PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Reservoir Rocks

Reservoir Rocks
Review
In this topic the student is introduced to the key properties of
oil and gas reservoir rocks.

Content
Introduction
The reservoir is the portion of rock containing the pool of petroleum. It is
usually composed of unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks, such as
sandstones, limestones and dolomites. However, reservoirs do, rarely,
occur in igneous, metamorphic and shale rocks. Pools of hydrocarbons
accumulate within rocks that have enough space to accommodate them.
For commercial viability, this pool must be big enough. What is regarded
as big enough depends on many factors including porosity,
permeability, and location of the reservoir and proximity to other
reservoirs or fields. A reservoir formation must have both porosity and
permeability.
Porosity, or the presence of void spaces, enables the rock to contain
hydrocarbons and other fluids. The greater the porosity, the greater the
holding characteristics of the rock. Porosity alone however does not make
recovery of formation fluids possible. If all the pore spaces are sealed off
after hydrocarbon migration, recovery will be nigh on impossible as no
fluid will be able to flow through the rock. For this to be viable the rock
also needs permeability. Permeability is a measure of the ease of fluid
flow through the rock, ie, the connectivity between the pore spaces.

Porosity
Void spaces within most rocks usually contain connate water. It is this
water which is displaced due to hydrocarbon migration. Porosity can be
expressed as a void ratio or percentage.
Equation 1

Porosity ( ) =

Volume of voids
100%
Bulk volume

Porosity is independent of grain size, but is affected by sorting and

roundness of grains. Pores take on three different morphologies (Figure
1).

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Figure 1. Pore Morphology.

Hydrocarbons can be recovered from catenary and cul-de-sac pores but
not from closed pores. Catenary pores may be flushed out by natural or
artificial water flow, whereas cul-de-sac pores will only produce
hydrocarbons due to expansion as reservoir pressures drop. The ratio of
total to effective porosity is important as it relates directly to
permeability.
Most reservoirs are water wet. This means that, even in an oil sand,
there will be a thin film of water attached atomically to the surface of
each grain (Figure 2). It cannot be removed and is known as the
irreducible water content (Sw).

Figure 2. Irreducible Water Films.

This film of water will occupy a proportion of the pore space and will
therefore reduce the porosity of the reservoir. We define the effective
porosity of the reservoir as:
Equation 2

Effective porosity = porosity(1 S w )

Since in a fine grained rock the pore spaces are small, the irreducible
water content will affect a greater proportion of the porosity. Effective
porosity is therefore affected by grain size. Small pores will be completely
filled with water due to capillary action. Effective porosities are commonly
5-10% lower than the total porosity. Common reservoir porosities are
10-20% with exceptions of 5-30%. Carbonates generally have higher
porosities and permeabilities than clastic reservoirs.

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Nature of Porosity
Porosity can be defined as primary or secondary. Primary porosity is that
present after deposition on first burial, whereas secondary porosity is
that formed sometime after deposition. Primary porosity will only be
maintained if the grains are not altered, fractured or dissolved in any way
and depends on factors such as:

uniformity of grain size;

grain shape;

manner of packing, which is related to the above;

effects of compaction after deposition.

