Astronomy 110: SURVEY OF ASTRONOMY

12. The Milky Way Galaxy

1. Structure of the Milky Way
2. Generations of Stars
3. Origin and Center

The Milky Way Galaxy is a vast pinwheel of stars and

gas turning within an enormous cloud of invisible
matter. Many generations of stars have formed and
died within its disk, enriching our galaxys stock of
heavy elements. Before the disk formed, the future
Milky Way probably existed as several distinct galaxies
which fell together and merged.

1. STRUCTURE OF THE MILKY WAY

a. Layout and Populations

b. Galactic Rotation
c. Visible and Dark Mass

Layout and Populations

Moonlight, Mars, and Milky Way

The Milky Way From Mauna Kea

The Milky Way: All-Sky View

All-Sky Panorama

Our View in Perspective

We see the Milky Way as a band across the sky because

were looking at a vast disk of stars from inside.

All-Sky View: Visible Light

All-Sky Panorama

We cant really see where we are because interstellar

dust hides most of the Milky Way from out view.

All-Sky View: Infrared Light

The Milky Way in Infrared

Infrared light is not absorbed by dust, affording us a

view of the entire Milky Way.

ha

bulge

lo

you are
here

ha

lo

From Outside: Edge-On View

disk

ha
lo

lo
ha

globular
clusters

Globular clusters swarm around the galactic center.

The MW has three main parts: bulge, disk, & halo.

you are
here

Two of the Milky Way's Spiral Arms Go Missing

Two of the Milky Way's Spiral Arms Go Missing

Open clusters

Globular clusters

Population I

Population II

Populations of the Milky Way

Population

II

Location

Disk

Bulge, Halo

Age (Gyr)

0 10

10 12

Metals

Solar

Sub-Solar

Orbits

The Scale of the Milky Way

you are
here

3000 ly
28,000 ly

105 ly
Our galaxy itself contains 100,000,000,000 stars / Its 100,000 light years
side to side / It bulges at the middle / 16,000 light years thick / But out by
us its just 3,000 light years wide / Were 30,000 light years from galactic
central point... / We go round . . .
The Galaxy Song (Monty Python)

Galacitc Rotation

Solar
Neighborhood

Most stars near the Sun

have random velocities
of a few tens of km/sec.
These stars orbit the galactic
center at ~230 km/sec.

Galactic
Center

Stellar Orbits
Disk stars (yellow) all
move in the same
direction on roughly
circular orbits.
Stars in the bulge (red)
and halo (green) move
in fairly random orbits.
Note: compare with
orbits in solar system!

Populations of the Milky Way

Population

II

Location

Disk

Bulge, Halo

Age (Gyr)

0 10

10 12

Metals

Solar

Sub-Solar

Orbits

Circular

Random

This helps us understand the MWs history . . .

Disk Galaxy Simulation

Photo-Dynamic Galaxy Model

Rotation Curves
A wheel turns with
speed proportional to
distance from center:
v

r
Milky
Way
Galaxy

In a planetary system,
planets further out
orbit more slowly:
v

1
r

Milky
Way
Galaxy

Suns distance

200
100

The Milky Ways

rotation curve
follows neither
wheel-like nor
planetary laws!

Orbital speed (km/s)

300

Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

20,000

40,000

60,000

Distance from galactic center (ly)

After rising steeply near the center, it stays roughly flat

out to the last point we can measure . . .

Visible and Dark Mass

The period P and radius a of an orbit allow us to work
out the total mass M:
(If P is in years and a
a3
M= 2
in AU, get M in M.)
P
In general, given the radius r and speed v of a circular
orbit, the total mass within r is:
(This is exact if the
r v2
M
G
mass is spherical.)
The mass within the Suns orbit is about 1011 M
twice the total mass in stars and gas within this radius!

200

Observed

Expected
100

If visible stars
and gas were all,
the Milky Ways
rotation curve
should decline.

