better
information will become available. In this
role, they can also try to anticipate and put
boundaries on expectations of the future.
The industry, such as electricity companies
and telecommunications providers as well
as manufacturers, is a key player and is
often seen as the risk producer as much as
the service provider. Deregulation of these
industries in many countries has increased
the number of companies (and, in some
cases, the number of EMF sources as
companies compete for coverage). In a
FIGURE 7. THE KEY STAKEHOLDERS IN THE EMF ISSUE

number of countries, industry players,

especially electrical utilities, have taken a
proactive and positive approach to
managing risks and have emphasized open
communication of information to the
public. However, profit motive ultimately
causes the public to have misgivings about
their messages.
Government officials at the national,regional
and local levels have social as well as
economic responsibilities.Because they act
in a political environment,the general public
does not always trust them.In particular,
regulators have a crucial role as they devise
standards and guidelines.To that end,they
need detailed and complete information
from the major stakeholders to decide on
policy measures regarding protection from
EMF exposure.They have to consider any
31

WITH WHOM TO COMMUNICATE

Media coveragenewspapers, radio,
television and now the Internethas a
major impact on the way an environmental
risk is perceived and ultimately on the
success of the decision-making process.
The general public, now better educated and The media can be an effective tool to
increase problem awareness, to broadcast
better informed on technology-related
information through clear messages, and
issues than ever before, may be the single
to increase individual participation.
greatest determinant to the success or
However, it can be equally effective at
failure of a proposed technology project.
disseminating incorrect information,
This is especially true in democratic and
thereby reducing trust and support of the
highly industrialized societies. Public
sentiment often makes itself heard through decision-making process. This is especially
true of the Internet, since there is no
highly vocal associations or other special
quality control. The professionalism of
interest groups that usually have good
presentation does not necessarily reflect in
access to the media.
the quality of content. Individuals have to
establish in their own minds how much
The media plays an essential role in mass
they trust a particular source, which is not
communications, politics and decisionan easy decision for a layperson to take.
making in most democratic societies.
new sound scientific evidence,which would
suggest the need to revise the existing
exposure measures,while being sensitive to
societys demands and constraints.

32

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
KEY QUESTIONS
Do the stakeholders have access to sufficient and

impartial information about the technology?

Is the message intelligible or does it contain a

large amount of complex information?

Are the messages of all key stakeholders being

heard? i.e. is there an effective means for providing

feedback?

Identification of public concerns and

potential problems is critical for strategic
and pro-active approaches. Once
stakeholders become aware of an issue,
they will raise questions based on their
perceptions and evaluations of the risk.
Therefore, the dissemination of
information should be done in a way that
is sensitive to these preconceived notions,
or else the decision-makers risk offending
and alienating the stakeholders.

The strategy and rationale to pursue will

depend on the audience.The public will also
dictate which questions can be expected.To
convince the audience,appropriate and
credible arguments that appeal not only to
reason,but also to emotion and social bonds
should be advanced.Different types of
arguments are described in Figure 8.
COMMUNICATING THE SCIENCE

Scientists communicate technical results

derived from research through publications
of different scientific value (the highest
being peer review publications), expert
reviews and risk assessments. Through this
process, the results of scientific
investigation can be incorporated into the
development and implementation of policy

33

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
guidance and standards. Continuous
monitoring and review of technical findings
is important to ensure that any residual
uncertainties are addressed and minimized
in the medium to long term, and to provide
reassurance to the public.
However, while scientific information has
proven to be valuable in making public
health decisions, it is not error-free. The
contributions of scientists can fail for
several reasons. For example, the available
information may be presented in a way that
is not useful to the decision-makers (either
because it is too complex or oversimplified)
and leads to incorrect conclusions or
decisions (possibly because of the
uncertainty inherent in the data or
problems in communicating), or is
erroneous.
FIGURE 8. THE COMPONENTS OF THE MESSAGE

SIMPLIFYING THE MESSAGE

Technical experts are faced with the

challenge of providing information that is
comprehensible by the public at large. This
entails simplifying the message. If not, the
media will take on this task with the danger
of miss-communicating the information.
This is especially true of EMF, as most
people have a very diffuse picture of
electromagnetism, perceiving these invisible
and pervasive waves as potentially harmful.
EXPLAINING SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY

When it comes to risk assessment, the

available information for decision-making
is based on science. However, scientific
evaluation of the biological responses from
environmental exposures rarely leads to
unanimous conclusions. Epidemiological
studies are prone to bias, and the validity of
35

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
extrapolation from animal studies to
humans is often questionable. The
weight-of-evidence determines the
degree to which available results support or
refute a given hypothesis. For estimates of
small risks in complex areas of science and
of society, no single study can provide a
definitive answer. Strengths and
weaknesses of each study should be
evaluated and results of each study should
be interpreted as to how it alters the
weight-of-evidence. Uncertainty is
therefore inherent in the process and
should be an integral part of planning any
risk management or communication task.
Indeed, the public commonly interprets
uncertainties in scientific knowledge on
EMF health effects as a declaration of the
existence of real risks.

36

PRESENTING ALL THE EVIDENCE

The public will often base its

preconceptions on publicised scientific
results that have shown a possible
association to a health effect. It is
important for the scientist to present all of

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
the available evidence when disseminating
scientific information even if research is
showing opposing results. Only then can
scientists be seen to be truly independent.
Scientific reasoning can always be used to
argue against a particular finding.