Primary porosity may be further broken down into two subsets, namely,
intergranular (interparticle) and intragranular (intraparticle). Interparticle
pores are present in all sediments initially, but are often lost quickly in
carbonate sands and shales due to compaction and cementation.
Intraparticle pores are generally found within skeletal grains (fossils) of
carbonate sands. Compaction and cementation again, may destroy this.
Most of the porosity in sandstone is preserved primary interparticle
porosity.
In theory, the grain size should make no difference to the percentage of
porosity. However, large grained sediments are much more likely to have
a wide variety of grain sizes. Smaller grains will take up the pore spaces
between larger grains. Hence fine overall grained sediments may have
higher porosities than course grained sediments.
Uniform spherical grains have a higher theoretical porosity than that of
angular grains. However, in practice, spherical grains pack with minimal
porosity, as absolute uniformity of grain size is never achieved, whereas
angular grains tend not to. The highest porosity is often found in
sediments containing well sorted angular grains.
Porosity as can be seen is highly dependent on sorting. Packing helps sort
grains according to size but also tends to make the rock as tight as
possible. Packing is an ongoing process during rock formation as
depositional packing will be followed by post-depositional packing and
then compaction under increasing loads produced by burial. Compaction
deforms the rock grains in an irreversible manner past their elastic limit.
Secondary porosity is generally referred to as the occurrence of extra
pore spaces caused by post-depositional and diagenetic processes. In
sandstones, modification of primary porosity is due mainly to interlocking
of grains through compaction, contact solution and re-deposition, and to
cementation. In carbonates, the principle modifications are due to
solution, recrystallisation, fracturing and cementation. Sandstones and
carbonates therefore have very different natural porosity characteristics.
Due to continued burial, however, unless secondary porosity is formed at
a rate in excess of the loss due to compaction, the total resultant porosity
may in fact be less than the original primary porosity.
Solution porosity is common in carbonate reservoirs and is present in two
forms. Moldic porosity occurs when only the grains or rock matrix is
leached out. Vuggy porosity is formed when leaching and resultant pores

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cross cut grains, matrices and cementatious particles. Vuggy porosity

tends to be larger than moldic porosity, and is termed cavenous porosity
when it reaches a larger scale, sometimes several metres across.
Cementation porosity again takes on two forms. Fenestral porosity occurs
where there is a gap in the rock that is larger than the grain supported
interstices. This could appear to be a primary form of porosity but is due
in fact to shrinkage and buckling caused by dehydration,
characteristically of lagoonal deposits. Intercrystalline porosity refers to
pore that occur between the crystal faces of crystalline rocks. Most
recrystallised limestone have negligible porosity. Dolomitization
(replacement of calcite with dolomite) in the formation of secondary
dolomites however results in as much as 13% shrinkage in size from the
original rock bulk, leading to a much greater porosity. Intercrystalline
pores are characteristically angular (polyhedral) with sheet like throats.
Fracture porosity is rare in unconsolidated, loosely cemented sediments
as they flow plastically under applied stress. Relatively brittle rocks, such
as limestones, sandstones, shales and igneous and metamorphic rocks
may however contain large numbers of fractures. Fractures tend to be
larger than most pores and increase permeability as well as overall
porosity. Fractures can be caused by tectonics, compaction, dehydration
and diagenesis. Tectonically, fracturing tends to occur under three
different scenarios (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Fracture Porosity and Tectonics (after Selley, 1998).

These characteristics may again be altered by tectonics. Faulting, folding
and the presence of unconformities may create fracturing on a large
scale, even in quite ductile rocks.

Porosity Measurement
There are several techniques for porosity measurement. The most direct
techniques in the laboratory involve the withdrawal of air from the pore
spaces using a vacuum, and measurement of the volume of displaced air.
This combined with a calculation comparison to the bulk sample volume
can be used to determine porosity. For clastic reservoirs the
measurements are commonly made on quite small samples or core plugs.
For carbonate reservoirs, however, the nature of the porosity may be
insufficiently homogeneous for the use of small samples to give accurate

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readings. The presence of vugs for instance may be completely missed.

Full core samples are generally used for analysis of carbonate reservoirs
therefore. Porosity may also be measured indirectly from geophysical well
logs and seismic data.

Permeability
Permeability is the property of a medium of allowing fluids to pass
through it without change in the structure of the medium or displacement
of its parts, or more simply, a measure of the ease of which a fluid will
pass through a rock. It can be defined from the relationship:
Q=

K.(P1 P2 ).A
L

(Darcy' s Law)

Q = rate of flow

Equation 3

K = permeabilty
(P1 - P2 ) = pressure drop across sample
A = cross sectional area
L = length of sample
= viscosity of fluid

The unit of permeability is the Darcy (from H.Darcy who carried out the
original work on permeability in the 1850s) and is defined as the
permeability that allows a fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at a
velocity of 1 cm/s for a pressure drop of 1 atm/cm.
Permeability is a property of the rock. The higher the permeability the
faster, and therefore the more economic, the well production. The
presence of irreducible water content reduces the permeability, and it is
the job of the petroleum engineer to calculate the effective or relative
permeability. Permeability is measured in millidarcies (md). Average
reservoirs have permeabilities of between 5-1000 Md. An approximate
appraisal of permeability is:

fair:

1.0 10.0 md

good:

10.0 100.0 md

very good:

100.0 1000.0 md.