Orbital speed (km/s)

300

Dark Matter in the Milky Way

20,000

40,000

60,000

Distance from galactic center (ly)

Most of our galaxys mass is invisible! Since it emits no

light, its called dark matter.

The Milky Ways Dark Halo

The Milky Ways total mass is at least 51011 M. More

than 80% of this mass is dark.

What Is All This Stuff?

We Dunno!

2. GENERATIONS OF STARS

a. Recycling Gas and Stars

b. The Interstellar Medium
c. Where the Stars Form

Recycling
Gas & Stars

Aging low-mass stars eject their outer layers.

M57: The Ring Nebula

Winds from high-mass stars blow bubbles of hot gas.

Thor's Emerald Helmet

Supernova blast waves expand into interstellar space.

SN 1006 Supernova Remnant

NGC 6992: Filaments of the Veil Nebula

Elements made in stars are mixed back into the gas.

The Veil Nebula Unveiled

Bubbles blown by high-mass stars burst out of the disk.

The W4 Chimney

The gas cools and falls back into the galaxy.

Burst of Star Formation Drives Bubble in Galaxy's Core

p+ + e- H
H + H H2

Cooling gas forms clouds of atomic and then molecular H.

Dark Markings of the Sky

Stars form in molecular clouds, and the cycle repeats.

The Pillars of Eagle Castle

Galactic Recycling Summary

Stars fuse hydrogen, making heavier elements.

Dying stars expel hot (T ~ 106 K) bubbles of gas.

As gas cools (T ~ 104 K), hydrogen atoms recombine.

Further cooling (T ~ 30 K) allows molecules to form.

Gravity forms new stars in molecular clouds..

The Interstellar Medium: A Multi-Wavelength View

Observations at different wavelengths show different

phases (ie, forms) of the interstellar medium.

The Radio Sky

North Polar Spur

Low-energy photons are

emitted by free electrons

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Shows hot, ionized interstellar gas and magnetic fields;

North Polar Spur is an old, nearby supernova remnant.

The 21-cm Sky

Microwave photons are
emitted by H atoms

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Shows warm, neutral interstellar gas clouds up to

hundreds of light-years across.

The 2.6-cm Sky

Microwave photons are
emitted by CO molecules

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Traces cold, dense H2 clouds concentrated in disk of

MW; often associated with star formation.

The Far-IR Sky

Long- IR photons are
emitted by warm dust

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Shows star-forming regions buried in molecular clouds,

and diffuse dust far from MWs disk (red).

The Near-IR Sky

Short- IR photons are
emitted by stars

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Reveals cool main sequence and giant stars in MWs

disk and bulge; some dust absorption at shortest s.

The Visible Sky

Visible light is given off
by stars

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Bright areas are star-fields and emission nebulae; dark

blobs are clouds of dust and gas.

The X-Ray Sky

Energetic photons are
emitted by hot gas

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Traces hot gas bubbles bursting out of the disk; point

sources are X-ray binaries.

The Gamma-Ray Sky

Very energetic photons
are made by cosmic rays

Multi- All-Sky

Multi- Milky Way

Traces high gas densities and supernova remnants

and also other galaxies with central activity.

stars form

cooling

Radio

21 cm

2.6 cm

Far-IR

Near-IR

stars die

Visible

X-ray

Gamma ray

Phases of the Interstellar Medium: Summary

Cold dense gas (T 30 K or less, n 300 atoms/cm3
or more). Most gas is in the form of molecules.
Warm gas (T 8000 K, n 1 atom/cm3). Most of the
gas is in the form of single atoms.
Hot gas (T 105 K or more, n 0.001 atom/cm3 or
less). Atoms are ionized (e- and nuclei are separated).

Where the Stars Form

Young, hot stars ionize the surrounding gas; glowing

emission nebulae are signposts of star formation.

Light from somewhat cooler stars is scattered by dust,

producing blue reflection nebulae.