SOME RULES OF THUMB TO

POPULARISE TECHNICAL INFORMATION

UNDERSTANDING THE AUDIENCE

Determine and classify the key messages that you

It is important to discern what type of

information the public wants and to
address that need head on, acknowledging
when necessary that the science is
incomplete. Restricting communication to
those issues about which there is scientific
certainty may leave the public, and
sometimes policy makers, with the feeling
that their information needs are not being
met. Understanding the motivations of the
stakeholders will help to fine-tune the
message. For example, a resident facing the

want to pass on, i.e. define your information goals

Make sure you understand the information needs

of your audience
Explain concepts in simple language, and if

needed, clarify the technical vocabulary used in

press releases by experts, e.g. IARC classification
of potential carcinogens into different categories
depending on the scientific evidence (is
carcinogenic, probably carcinogenic and
possibly carcinogenic).
Avoid oversimplifying, as you may seem to be ill
informed or hiding the truth.
Acknowledge that you are simplifying and provide
references to supporting documents.

possibility of construction of a nearby

power line may be worried by unforeseen
depressed property values or the impact on
landscape or environmental damage, while
a potential home buyer in the vicinity of an
existing power line may be mostly worried
about health.
DISTORTING SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

Science is a powerful tool and has earned

its credibility by being predictive. However,
its usefulness depends on the quality of the
data, which is related to the quality and
credibility of the scientists. It is important
to verify the knowledge and integrity of socalled experts, who may look and sound
extremely convincing but hold unorthodox
views that the media feel justified in airing
in the interests of balance. In fact giving
weight to these unorthodox views can
37

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
disproportionately influence public
opinion. For the public, often the best
sources of information are from panels of
independent experts who periodically
provide summaries of the current state of
knowledge.

TIPS TO BUILD EFFECTIVE RISK

COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
Do research to answer these questions:

PUTTING THE EMF RISK IN PERSPECTIVE

Even though the current scientific evidence

does not indicate that health risks from
EMF are high, the public remains
concerned about facilities that produce
EMF. This discrepancy in viewpoint is
mostly based on differing approaches to
risk issues on the part of the experts and
the general public. On one hand, the
experts will have to evaluate the scientific
evidence of the risk (risk assessment) using
objective and well-defined criteria. Their
findings will then be used to draft
38

What are the sources of information?

What are the key journals or magazines?
What are the relevant websites?
Are there other similar issues you could learn from?
Who can explain the scientific research to lay people?
Make yourself available in both formal and
informal settings to improve the communication.
Private meetings can destroy trust if access is not
balanced among all stakeholders.
Acknowledge uncertainty, describe why it exists,
and place it in a context of what is already known.
Acknowledge that risk communication skills are
important for all levels of the decision-making
organization, from inception to project management.
Avoid unnecessary conflict, but understand that a
personal or policy decision is by nature a
dichotomy; e.g., a person will decide to buy or not
to buy a home near a power line.
Recognise that even if you communicate well, you
may not reach an agreement.
Remember that in most societies, even though it
may take a long time, communities ultimately
decide what is an acceptable risk, not
governmental agencies or corporations.

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
responses in the form of decisions and
actions through public policies. On the
other hand, the general public evaluates the
risk incurred by EMF technologies at the
individual level (risk perception). The

differences in approach are further detailed

in the Box below. Quantifying risk is of
limited utility in communications with the
general public who may not possess a
technical background.

DIFFERENCES IN RISK EVALUATION AMONG STAKEHOLDERS

EXPERT EVALUATION
(RISK ASSESSMENT)
Scientific approach to quantify risk

LAYPERSON S EVALUATION
(RISK PERCEPTION)
Intuitive approach to quantify risk

Uses probabilistic concepts (deals in averages,

Uses local, situation-specific information or

distributions,)
Depends on technical information transmitted
through well-defined channels (scientific studies)
Product of scientific teams
Importance given to objective scientific facts
Focused on benefits versus costs of technology
Seeks to validate information

anecdotal evidence
Depends on information from multiple channels
(media, general considerations and impressions)
Individual process
Importance of emotions and subjective perceptions
Focused on safety
Seeks to deal with individual circumstances and
preferences

39

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
COMPARISON: A TOOL FOR COMMUNICATION
Risk comparison should be used to raise awareness and be educational in a neutral way. It is an advanced tool
that requires careful planning and experience. While a comparison puts facts into an understandable context, be
careful not to use it to gain acceptance or trust. Inappropriate use of risk comparison may lower the
effectiveness of your communication and even damage your credibility in the short-term.
NOTE: Never compare voluntary exposure (such as smoking or driving) to involuntary exposure. For a mother with
three children who has to live close to a mobile phone base station, the risk she is taking is not voluntary. If you were
to compare her exposure to EMF with her choice to drive on the freeway at 140 km/h, you may offend her.
Take into account the social and cultural characteristics of the audience and make your comparison relevant

to what they know

Do not use comparisons in situations where trust is low
Make sure that your comparisons do not trivialise peoples fears or questions
Do not use comparisons to convince a person about the correctness of a position
Remember that a comparison of exposure data is less emotional than a comparison of risks
Be aware that the manner in which you present risks may affect how you are perceived
Use a pre-test to learn if the comparisons you plan to use cause the response you hope to elicit
Acknowledge that the comparison in itself does not dispose of the issue

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
When quantitative information is used,it may
be most useful when compared with readily
understood quantities. This has been used
effectively to explain the risk associated with
commercial air travel by comparing it with
familiar activities such as driving,or to explain
the risk of radiation exposure from routine
diagnostic X-rays by comparing the exposure
to that coming from natural background
radiation.However,care has to be taken when
using risk comparison (see Box,page 40).It is
indeed important to quantify different risks to
health in a comparable framework,
particularly for setting policy agendas and
research priorities.

associated with the EMF health issue.