In the laboratory, permeability is measured using a permeameter (Figure

4). As with porosity measurement, smaller samples may be used for
homogeneous rocks, whereas full core samples may be needed for proper
appraisal for rocks such as vuggy carbonates. Usually a gas such as
nitrogen is pumped through the sample and readings taken. Mobile or
mini - permeaters which pump nitrogen via a sealed probe that is
pressed against the rock sample are also commonly used for convenience
as they are portable. Permeability often varies in direction, and is
generally greater horizontally along the bedding than vertically across it.
Measurements are commonly taken in both directions therefore. In the
field permeability can be measured via drill stem testing, where the
production zone to be tested is isolated and allowed to flow, or from
wireline logging.

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P1

Fluid of viscosity

P2

A
L

Figure 4. Permeameter Schematic.

Darcys Law is only valid for situations of uniform porosity/permeability
and for single phases. As most reservoirs will contain water as well as
hydrocarbons, the concept of effective permeability must be taken into
account in the same way that we have effective porositiy. The mutual
interference of fluids with one another within the reservoir is generally
retardative to absolute permeability. The capacity for flow of each fluid
present is therefore less relative to flow capacity for each individual fluid
if it were the only one present. Figure 5 illustrates how an oil and gas
mixture may affect flow. As can be seen, just because only one fluid is
produced, does not mean that the rock does not contain other fluids.
Hence, water free oil may be produced from water wet reservoir rocks.

Figure 5. Relative Permeability.

The Effect of Capillary Pressure

Most reservoirs are water wet and will contain a certain irreducible water
content. The level of water content will depend on the capillary
characteristics of the rock. The capillary pressure is the difference
between the ambient pressure and the pressure exerted by the column of
liquid. In the laboratory it can easily be demonstrated that capillary
pressures increase with decreasing tube diameter, and hence pore size in
reservoir rocks (Figure 6, left). Capillary pressure is also related to the
surface tension between adjacent fluids. The greater the surface tension,
the greater the capillary pressure. Capillary pressure tests can tell us a
lot about the reservoir relative permeability characteristics. The pressure
required to inject a second fluid into the rock (commonly oil, water, gas

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or mercury) is known as the displacement pressure. As pressure

increases, the proportions of the two fluids gradually reverse until the
irreversible saturation point of the first fluid is reached. At this point, no
further increase in the proportion of the second fluid is possible. Figure 6
(right) shows different capillary pressure test results. Curve 1 shows
good displacement characteristics, as once invasion of the second fluid
has begun, only small increases in pressure are required for maximum
displacement of the first fluid. Irreducible water saturation is also low.
This rock is likely to be well sorted, porous and permeable a good
producer. In contrast, Curve 3 shows high displacement pressures and
high water saturation, and is likely to come from a poorly sorted reservoir
a poor producer.

Figure 6. Capillary Pressure.

The Effect of Rock Characteristics

There is a general relationship between porosity and permeability. In
sandstones for example, where porosity may be mostly primary in
nature, permeability changes by a factor of ten for a certain x
percentage change in porosity. For thick Tertiary sections x is
approximately equal to seven. Even where this approximation can be
used, permeability is much more variable than porosity. The percentage
of porosity does not define tortuosity, the length of path and resistance
to flow that the fluid is exposed to. Changes in either of these factors can
vastly alter permeability.
When porosity is largely secondary, the variation of permeability is even
greater. This can be demonstrated by looking at an artificial rock, ie,
concrete. Concrete undergoes various reactions on cementation. When
cured, it is very porous, but largely impermeable. A similar situation
occurs in many carbonate reservoirs. Subsequent cracking, fracturing or
dissolution will increase permeability, often in a very direction dependant
manner.
With constant porosity, permeability tends to decrease with decreasing
grain size due to the increasing effects of capillary pressure. As with

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porosity, permeability is also often poorer in unsorted formations due to

the restriction of pore throats by finer particles.
The effects of grain shape may however be the reverse from porosity.
Well rounded, spherical particles may form a less porous structure than
angular particles, but the resistance of flow (tortuosity) between the
angular particles in a more porous structure may have a greater effect on
permeability. Elongated particles will tend to pack in a directional manner
depending on local conditions during. Deposition processes and packing
are therefore extremely influential for both porosity and permeability, but
may affect both in different ways. The relationships are complex and still
poorly understood.

