N 0203 MAKING A TIME STUDY

1. INTRODUCTION

Once the work to be studied has been selected, the Work Study Officer’s task is to RECORD all
the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which the work is being done. He should
then MEASURE each element in terms of time over a sufficient number of cycles of activity to
ensure that a representative picture has been obtained and this means taking a Time Study
which is defined as:-

1.1 DEFINITION

Observation, recording and rating of human work to establish the times required by a
qualified worker to perform specified work under stated conditions at a defined rate of
working. Times are recorded by direct observation, using a time measuring device;
ratings are made simultaneously. Basic Times are then derived by extension.
BS 3138 1992 (22086).

2. TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT

2.1 The equipment needed for Time study consists of timing devices and auxiliary
equipment. The measuring devices for measuring time are:-

2.1.1 A stop watch (mechanical or electronic)

2.1.2 Cine Camera

2.1.3 Computerised Data Capture Systems

The auxiliary equipment required is:-

2.1.4 A study board

2.1.5 Pens or pencils

2.1.6 Calculator

2.1.7 Time Study forms

2.1.8 Tape measure, steel rule, spring balance, micrometer and tachometer
(revolution counter) for measuring distance, speed and effort.

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2. TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT

2.2 THE MECHANICAL STOPWATCH

There are two types in general use, namely the fly-back and the non fly-back. These
watches may be obtained with any one of three graduated scales:-

2.2.1 Recording one minute per revolution calibrated in 1/100ths of a minute with a
small hand recording 30 minutes. This stopwatch is known as the decimal
minute stopwatch.

2.2.2 Recording one minute per revolution by intervals of 1/5th second with a small
hand recording every 30 minutes.

2.2.2 Recording 1/100th of an hour per revolution graduated in 1/10,000ths of an

hour, a small hand records up to one hour in 100 divisions. This stopwatch is
known as the decimal hour stopwatch.

2.2.3 ELECTRONIC STOPWATCH

Electronic stopwatches have now been in use for several years, but as with most
items of change, initial progress has been slow. Some of the slowness has been due
to resistance to change and also to the economics of changing from mechanical
stopwatches. The merits of the electronic stopwatch relative to the conventional
stopwatch are:

ADVANTAGES

2.3.1 Higher level of accuracy

2.3.2 No tie lost due to ‘fly-back’ technique

2.3.3 Digital readout minimises reading errors

2.3.4 Light weight

2.3.5 Some models retain element times in memory, retain cumulative times and
also show the actual clock time.

2.3.6 Most can be used in several differing modes.

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2.4 COMPUTERISED DATA CAPTURE SYSTEMS

Fundamentally, the electronic study board has a keyboard, an integral timer, a

rechargeable power pack and a memory capable of storing the data from many
observations. On completion of the study, the captive data is fed into a computer and
within a very short time the extended study is printed out in a previously determined
format. Most modern data capture boards can also be used for recording and
analysing the information obtained in Activity Sampling and Rated Activity Sampling
studies.

ADVANTAGES

2.4.1 Valuable practitioner time is not wasted on routine study extension or analysis
of study data.

2.4.2 Arithmetical errors are eliminated.

2.4.3 Watch errors are eliminated.

2.4.4 Data produced can be in mean, median and mode presentation together with
a histogram and standard deviation for every element if required.

2.4.5 Data produced can be entered directly into a data bank for immediate update.

2.4.6 Retrieval of data from the data bank is easy and quick.

2.4.7 Quality of elemental analysis is very high.

2.4.8 Greater concentration on rating is possible.

2.4.9 More accurate recording of break points is made possible.

2.5 THE CINE CAMERA

The cine camera takes a motion picture of the operation. The camera is running at a
constant speed of 16 frames per second or 960 frames per minute. The film is a
permanent record of the method used as well as the time taken for each element of
the operation. In addition, the film can be projected at the exact speed at which time
the picture was made and a check may be made of the operator’s time.

2.6 STUDY BOARD

The study board is usually a flat board of plywood or plastic and is rigid and slightly
larger than the observation sheet. It may have a fitting to hold the watch so that the
hands of the Work Study Officer are left free and the watch is in a position to be read
easily. For right-handed people, it is normally placed at the top of the board on the
right-hand side so that the board may be rested on the left forearm, with the bottom
edge against the body and the fore-finger or middle finger on the left hand used to
press the winding knob and for re-setting the watch. By standing in the proper
position relating to the work being observed and by holding the board so that the dial
of the watch falls in the line of vision, the observer can concentrate more easily on the
three things demanding his attention, namely the operator, the watch and the
observation sheet. A good study board should be ergonomically designed.