Regulatory agencies have the responsibility
to prepare and disseminate information
about policy measures implemented at the
local and national level. At the local level, it
is important that authorities have at least a
minimum knowledge of the EMF issue to
answer questions from the public or be
ready to direct requests to appropriate
sources of information. At the national
level, dissemination has been implemented
very effectively in several countries through
WHO fact sheets or similar simple
information pamphlets, often available on
the World Wide Web.

EXPLAINING POLICY MEASURES

When discussing policy measures with the

public, the communicator should be ready
to explain what the guidelines on exposure
limits cover (e.g. frequencies, reduction

Recognise that if your comparison creates more questions than it answers, you need to find another example
Be prepared for others to use comparisons to emotionalise or to dramatise

EXAMPLE : To illustrate the power level of an EMF emission source,

Show emission data before and after a similar facility went into operation
Compare with guidelines limits, but acknowledge that people concerns might be about levels well below the
guidelines

40

The type of measures that a government

takes gives a strong message as to where
the regulators stand vis--vis the risks

41

WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
factors,) and how they were established,
i.e. what scientific facts were used, what
assumptions were made, what
administrative resources are needed to
implement them, and what mechanisms are
in place to ensure compliance by product
manufacturers (e.g. mobile phones) or
utilities providers (e.g. electricity or
telecommunications supplier).

It is also of interest to let the public know if

there are procedures and timetables for
updating the guidelines as scientific
research advances. Indeed, decisionmakers often rely on preliminary results or
insufficient data, and their decisions
should be reviewed as soon as an
assessment is completed.

EXPLAINING EXPOSURE LIMITS TO THE PUBLIC

Using EMF exposure limits as a formal policy argument requires good scientific understanding on the part of the
decision maker and the communicator. It is important to stress to the public that:
The determination of field levels at a certain location is a key element that will determine whether there is a
risk or not.
If possible, it is useful to show data from field measurement surveys at selected sites and compare them
with numerical calculations and with accepted exposure guidelines.
The field strength is dependent on distance from the EMF source, and normally decreases rapidly away from it.

HOW TO COMMUNICATE
KEY QUESTIONS

SETTING THE TONE

What type of participation tool do you choose to

When dealing with an emotive issue such

as the potential health risk from EMF, one
of the most important communications
skills is the ability to build and sustain a
relationship of trust with the other parties
involved in the process. To that end, one
will need to create a non-threatening
atmosphere and set the tone for a candid,
respectful and supportive approach to
resolving issues. Such behaviour should
ideally be embraced by all stakeholders.

address your audience?

Where, when and under what circumstances does the
discussion take place?
What tone prevails?
How formally is the situation handled?

Effective risk communication relies not

only on the content of the message, but
also the context. In other words, the way
that something is said is as important as
what is said. Stakeholders will receive
information at various stages of the issue.
This will come from a wide range of sources
with differing perspectives. This diversity
influences how stakeholders perceive risks
and what they would like to see happen.

HOW TO WORK WITH DISTRUST

To a large extent,communities with concerns

about involuntary exposure to EMF are likely
to be distrustful of official views and sources
of information.Considerable effort may then

In order to ensure human safety, fences, barriers or other protective measures are used for some facilities
to preclude unauthorised access to areas where exposure limits may be exceeded.
Often, but not in all standards, the exposure limits are lower for the general public than for workers.

42

43

HOW TO COMMUNICATE
be required to encourage stakeholders to
suspend that distrust.As acknowledged in the
Phillips Report for the UK Government on
the BSE crisis,to establish credibility it is
necessary to generate trust Trust can only be
generated by openness Openness requires
recognition of uncertainty,where it exists.
Decision-makers need to ensure that all
individuals involved in communicating with
the public are kept up to date with
developments in the debate and are prepared
to discuss,rather than dismiss,public fears.
Some of the necessary components of
communication under conditions of
distrust are:

44

Acknowledge the lack of trust

Recognize uncertainty, where it exists

BUILDING EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
INSPIRE TRUST
Be competent
Be calm and respectful
Be honest and open
Show your human side, personalise
Use clear language, and be careful not to sound or
be condescending
Explain the consequences of the assumptions used
Demonstrate your own values
BE ATTENTIVE
Choose your words carefully
Watch emotions, yours and those of your audience
Be an attentive listener
Be attentive to body language
MAINTAIN AN OPEN DIALOGUE
Seek input from all
Share information
Provide means for frequent communication,
e.g. publication of findings on the Web with
opportunity to comment

HOW TO COMMUNICATE

Point out what is different this time (e.g.

disclosure of information, earlier
involvement of stakeholders, clear goals
and roles, etc.)
Ask what would help to dispel distrust
Be patientit takes time to earn trust
Never hold a closed meeting
Admit when you honestly do not know
the answer to a question
Be accountable in ways the stakeholders
value

seek out and facilitate their involvement

when addressing this decision. The process
usually will be carried in three stages:
planning, implementation and evaluation.