Reservoir Types
The presence of oil and gas in appreciable quantity within a rock does not
mean that their recovery is viable, either commercially or practically. Any
rock however containing hydrocarbons and possessing the suitable
porosity and permeability characteristics enabling recovery is a reservoir
rock. Generally reservoirs are considered as two basic types, clastic
reservoirs (mainly sandstones) and chemical reservoirs (mainly
carbonates - limestone or dolomite). Sandstones are wholly inorganic in
origin, whereas limestones are at least partially organic or chemical in
origin, even if they are now in a clastic state. A small proportion of
reservoirs are found in other rock types.
Porous clastic rocks are formed by standard geological processes and are
composed of essentially stable, insoluble, hard particles. A good
sandstone will be formed of well sorted particles that have probably
travelled long distances before deposition. In contrast, good carbonate
reservoirs are formed from soft, reactive, soluble materials that have not
been transported. An understanding of reservoir rocks and their
properties is essential if hydrocarbon recovery is to be efficient.
Mismanagement could render a reservoir, or at least a well, useless.

Clastic Reservoirs
Clastic reservoirs are aggregates of particles and fragments eroded,
transported and deposited as sedimentary rocks. They can have a marine
or continental origin. Deltaic (Niger Delta), beach and turbiditic (North
Sea) sandstones are examples of marine deposits. Dune sands (North
Sea) are an example of continental deposits.
Not all sandstones form good reservoirs. They must possess certain
characteristics. The best reservoir sands are those in which all the grains
are the same size (well sorted), well rounded, devoid of clay, only lightly
cemented and preferably coarse grained as this minimises the space filled
by the irreducible water content. Sands deposited as desert dunes are
ideal reservoir rocks, for example, gas in the southern North Sea is
contained in dune sands of a Permian age (250 Ma). The quality of a
sandstone is therefore a function of the source area, transport and
depositional processes, depositional environment and subsequent
compaction. Diagenesis after deposition may play a significant role
depending on the type of sandstone formed.

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Sandstones classified by source materials are dominated by three types:

almost entirely detrital quartz (orthoquartzites);

significant feldspar content (arkoses);

high content of rock fragments (lithic) or clay matrix (greywackes).

Although there are always exceptions in nature, the best clastic

reservoirs are likely to be composed of detrital quatrz as transport and
weathering is likely to produce a well sorted, unreactive sediment. High
quantities of feldspar are undesirable as they easily decompose to form
clays. A high lithic content is undersirable as many contstituents also
decompose readily. In addition particles may be readily deformed on
compaction, thus reducing porosity and permeability.
Environments of sand deposition are varied. They may be wholly
terrestrial, (dunes), fluvial (river deposits), tidal, deltaic, coastal or deep
marine. Individual bodies tend to be restricted in size and lenticular or
linear in shape. For example, in a beach environment, just offshore of the
wave action muds, not sands, will be deposited. Sandstone reservoirs are
commonly less than 25 metres thick. The accumulation of sand requires
conducive bottom conditions for localisation of it. Low energy
environments may seem to be most suitable, but removal of fine
materials transported to and deposited at the site, or after deposition,
requires high energy or flow characteristics. Water currents are most
effective.
The original porosity of high energy sands may be as much as 45%
50% with permeability of 25d 100d. Loose sands may have porosity of
approximately 30% while tight siliceous sands may be only 1%. A
porosity of 15% is common in sandstone reservoirs. In addition to
commonly high porosity, horizontal permeability of sandstones is
generally higher than carbonates. Conversely however, cross bedding
permeability may be low due to the frequent occurrence of shale breaks.
Depositional sorting influences not only the initial porosity, but also the
sandstones capacity to receive cementatious material from external
sources. Good initial sorting with decreasing grain size commonly leads to
increasing porosity, and also, a decrease in total cement content and the
proportion of external cement within that content. A small amount of
cementation is desirable because it prevents sand production from the
reservoir. Widespread cementation however will tend to reduce porosity
and permeability. The most significant minerals involved with
cementation of sandstones are quartz, calcite and authigenic clays. Pure
quartz sandstones present the smallest opportunity for diagenetic
alteration, though overgrowths of secondary silica are common. Quartz
and calcite distribution is dependent on the pore fluids that have
migrated through the rock, their chemistry and where they flow, as
dissolution and precipitation take place. Clays can occur as detrital parts
of the rock matrix or due to chemical precipitation. Clays themselves will
hold water and reduce permeability, but may also alter chemically,
depending on pore fluid chemistry, further affecting the rock properties.
The presence of hydrocarbons will tend to inhibit cementation as water
will not flow through the trapping structure freely. Porosity and