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2.7 TIME STUDY FORMS

Time study forms vary considerably from Company to Company and it is therefore
impossible to give a standard format. However, it would be normal to expect that the
working papers supporting a Time Study would include:

2.7.1 Time Study Sheet Showing the individual Ratings, Observed Times and
Basic Times for each element within a study together with a calculation to
show the Unaccounted Time within the study (See para. 3).

2.7.2 Element Analysis Sheet Showing a full element analysis of how the task
was performed at the time the study was taken.

2.7.3 Summary Sheet Showing the selected average basic time for each element,
the breakdown of Relaxation or Other Allowances (See lesson number N 0205) and the frequency with
which the element occurs within the overall batch time required.

3 UNACCOUNTED TIME

3.1 DEFINITIONS

3.1.1 Unaccounted Time The difference between the elapsed time and the sum of
the separate times, including the check time recorded during a Time Study
BS 3138 1992 (22089).

3.1.2 Elapsed Time The total time from the start to the finish of a time study.
BS 3138 1992 (22022).

3.1.3 Check Time The total of the Time Elapsed Before a Study commences (from
the time the watch is started until the first element commences) and the time
Elapsed After the Study finishes (from the time the last element has ended
until the watch is stopped).

3.2 It is particularly important that both management and worker’s representatives can
have complete confidence that all time within a study period has been accurately
recorded. Therefore the Work Measurement Practitioner is required to prove that the
Unaccounted Time within a study is within reasonable limits. This is very important
when a Mechanical Stop Watch is used with Fly-back timing as, each time the hand of
the watch is reset, a very small amount of time is lost. There is also the potential that
the practitioner taking the time study could record an incorrect time. Therefore to
prove the amount of Unaccounted Time is within acceptable limits the watch is started
and stopped in conjunction with an independent time source. The Time Elapsed
Before the Study (TEBS) and the Time Elapsed After the Study (TEAS) are separately
recorded and then deducted from the Elapsed Time. This therefore gives a total
amount of Study Time which then should relate to the total of all the Observed Times
in the study. The differences between these times therefore is the Unaccounted
Time.

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3.3 The Unaccounted Time can then be expressed as a percentage against the Study
Time and assessed against agreed limits as follows:-

3.3.1 Mechanical Stopwatch within ± 2%.

3.3.2 Electronic Stopwatch within ± 0.2%.

If the Unaccounted Time falls outside of these limits then the study should be
discarded. Therefore the first step after taking a Time Study should always be the
calculation of the Unaccounted Time.

4. STEPS IN MAKING A TIME STUDY

The successful completion of a Time Study involves a number of steps as follows:-

4.1 Before commencing any time study or other work study project, it is important to
communicate with all persons who are likely to be involved such as Managers,
Supervisors, Shop Stewards and Operators. This communication is essential if the
Work Study engineer is to gain full co-operation from others. It may even be
necessary to talk to people who are not directly working on the job which is being
studied, i.e. Purchasing Officers, Engineers or Sales Executives.

4.2 Ensure that conditions on the job being studied are suitable:-

4.2.1 Labour is properly trained.

4.2.2 Materials of unsatisfactory quality are available in sufficient quantity for an

uninterrupted study period.

4.2.3 Machinery and equipment is adequately maintained and serviced.

4.2.4 Safety equipment or protective clothing is in good condition and being used.

4.2.5 Method and layout are suitable in accordance with Method Study or Standard
Practice Sheets (where they exist).

Failure to check these points could lead to wasted study time or to the production of
unreliable standard times.

4.3 Obtain all the necessary details about the job, the operator, machine and
surroundings, together with a complete description of the method. This will form the
basis of the Work Specification which will be used with any production standard, or
rate issued.

4.4 Make a number of Time Study observations. This will necessitate breaking down the
job into elements and measuring the time taken by the operator to perform each
element of the operation. It will also include ‘rating’.

4.5 Convert the observed times to “basic times”.

4.6 Select the representative “basic time” for each operation.

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4.7 Determine the Relaxation Allowance (See lesson N 0205) for each element of
the operation by using the Summary Sheet.

4.8 Determine the frequency or number of times each operation occurs in each work
cycle.

4.9 Compile the Basic Work Content for the job, unit or batch. This is obtained by
multiplying the Basic Work Content of each element by the frequency and
then totalling the time spent on each element to give the total Basic Work
Content for the whole job.

4.10 Determine Contingency Allowance (See Lesson N 0205) levels to be added, if

required, to the Basic Work Content for the job. Add this allowance to
produce the standard time for the job.

4.11 Determine any other allowances (See Lesson N 0205) which may be
necessary to apply to the standard time, i.e.
Interference Allowance
Policy Allowance
Unoccupied Time Allowance

5 OBTAIN ALL THE NECESSARY DETAIL ABOUT THE JOB

The information which applied to the operation being studied should be recorded by direct
observation before starting the study proper. It is usual to do so on the time study top sheet.