The first stage is crucial, because

stimulating public interest and

involvement can be counter-productive if

the communicator is not fully prepared for

the publics participation, questions and

concerns. In the second stage, when it is

time to engage the public, the
SELECTING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
communicator will have to choose the
setting to discuss the issue with them. The
Members of a community where
choice will depend on the type, number
construction of a new facility is proposed
and interest of the stakeholders. In the last
will want to be a part of the decisionmaking process. To that end, it is important stage, it will be important to evaluate the
outcome of the process, take follow-up
to structure a process that involves the
actions, arrange for documentation of what
stakeholders in a meaningful way and to

45

HOW TO COMMUNICATE

HOW TO COMMUNICATE
KEY STEPS TO ENGAGING STAKEHOLDERS

It may be useful to employ individuals from

local community organizations to take
advantage of existing networks and
enhance credibility, but one has to make
sure that the individual is qualified, and to
Individual queries may be handled on an
establish his or her role, responsibilities and
ad-hoc basis through, for example, phone
limitations at the start. It is important to
or email. Communication with groups of
stakeholders requires more planning. For a identify the stakeholder group that
small group of stakeholders, it may be feasible represents the opposition and determine
what they specifically want. On major
to involve them in sessions devoted to
issues it may be possible to use advisory
changing undesirable aspects of the
project. One could encourage creativity, but committees to build consensus on specific
project decisions to encourage compromise,
always be up front about the limits for
provide structure, and focus on solving
change and how the suggestions will be
problems that have been identified.
used to influence the final decision.
Proponents will have clear views about the Consensus building techniques include the
Delphi process, nominal group process, and
extent to which they have room to
public value assessment (see Glossary).
manoeuvre.
was said and what agreements were
reached, and share these summaries with
those who participated.

46

1. PLANNING

2. IMPLEMENTING

Implement the stakeholder involvement programme: Act

Design the programme: Define or anticipate the role of

the public and other stakeholders and tailor the
programme to enhance stakeholders involvement.
Seek comments on the programme plan: Test your proposed
programme internally and externally to ensure that it will
work as intended.
Prepare for implementation: Obtain the necessary
resources, choose and train your personnel, develop
contingencies, assess your strengths and weaknesses,
explain the programme internally, find and work with
appropriate community partners, develop a
communications plan, and prepare the most critical
materials.
Be prepared for managing requests for information and
involvement as they arise.
Co-ordinate within your organization: Even small
inconsistencies give an impression of internal confusion
and ineptness. The goal is to avoid giving mixed messages.
Do all you can to keep the same staff in place throughout
the process: They become more proficient and more trusted
in the community over time.

on your plan. Use the tools and techniques appropriate to

the community and the issue.
Provide information that meets your stakeholders needs:
Determine what they want to know now and
anticipate what they will need to know in the future.
Develop a list of problems, issues and needs, with
responses to each. Address, where possible, specific
concerns of different individuals or groups.
Cooperate with other organizations: Co-ordinate messages,
while openly acknowledging any differences. Mixed messages
confuse and create distrust.
Enlist the help of others who have community credibility:
Local groups or residents (e.g., local researchers, medical
doctors) that have credibility can be helpful to the outsider,
but they cannot substitute for a forthright approach and
extensive community involvement.

3. EVALUATING
Use feedback from stakeholders for continuous evaluation:

As you implement the programme, listen carefully to what

others are telling you and follow-up with action.
Evaluate the success of the programme: If stakeholders
are not informally telling you how your process is
working and what would improve it, formally ask their
advice with a questionnaire or other method. Ask again
at the end of the process so their ideas can assist you to
design and implement the next steps.

47

HOW TO COMMUNICATE
For a large group of stakeholders, one could
circulate response sheets to gain
information on public concern and

preferences. It may also be useful to

conduct surveys, questionnaires and polls
via mail and Internet to sample the

EXAMPLES OF ALTERNATIVES
PASSIVE ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Printed materials (fact sheets, brochures, reports)
Websites and list servers
Newspaper advertisement, insertions or solicited stories
Press releases
Radio or television reporter interviews
ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

HOW TO COMMUNICATE
population for attitudes towards specific
aspects of the project. Surveys and polls
done on the Internet will provide useful
information, but may not represent a
statistically valid sample. They will only be
that part of the group that uses the
Internet. A much more efficient method of
performing surveys, albeit much more
expensive, is to use a trained professional
or a specialized polling organization.

Talk to people about the process

Hold open houses e.g., with posters

Do radio or television phone-in dialogue
Use third-party networks (do briefings at community group meetings)
Provide a staffed information hotline or drop-in centre
Arrange for tours of successful similar projects
Sponsor telephone,internet or mail surveys
Respond to personal enquiries
Conduct small meetings
Stakeholder sessions
Focus groups
Citizen advisory councils
Conduct large meetings
Public hearings
Professionally facilitated meetings

48

There are many ways to provide for the

exchange of information. Different
methods will be appropriate for different
stakeholders at different times. If
stakeholders are engaged early in the

process, more passive (one-way) forms of

engagement may be the appropriate place
to start. If the issue is in a crisis stage, an
active form of dialogue that will quickly
define and help solve the perceived
problems is a better choice. Stakeholders
will be involved to varying degrees. Some
may sit quietly through a meeting, while
others will be quite vocal. Some may come
to only one meeting, while others will
never miss one. Some may choose to
communicate through written
correspondence or by posting information
on the Internet. Each level of participation
is valuable and requires an appropriate
response.