Galactic Star Formation

All-Sky Panorama

Halo, bulge: blue stars and

emission nebulae absent
no star formation

Disk: blue stars and

emission nebulae present
star formation!

Spiral Arms

Spiral arms are density waves; they rotate more

slowly than the underlying stars and gas.
M51: The Whirlpool Galaxy in Dust and Stars

Spiral Arms
p
u
h

c
n
u

ut

do

a
re
sp

ut

do

a
re

sp

p
u
h

c
n
u

M51: The Whirlpool Galaxy in Dust and Stars

Blue stars

Spiral Arms
Molecular
clouds

Emission
nebulae

In the disk, spiral arms are sites of rapid star formation

due to compression of gas clouds as they bunch up.
M51: The Whirlpool Galaxy in Dust and Stars

Disk Galaxy Simulation

Photo-Dynamic Galaxy Model

3. ORIGIN AND CENTER

a. The Collapse Scenario

b. Hierarchical Galaxy Formation
c. The Milky Ways Center

Stellar Populations

All-Sky Panorama

Halo, bulge: Population II

10 12 Gyr old; very
low metal content

Disk: Population I
0 10 Gyr old; nearSolar metal content

The Collapse Scenario

A giant gas cloud cools and collapses . . .

begins forming stars . . .
settles into a thin disk . . .
and continues forming stars.

Origin of Stellar Populations

Stars formed early in the collapse have random, plunging orbits

and low metal content Population II (halo)
Stars formed later in the collapse are centrally concentrated and
have intermediate metal content Population II (bulge)
Stars formed after the gas settles into a disk have circular orbits
and high metal content Population I (disk)

Warning: This
model is
oversimplified.

Stars continuously form in the disk as the galaxy grows older.

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Problems With the Collapse Scenario

1. Outer halo should be older and have less metals.
globular clusters show no clear trend with distance
2. Collapse to 1% of initial size needed to spin up disk.
time required is comparable to age of universe
3. Expect metals to build up gradually in disk.
oldest disk stars nearly as metal-rich as the Sun
Does not address role or structure of dark halo!

Scientific Method
Observe Nature
Suggest Explanation
(a.k.a. Hypothesis)
False?

Make Predictions
True?

Trust Hypothesis
(a little, anyway)

Hierarchical Galaxy Formation

Universe in a Box

Clumps of dark matter fall together and merge, building

up larger and larger objects over time.

Formation of Milky Ways Dark Halo

via lactea project

Builds up by repeated mergers of smaller dark halos.

Detailed studies: Halo stars formed in clumps that later

merged.
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Stellar Halo Formation

Stellar Halo Movies

Halo stars form in dwarf galaxies which are later torn

apart by Milky Ways gravitational field.

Disruption of the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy

Messier 54

Sgr 3D Visualization

Mergers are still adding long streams of stars to the

Milky Ways stellar halo!

Disk Formation

Gas Rich Mergers And Disk Galaxy Formation

Galactic disks form by infall of gas; theyre disrupted by

violent galaxy mergers.

An all-sky map of high-velocity clouds

Infalling gas is detected by 21-cm radio observations.

Hierarchical Galaxy Formation: Successes

Accretion of multiple dwarf galaxies explains mixed-up
properties of Milky Ways stellar halo.
Disks form at centers of dark halos; problems with
extreme and very slow collapse are resolved.
Continuous infall of gas allows disk to build up nearsolar metal abundance early.

What lies in the center of our

galaxy?

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Infrared light from center

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Radio emission from center

Radio emission from center

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Swirling gas near center

Swirling gas near center

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Orbiting stars near center

Stellar Orbits in the Central Parsec

Stars appear to
be orbiting
something
massive but
invisible
a black hole?
Orbits of stars
indicate a mass
of about
4 million Msun.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

X-ray flares
from galactic
center suggest
that tidal forces
of suspected
black hole
occasionally
tear apart
chunks of
matter about to
fall in.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.