Some of this information may seem irrelevant to the student, but in practice, it is surprising
how much time is wasted returning to the department for these particulars, when the whole of
the information could have been obtained at the beginning of the study

The filling in of all the relevant information by direct observation is important in case the time
study has to be referred to later; incomplete information may make a study practically useless
a few months after it has been made.

The information to be obtained may be grouped as follows:

5.1 Information to enable the study to be found and identified quickly when needed:
Study number
Sheet number and number of sheets
Name of the practitioner making the study
Date of study
Name of the person approving the study (Head of the Work Study department,
Production Manager or other appropriate executive)

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5.2 Information to enable the product or part being processed to be identified

accurately:
Name of Product or Part
Drawing or Specification Number
Part Number (if different from Drawing Number)
Quality Requirements

5.3 Information to enable the process, method, plant or machine to be accurately

identified:
Department or location where the operation is taking place
Description of the operation or activity
Method Study or standard practice sheet numbers (where they exist)

Plant or machine (maker’s name, type, size or capacity). Tools, jigs, fixtures and
gauges used, sketch of the workplace layout, machine set-up and / or part showing
surfaces worked (on the reverse of the time study top sheet, or on a separate sheet
attached to the study if necessary). Machine speeds and feeds or other setting
information governing the rate of production of the machine or process (e.g.
temperature, pressure, flow etc). It is good practice to have the foreman initial the
study form alongside the record of information of this sort, as an endorsement of its
correctness.

5.4 Information to enable the operator to be identified

Operator’s Name
Clock Number (if applicable)

5.5 Duration of the study

The Start of the Study (Time On)
The Finish of the Study (Time Off)
Elapsed Time

5.6 Working Conditions

Temperature, Humidity, Adequacy of Lighting etc.

6. BREAKING THE JOB DOWN INTO ELEMENTS

6.1 DEFINITIONS

6.1.1 ELEMENT – A distinct part of an operation selected for convenience of

observation, measurement and analysis. BS 3138 1992 (22023).

6.1.2 BREAKPOINT – The instant at which one element in a work cycle ends and
another begins. BS 3138 1992 (22008).

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6.1.3 WORK CYCLE – The sequence of elements that is required to perform a task or
yield a unit of production. The sequence may sometimes include occasional
elements. BS 3138 1992 (22096).

6.1.4 MANUAL ELEMENT – An element performed by a worker.

BS 3138 1992 (22044).

6.1.5 MACHINE ELEMENT – An element performed automatically by any process,

physical, chemical or other, that once started, cannot be influenced by a
worker except to terminate it prematurely. BS 3138 1992 (22043).

6.1.6 REPETITIVE ELEMENT - An element that occurs in every work cycle of an

operation. BS 3138 1992 (22065).

6.1.7 OCCASIONAL ELEMENT – An element that does not occur in every work cycle of an
operation, but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals.
BS 3138 1992 (22049).

6.1.8 CONSTANT ELEMENT – An element for which the basic time remains constant
whenever the element is performed. BS 3138 1992 (22015).

6.1.9 VARIABLE ELEMENT – An element for which the basic time varies in relation to
some characteristics of the product, equipment or process, e.g. dimensions,
weight, quality. BS 3138 1992 (22092).

6.1.10 GOVERNING ELEMENT – An element occupying a longer time within a work cycle
than that of any other element which is being performed concurrently. BS
3138 1992 (22032).

6.1.11 FOREIGN ELEMENT – An element that is observed but does not form a part of the
operations being studied. BS 3138 1992 (22029).

6.1.12 STANDARD ANALYSIS ELEMENT – An element with predetermined content and

breakpoints. BS 3138 1992 (22072).

NOTE: Such elements are necessary when the same work is studied by more
than one observer at different times and / or in different places, and
they are essential when setting up or expanding a data bank.

6.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS

With twelve differing definitions it should be seen that elemental analysis is an

extremely important aspect of time study. Indeed, regardless of the accuracy of the
actual timing, incorrect elemental breakdown can lead to the production of either a
loose or tight time due to the following reasons:

6.2.1 Inability to correctly frequency an element into a work cycle or batch by mixing
two or more elements.

6.2.2 Inability to correctly assess the appropriate Relaxation Time (See Lesson
N 0205).

6.2.3 Inability to correctly rate an element either due to being too short or by being
too long in length (See paras 6.4 and 6.5).

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6.2.4 Inability to identify between an occasional element and a contingency (See

Lesson N 0205.