49

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES

THE PRESENT SITUATION

WHO DECIDES ON GUIDELINES?

from 0 to 300 GHz. They are based on

Countries set their own national standards for
comprehensive reviews of all the
exposure to electromagnetic fields. However, the published peer-reviewed literature.
majority of national standards are based on the
Exposure limits are based on effects
guidelines set by the International Commission related to short-term acute exposure
on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
rather than long-term exposure, because
(ICNIRP). This non-governmental organization, the available scientific information on
formally recognized by WHO, evaluates scientific the long-term low level effects of
results from all over the world. ICNIRP produces exposure to EMF fields is considered
guidelines recommending limits of exposure,
to be insufficient to establish
which are reviewed periodically and updated as
quantitative limits.
necessary.
Using short-term acute effects,
WHAT ARE GUIDELINES BASED ON?
international guidelines use the
ICNIRP guidelines developed for EMF exposure approximate exposure level, or threshold
cover the non-ionizing radiation frequency range level, that could potentially lead to

51

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES: THE PRESENT SITUATION

adverse biological effects. To allow for

uncertainties in science, this lowest threshold
level is reduced further to derive limit values
for human exposure. For example, ICNIRP
uses a reduction factor of 10 to derive
occupational limits for workers and a factor of
about 50 to arrive at exposure limits for the
general public. The limits vary with frequency,
and are therefore different for low frequency
fields, e.g. power lines, and high frequency
fields, e.g. mobile phones (Figure 9).

are unaware of their exposure to EMF.In

addition,workers are typically exposed only
during the working day (usually 8 hours per
day) while the general public can be exposed for
up to 24 hours per day.These are the underlying
considerations that lead to more stringent
exposure restrictions for the general public than
for the occupationally exposed population
(Figure 9).
PRESENT EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
In general, standards for low frequency

WHY IS A HIGHER REDUCTION FACTOR

APPLIED FOR GENERAL PUBLIC
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES?

The occupationally exposed population consists

of adult workers who are generally aware of
electromagnetic fields and their effects.Workers
are trained to be aware of potential risk and to
take appropriate precautions.By contrast,the
general public consists of individuals of all ages
and of varying health status who,in many cases,
FIGURE 9. ICNIRP GUIDELINES FOR OCCUPATIONAL AND
GENERAL PUBLIC EXPOSURE LIMITS

electromagnetic fields are set to avoid adverse

health effects due to induced electric currents
within the body, while standards for radiofrequency
fields prevent health effects caused by localised or
whole body heating
Maximum exposure levels in everyday life are

typically below guideline limits

Exposure guidelines are not intended to protect

against electromagnetic interference (EMI) with

electromedical devices. New industry standards
are being developed to avoid such interference

53

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES: THE PRESENT SITUATION

PRECAUTIONARY APPROACHES AND

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE

Throughout the world there has been a

growing movement inside and outside of
government to adopt precautionary
approaches for management of health risks
in the face of scientific uncertainty. The range
of actions taken depends on the severity of
harm and the degree of uncertainty
surrounding the issue. When the harm
associated with a risk is small and its
occurrence uncertain, it makes sense to do
little, if anything. Conversely, when the
potential harm is great and there is little
uncertainty about its occurrence, significant
action, such as a ban, is called for (Figure 10).
The Precautionary Principle is usually applied
when there is a high degree of scientific
uncertainty and there is a need to take action
for a potentially serious risk without awaiting
the results of more scientific research. It was
FIGURE 10. RANGE OF ACTIONS UNDER UNCERTAINTY
(adapted from The precautionary principle and EMF: implementation and evaluation,
Kheifets L. et al., Journal of Risk Research 4(2), 113-125, 2001).

defined in the Treaty of Maastricht as taking

prudent action when there is sufficient
scientific evidence (but not necessarily
absolute proof) that inaction could lead to
harm and where action can be justified on
reasonable judgements of cost-effectiveness.
There have been many different
interpretations and applications of the
precautionary principle. In 2000 the
European Commission defined several rules
for the application of this principle (see Box,
page 56), including cost-benefit analyses.
SCIENCE-BASED AND PRECAUTIONARY
APPROACHES FOR EMF

Science-based evaluations of the potential

hazards from EMF exposure form the basis of
risk assessment and are also an essential part
of an appropriate public policy response. The
recommendations of ICNIRP guidelines
follow rigorous scientific reviews of relevant
published scientific papers including those in
55

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2000)
Where action is deemed necessary, measures based
on the precautionary principle should be:
proportional to the chosen level of protection,
non-discriminatory in their application,
consistent with similar measures already taken,
based on an examination of the potential benefits
and costs of action or lack of action (including
where appropriate and feasible, an economic
cost/benefit analysis),
subject of review, in the light of new scientific data, and
capable of assigning responsibility for producing
the scientific evidence necessary for a more
comprehensive risk assessment.

the fields of medicine, epidemiology, biology

and dosimetry. Science-based judgements on
exposure levels that will prevent identified
adverse health effects are then made. Here,
caution is exercised both in respect of the
magnitude of reduction factors (based on
uncertainties in the scientific data and on
possible differences in susceptibility of
certain groups) and in the conservative
56

assumptions made about the efficiency with

which EMFs interact with people.
Precautionary approaches, such as the
Precautionary Principle, address additional
uncertainties as to possible but unproven
adverse health effects. Such risk management
policies provide an opportunity to take
incremental steps with respect to emerging
issues. They should include cost-benefit
considerations and should be seen as an
addition to, and not as a substitute for,
science-based approaches in assisting
decision-makers to develop public policy.
In the context of the EMF issue, some
national and local governments have adopted
prudent avoidance, a variant of the
precautionary principle, as a policy option. It
was originally used for ELF fields and is
described as using simple, easily achievable,
low to modest (prudent) cost measures to