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permeability may therefore be lower in the water zones of a reservoir

than in the oil bearing zones.
Dissolution of minerals and their subsequent removal may lead to an
increase in porosity. Dissolution of original constituents, most commonly
nonquartz materials, will lead to secondary porosity, while dissoloution
of introduced cements will lead to the rejuvination of primary porosity.
Usually weathering induced porosity is subsequently destroyed due to
normal diagenesis on burial, and may only be preserved within
hydrocarbon reservoirs. Dissolution will only occur if large quantities of
undersaturated water flows through the rock.
Compaction is also important in sandstones, the effects of which are
directly related to the texture and mineralogy of the rock and depth.
Porosity willl decrease with increasing depth as compaction forces due to
the weight of the rock and fluids increase. Any abnormal pressures within
the sands, however, may help preserve porosity by reacting against the
compaction forces. Abnormal geothermal gradients will also affect
porosity gradients as reaction rates increase as temperature rises.
Generally the more mineralogically mature a sand is, the better its ability
to retain its porosity on burial. Pure quartz sand will have a much lower
porosity gradient than a chemically unstable volcanistic sand for example
(Figure 7A). Texture is also important. A poorly sorted sand with an
abundance of clay will lose porosity much faster than a well sorted sand.
A linear relationship between porosity and depth is often found (Figure
7B). Figure 8 simplifies diagenetic pathways for sandstones.

Figure 7. A Porosity Gradients and Mineralogical Maturity

(Nagtegaal, 1978), B Linear Porosity Relationships for Tertiary
Sandstones Containing Different Fluids (Gregory 1977).

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Figure 8. Simplified Diagenetic Pathways for Sandstones (after

Selley, 1998).

Carbonate Reservoirs
Chemical reservoirs are composed of chemical precipitates. Carbonates
are the most important reservoirs and are found in the form of Limestone
(CaCO3) as aragonite (unstable) or calcite (stable), or in the form of
dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2). More than 50% of the Worlds reserves are
found in Carbonate reservoirs. The porosity is less predictable than that
of sandstones, as carbonates undergo a dissolution/reprecipitation
processes, dependant on the pH of the percolating waters. The effects of
diagenesis within carbonates is much more important than in sandstones,
resultant reservoir rocks tend to be much less uniform than sandstones.
Carbonates form primarily in shallow, warm, low energy marine
environments that do not receive significant quantities of external
sediments. Most carbonate rocks begin as skeletal assemblages of
carbonate secreting animals and plants which are highly permeable and
unstable in the subsurface environment. Carbonate minerals are
therefore easily dissolved and reprecipitated to form limestones whose
porosity is largely secondary in nature and often unrelated to the primary
porosity.
Limestones are generally considered separately as reefs, sands and
muds. Reefs are unique in the fact that they are formed as rock rather
than from lithification of sediment. Porosity may be high (60% - 80%).