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES: THE PRESENT SITUATION

reduce individual or public EMF exposure,

even in the absence of certainty that the
measures would reduce risk.
The explicit recognition that a risk may not
exist is a key element of precautionary
approaches. If the scientific community
concludes that there is no risk from EMF
exposure or that the possibility of a risk is too
speculative, then the appropriate response to
public concern should be an effective
education programme. If a risk for EMF were
to be established, it would then be
appropriate to rely on the scientific
community to recommend specific protective
measures using established public health risk
assessment/risk management criteria. If large
uncertainties remain, then more research will
be needed.
If regulatory authorities react to public
pressure by introducing precautionary limits

in addition to the already existing sciencebased limits, they should be aware that this
undermines the credibility of the science and
the exposure limits.
WHAT IS THE
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION DOING?

In response to growing public concern over

possible adverse health effects from exposure
to a rising number and diversity of EMF
sources, the World Health Organization
(WHO) launched the International EMF Project
in 1996. All health risk assessments will be
completed by 2006.
The International EMF Project brings
together current knowledge and available
resources of key international and national
agencies and scientific institutions in order to
assess health and environmental effects of
exposure to static and time varying electric
and magnetic fields in the frequency range 0 57

EMF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES AND POLICIES: THE PRESENT SITUATION

KEY OBJECTIVES
WHO INTERNATIONAL EMF PROJECT
1. Provide a coordinated international response to concerns about
possible health effects of exposure to EMF,
2. Assess the scientific literature and makes status reports on
health effects,
3. Identify gaps in knowledge needing further research to make better health
risk assessments,
4. Encourage focused, high quality research programmes,
5. Incorporate research results into WHOs Environmental Health Criteria monographs
where formal health risk assessments will be made of EMF exposure,
6. Facilitate the development of internationally acceptable standards for EMF exposure,

300 GHz. The Project has been designed to

follow a logical progression of activities and
produce a series of outputs to allow improved
health risk assessments to be made and to
identify any environmental impacts of EMF
exposure.
The Project is administered at the World
Health Organization headquarters in Geneva,
since it is the only United Nations
Organization with a clear mandate to
investigate detrimental health effects from
exposure of people to non-ionizing radiation.

WHO collaborates with 8 international

agencies, over 50 national authorities, and 7
collaborating centres on non-ionizing
radiation protection from major national
government agencies.
Further details on the EMF Project and results
achieved so far are available on the home page at:
http://www.who.int/emf/.

International
EMF Project

7. Provide information on the management of EMF protection programmes for national and
other authorities, including monographs on EMF risk perception, communication and
management, and
8. Provide advice to national authorities and others on EMF health and environmental
effects and any protective measures or actions needed.

59

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

ABSORPTION In radio wave propagation, attenuation of a radio

wave due to dissipation of its energy, i.e. conversion of its energy
into another form, such as heat.
ACUTE Short term, immediate consequence.
ALARA A cautionary policy. As Low As Reasonably Achievable
used to minimize risks, taking into account different factors such
as costs, benefits or feasibility factors. It is only appropriate when
considering a stochastic risk assumed to have no threshold.
Originally used for ionizing radiation.
ASSOCIATION In epidemiology, a connection established on the
basis of statistical calculations in the sense that, in individuals
exhibiting a certain clinical picture, certain environmental factors
appear more frequently than in individuals without that picture.
The existence of an association does not constitute proof of a
causal link, but may well prompt further research.
BASE STATION (mobile telephone) A base station consists of
the antenna(s) emitting electromagnetic radiation in the radio
frequency range, the supporting structure, the equipment cabinet
and the cable structure.
BASIC RESTRICTION Health-based exposure limits that relate to
certain electromagnetic phenomena that, if exceeded, may lead to
health impairment in the human body. For static fields these limits
are the electric and magnetic field strengths, for alternating fields
up to around 10 MHz, they are the electric current that is induced
in the body, and for alternating fields greater than about 100 kHz

60

they are the conversion that takes place in the body

from electromagnetic energy into heat. Between 100
kHz and 10 MHz, both the induction of currents in the
body and the generation of heat are important.
CAUTIONARY APPROACH Cautionary approaches
are used for management of health risks in the face
of scientific uncertainty, high potential risk, and
public controversy. Several different policies
promoting caution have been developed to address
concerns about public, occupational and
environmental health issues.

DELPHI PROCESS A method for developing consensus,

presented in two variations. The first variation includes the
following steps: identify individuals who are most
knowledgeable about the issue and ask them to identify
others; repeat this until it is clear who people think are the
experts; then, draw predictions from those experts, report the
responses to them and ask if they wish to change their
personal predictions; finally, repeat the process until the
members choose to make no more changes. The second
variation includes the following steps: use an expert panel,
but ask stakeholders to name the experts they trust most; ask
stakeholders to respond to questionnaires about the issue;
provide their responses to the experts; and repeat the
process until the experts have sufficient confidence to make
decisions or propose recommendations they feel the
community will accept.
DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP The relationship
between exposure, characterized by level and duration, and
the incidence and/or severity of adverse effects.

EMISSION Generally emissions are substances discharged

into the air; in this handbook emissions are electromagnetic
waves radiated by a source (e.g. power line or antenna).
EPIDEMIOLOGY Study of disease and health in human
populations and of the factors that influence them.
EXPOSURE Concentration, amount or intensity of a
particular agent that reaches a target system.
EXPOSURE LIMIT Values of specific parameters related to
the strength of the electromagnetic field to which people may
be maximally exposed. A difference is made between basic
restrictions and reference levels.
EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY (ELF) Frequencies above
zero and below 300 Hz.
FREQUENCY The number of complete waves or cycles per
second passing a given point. The unit is hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle
per second).
HAZARD A source of possible damage or injury.

DOSIMETRY The technique to determine the amount of

electromagnetic energy absorbed in the body or its tissues.

HEALTH A state of complete physical, mental and social

well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

CARCINOGENIC A substance or agent that causes

cancer.

EFFECT Change in the state or dynamics of a system,

caused by the action of an agent.

INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF) Electromagnetic fields

within the frequency range 300 Hz to 10 MHz.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS An economic method

for assessing the costs and benefits of achieving
alternative standards with different levels of health
protection.

ELECTRIC FIELD A region associated with a distribution of

electric forces acting upon electric charges

INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is a
specialized agency of the World Health Organization. Its mission
is to coordinate and conduct research on the causes of human
cancer, the mechanisms of carcinogenesis, and to develop
scientific strategies for cancer control.

CRISIS A crucial or decisive point when conflict

reaches its highest level of tension; a turning point.
In the Issue Life Cycle, the crisis stage is when the
participants demand immediate action, i.e. when the
dialogue stops, and the established process is no
longer working.

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) The property

of an electrical or electronic apparatus to function
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without
introducing unacceptable interference signals to that
environment.
EMF Abbreviation for Electric and Magnetic Fields or
Electromagnetic Fields.

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR NON-IONIZING

RADIATION PROTECTION The International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) is an independent
international scientific organization whose aims are to provide
guidance and advice on the health hazards of non-ionizing
radiation exposure. It is in formal relations with the World

61

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Health Organization, the International Labor Organization and

the Commission of the European Communities.
LIFE CYCLE Tracking a project or a public concern through
time at all stages of its development and evolution.
LONG-TERM EFFECT Biological effect that only manifests
itself a long time after exposure.
MAGNETIC FIELD A region associated with forces acting
upon ferromagnetic particles or moving electric charges.
MICROWAVES Electromagnetic fields of sufficiently short
wavelength for which practical use can be made of waveguide
and associated cavity techniques in its transmission and
reception. The term is taken to signify radiation or fields
having a frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
MOBILE TELEPHONY A means of telecommunication
where at least one of the users has a mobile phone to
communicate via a base station with a stationary or another
mobile phone user.
NOMINAL GROUP PROCESS A moderated group
dynamics technique useful for goal setting and problem
identification; the group responds to a value or conflict-laden
question individually writing all responses in the form of a list;
each participant reads one response until all the responses
(including duplicated responses indicated by a check) are
visibly listed; discussion for clarification or in-depth issues
discussion follows; if the goal is a prioritized list, the
moderator then asks all to individually and silently rate the
top three (or another agreed upon number) items listed and
then repeats the response recording process; the moderator
then leads the group through a discussion which results in a
priorities list and may produce an action plan for
implementing those items.
NON-IONIZING RADIATION Non-ionizing radiations (NIR)
are electromagnetic waves that have photon energies too
weak to break atomic bonds.

62

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE All exposure to EMF

experienced by individuals in the course of performing their
work.
PEER REVIEW Evaluation of the accuracy or validity of
technical data, observations, and interpretation by qualified
experts.

GLOSSARY

REFERENCE LEVELS Values for the strength of the

undisturbed electric and magnetic field that are derived from
the basic restrictions and which serve to establish whether the
basic restrictions are being satisfied. Measuring the quantities
that underlie the basic restrictions is not easy; whereas the
electric and magnetic field strength is easily measured.

SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR) The rate at which

energy is absorbed in body tissues, in watt per kilogram
(W/kg); SAR is the dosimetric measure that has been widely
adopted at frequencies above about 100 kHz.
STAKEHOLDER A person or a group who has an interest in
the outcome of a policy or decision, or seeks to influence the
outcome.

PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE The principle of taking

measures to limit a certain activity or exposure, even when it
has not been fully established that the activity or exposure
constitutes a health hazard.

REGULATION A legislated set of rules, usually under an act

of parliament.

PROPORTIONALITY What is done to protect against risk of

one agent or circumstance is about the same as has been
done for other agents or circumstances of similar concern.

RISK ASSESSMENT A formal process used to describe and

estimate the likelihood of adverse health outcomes from
environmental exposures to an agent. The four steps are
hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure
assessment, and risk characterization.

THRESHOLD LEVEL Minimal value of the exposure

parameter necessary for an effect to be first observed.

RISK COMMUNICATION An interactive process of exchange

of information and opinion among individuals, groups and
institutions. It involves multiple messages about the nature of
risk and other messages, not strictly about risks, that express
concerns, opinions, or reactions to risk messages, or to legal
and institutional arrangements for risk management.

WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE Considerations involved in

assessing and interpreting published scientific information.
These include the quality of methods, ability of a study to
detect adverse effects, consistency of results across studies,
and biological plausibility of cause-and-effect relationships.