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Because they are formed in a lithified state, they do not undergo

compaction to a great extent. If the reef is buried quickly, by
impermeable sands for example, water will not flow throught the
formation and no dissolution or precipitation reactions will occur. Thus
primary porosity will be preserved. If acid or alkaline waters pass
throught the reef however, dissolution (porosity enhancement) or
cementation (porosity loss) will occur respectively. Fluctuations in sea
level over the formation time period of the reef before burial may lead to
a very complex diagenetic history.
Lime sands (detrital grains) may also have high initial porosities, but as
they are not consolidated porosity will be reduced on compaction. As with
reefs, exposure of the sands to flowing waters will lead to diagenesis.
Although cementation will tend to reduce porosity and permeability, if it
occurs early enough after burial, it may infact limit the overall loss as
crystals can consolidate the matrix and thus inhibit further compaction
losses. Carbonate sands that do not undergo early cementation of some
type rarely form reservoirs. Lime sands are extremely important reservoir
rocks. Figure 9 shows simplified diagenetic pathways for lime sands.
Lime muds refer to deposition of any carbonate sediment consisting of
largely clay sized particles. The mud may be directly organic (animal and
plant remains), wholly detrital, or more commonly, formed by direct
precipitation from warm seawater in the form of aragonite needles.
Aragonite is unstable in subsurface waters and reverts to calcite. This
reaction involves an 8% bulk volume increase. Compaction and the
aragonite to calcite reaction lead to rapid loss of porosity, and no real
potential as a reservoir rock unless fracturing or dolomitisation occurs at
a later stage. If the mud consists mainly of calcite however, chalks form
with preserved porosity. Overpressures may further inhibit compaction
giving values of 30% - 40%. Permeability tends to be low, but later
fracturing may enhance this. Porosity within this type of reservoir is
usually much more uniform than in other carbonate formations.
Dolomites can form from calcites, and vice versa, and may therefore be
primary or secondary. This reaction depends upon the Mg-Ca ratio and
salinity (Figure 10). Primary dolomites arfe generally bedded and often
from laterally continuous units. Porosity may be high, but permeability
low due to small pore throats. The exact chemistry of formation of
primary dolomites is still contested. Secondary dolomites crosscut
bedding often occuring in irregular zones underlying unconformities or
around faults and fractures. secondary dolomites are generally crystalline
in nature with porosity values in excess of 30%. Due to the
intercrystalline nature of the pores, secondary dolomites also tend to be
permeable. As has been mentioned, dolomitisation of calcite leads to a
reduction in bulk volume of 13% and subsequent porosity increase. Any
fracturing of the dolomite itself around the main fracture or fault zone will
further increase porosity and permeability. Secondary dolomites are
important reservoir rocks.

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Figure 9. Simplified Diagenetic Pathways for Lime Sands (after

Selley, 1998).

Figure 10. Stability Fields for Different Carbonate Reactions

(Selley, 1998).

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Other Reservoir Rocks

Theoretically, any rock can act as a hydrocarbon reservoir, as long as it
possesses desirable porosity and permeability characteristics. Rocks that
do not inherently possess these qualities may sometimes gain them in
time due to either fracturing or weathering.
Weathering of sandstones and carbonates in the formation of solution
porosity has already been noted. Weathering of other rocks such as
granites and gneisses also occurs as feldspars are leached out, leaving
unconsolidated quartz sand.
In addition to enhancing a current reservoir rocks permeabilty, fracturing
can occur in any brittle rock, porous or not, thus turning it into a
potential reservoir. Fracture intensity and orientation are important
factors. For instance, fractures commonly occur vertically and are
therefore suited to production from horizontal wells. Even shales, which
are generally only cap rocks, can form reservoirs when fractured
sufficiently.
As we can deduce from the notes thus far, no matter how suitable a
rocks properties are as a reservoir, for the pooling of hydrocarbons and
the formation of a reservoir within this rock, further structures are
needed.
The reservoir rock must be capped by an impermeable rock, commonly a
shale, or the hydrocarbons will leach to the surface. If this occurs, many
of the lighter fractions will be lost. An example of this is the pitch lake or
La Brea tar sands in Trinidad.
In addition to a cap rock, there must also be some form of trapping
structure that stops the flow of hydrocarbons along the strata. In the
absence of a trap continued migration will occur, with eventual leaching
to the surface if none is encountered. Trapping structures are looked at in
the next topic.

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