PRUDENT AVOIDANCE Cautionary measures that can be

taken to reduce public exposure at little or modest cost; i.e.,
prudent refers to expenditures.
PUBLIC EXPOSURE All exposure to EMF experienced by
members of the general public, excluding occupational
exposure and exposure during medical procedures.
PUBLIC HEALTH The science and practice of protecting and
improving the health of a community, as by preventive
medicine, health education, control of communicable
diseases, application of sanitary measures, and monitoring of
environmental hazards.
PUBLIC VALUE ASSESSMENT Understanding how the
community values something.
RADIOFREQUENCY (RF) Any frequency at which
electromagnetic radiation is useful for telecommunications.
Here, radiofrequency refers to the frequency range 10 MHz
300 GHz.
REDUCTION FACTOR Size of the reduction or safety factor
in the exposure limit that incorporates uncertainties in the data.

RISK The probability of a specific outcome, generally

adverse, given a particular set of conditions.

RISK MANAGEMENT The process of identifying, evaluating,

selecting, and implementing actions to reduce risk to human
health and to ecosystems.
RISK PERCEPTION The way that an individual or a group
perceives and values a certain risk. A particular risk or hazard
can have a different meaning depending on the individual
and the context.

STATIC FIELDS Electric or magnetic fields having no time

variation, i.e. 0 Hz.
THERMAL EFFECTS Biological effects caused by heating.

UNCERTAINTY Imperfect knowledge about the state of a

system under consideration.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION The World Health

Organization (WHO) is a United Nations agency with the
mandate to act as the directing and coordinating authority on
international health work, promoting technical co-operation,
assisting Governments in strengthening health services, and
working towards the prevention and control of epidemic,
endemic and other diseases.

RISK SURVEILLANCE The process of monitoring and

providing feedback to the ongoing risk management process
with surveillance systems collecting data over time on risk
factors and on health outcomes.
SHORT-TERM EFFECT Biological effect that occurs during
or shortly after exposure.

63

FURTHER READING

US EPA (1989): Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS). Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Part A.
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsa/index.htm

FURTHER READING

US EPA (1989): Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS). Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Part C.
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsc/index.htm

US EPA (2000): Social Aspects of Siting Hazardous Waste

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/tsds/site/k00005.pdf

Wilkins,L.(Ed.) (1991):Risky business:communicating issues of science,risk,and public policy.New York,NY:Greenwood Press.

Flynn,J.(Ed.) (2001):Risk,media and stigma:understanding public challenges to modern science and technology.London:Earthscan.
Gutteling, J.M., Wiegman, O. (1996): Exploring risk communication. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Windahl, S., Signitzer, B., and Olson, J.T. 2000. Using Communication Theory: An Introduction to Planned Communication.
SAGE, London.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (2002): Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF)
Electric and Magnetic Fields. Monograph Volume 80, Lyon, France

Yosie,T.F.,Herbst,T.D.(1998):Using Stakeholder Processes in Environmental Decision making.

Kammen, D.M., Hassenzahl, D.M. (1999): Should we risk it? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

ON RISK PERCEPTION, RISK COMMUNICATION AND

RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Lundgren, R.E., McMakin, A.H. (1998): Risk communication: A handbook for communicating environmental, safety & health
risks. Battelle Press.

EMF Risk Perception and Communication, 1999. Proceedings from the International Seminar on EMF Risk Perception and
Communication, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. M.H. Repacholi and A.M. Muc, Editors, World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland.

National Research Council (1989): Improving risk communication. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

http://www.riskworld.com/Nreports/1998/STAKEHOLD/HTML/nr98aa01.htm

National Research Council (1994): Science and judgment in risk assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Phillips Report for the UK Government on the BSE crisis (2000), Volume 1, Findings & Conclusions, Chapter 14,

Risk Perception, Risk Communication and its Application to EMF Exposure, 1998. Proceedings from the International Seminar
on EMF Risk Perception and Communication, Vienna, Austria. R. Matthes, J. H. Bernhardt, M.H. Repacholi, Editors,
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection.

http://www.bse.org.uk/pdf/index.htm

http://www.icnirp.org/

Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management (1997): Final report, Vol. 1: Framework for
environmental health risk assessment. Washington, DC.
Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management (1997): Final report, Vol. 2: Risk assessment
and risk management in regulatory decision-making. Washington, DC.
Rodericks, J.V. (1992): Calculated risks. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

64

65

ESTABLISHING A DIALOGUE ON RISKS FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

ON ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND HEALTH IN GENERAL

The World Health Organization International EMF Project
http://www.who.int/emf

The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)

http://www.icnirp.org

The National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) of the United Kingdom

http://www.nrpb.org

The NIEHS special RAPID program on electromagnetic fields

http://www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid

ON RISK COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT IN GENERAL

The annotated bibliography on risk communication of the National Cancer Institute of the United States
http://dccps.nci.nih.gov/DECC/riskcommbib/

The Department of Health of the United Kingdom on: Communicating About Risks to Health: Pointers to Good Practice
http://www.doh.gov.uk/pointers.htm

The annotated guide on literature about risk assessment, risk management and risk communication of the Research Center
Jelich/Germany
http://www.fz-juelich.de/mut/rc/inhalt.html

The US Environmental Protection Agency on risk assessment and policy options

http://www.epa.gov/ORD/spc

A description of current national guidelines can be found on the WHO web page at
http://www.who.int/docstore/peh-emf/EMFStandards/who-0102/Worldmap5.htm

66

WWW.WHO.INT
RADIATION & ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
PROTECTION OF THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
21 AVENUE APPIA
CH-1211 GENEVA 27
SWITZERLAND
TEL: + 41 22 791 2111
FAX: + 41 22 791 4123
EMAIL: [email protected]