6.2.5 Inability to use element time values to produce synthetic times for use on
other studies (See Lesson N 0206).
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6.3 Once the Work Study Officer has recorded all the necessary information about the job, he
proceeds to break down the job into elements. Elements should be easily identified
with definite beginnings and endings so that, once established, they can be
repeatedly recognised. Breakpoints must be decided by the Work Study Officer when
he divides the work cycle into elements. These beginnings and endings should, if
possible, be recognised by a sound (e.g. the stopping of a machine, unlocking a catch
of a jig, putting down a tool) or by a change of direction of a hand or arm. However,
all breakpoints must be visible to the Work Study Officer, for if he is unable to see the
beginning or end of an element, if he depends solely on sound, it is possible for a
fumble to occur and yet the Work Study Officer will be unaware that it has occurred
for he will still only have heard the sound. A BREAKPOINT should primarily be the end of
one element and the beginning of the next. THEREFORE THE MOST APPROPRIATE BREAKPOINT
will normally be “A HAND RELEASE” on a manual element.

6.4 Elements should be as short as can be conveniently timed by a trained observer, but
should not be less than 5 centiminutes. This does not leave much time for the Work
Study Officer when it is considered that the “rating” and “observed times” on the Study
Sheet takes approximately 3 centiminutes. The recommended time for the size of an
element is 10 to 50 centiminutes.

6.5 If an element lasts more than 50 centiminutes the time and rating factor should be
recorded each 50 centiminutes as it is possible that the rating factor would alter over
longer elements. Therefore if an element exceeds 50 centiminutes it should always
have at least 2 ratings recorded.

6.6 Element should be as unified as possible. Each element usually consists of a group of
basic motions such as “reach for”, “grasp” or “move” an object. It is important that the
group in any one element should be a complete group rather than that some of the
movements should be for one purpose and some for an entirely different one.

6.7 Manual elements should be separated from machine elements. Machine time is at a
fixed speed and can be calculated; it will not usually vary, whereas the work
performance of the operator will vary because the operator is human.

6.8 Constant elements should be separated from Variable elements.

6.9 Elements which do not occur in every work cycle should be kept separate from those
which do.

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7. REASONS FOR BREAKING DOWN THE JOB INTO ELEMENTS

There are many reasons why a job is broken down into elements, the chief reasons are:

7.1 Variation in the speed at which an operator works can be more accurately recorded
over short periods of time. There are some parts of the work cycle which the operator
performs better than others.

7.2 The more clear cut the item of work which is timed separately, the more
readily can an appropriate Relaxation Time be arrived at for incorporation with
that element.

7.3 To isolate unproductive time from productive time.

7.4 To enable a detailed Job Specification to be produced.

7.5 To enable Standard Time values for frequently recurring elements such as the
operation of machine controls or loading and unloading work pieces from
fixtures to be established.

7.6 If the elements of an individual operation are known, it is quite easy to build up
synthetic times from these element times. If it is decided to remove element B
from Job A and the time for element B is known, a simple subtraction gives the
new time for Job A. If only the overall time for Job A is known, then the whole
of Job A under the new conditions would have to be timed.

7.7 A diagrammatic classification of element types is given at Annexure ‘A’ to this

précis.

8 METHODS OF TIMING WITH A STOPWATCH

There are four alternative methods of timing with a stopwatch as follows:

8.1 FLYBACK TIMING

In flyback timing the watch is started at the beginning of the first element in the first
cycle and is simultaneously read and snapped back to zero by pressure on the reset
button at the end of this element. The mechanism of the watch is never stopped and
the hand immediately starts to record the time of the new element. This is repeated
throughout the study.

The advantages of the Flyback Timing are:

8.1.1 The time of each element is recorded immediately and there is no need for
subtraction as with Continuous Timing (See para 8.2).

8.1.2 The Work Study Officer can see the variation in the time values as he makes
the study.

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There are also disadvantages. Some of these are:

8.1.3 Unaccounted Time can occur. This may be due to a slight loss of time in the
flyback operation, misreading of the watch by small intervals which gradually
accumulate errors.

8.1.4 Because of the need to control unaccounted time an observer needs

adequate training.

8.1.5 There is a strong possibility that the observed variations in element times can
lead to clock rating. This must be discouraged.

8.2 CONTINUOUS TIMING (OR CUMULATIVE TIMING)

In continuous timing the watch runs continuously throughout the study. It is started at
the beginning of the first element of the first cycle to be timed and is not stopped until
the whole study is completed. At the end of each element the watch reading is
recorded. The individual element times are obtained by successive subtractions after
the study is completed. The purpose of this procedure is to ensure that all the time
during which the job is observed is recorded in the study. Rating to the time taken by
the element than with the Flyback method, since only watch readings and not actual
times are recorded.

8.2.1 Trainees achieve reasonable accuracy more quickly using the Continuous
method.

8.2.2 It is not critical if element times are occasionally missed in inexperienced

observers, the overall time of the study will not be affected. Foreign elements
and interruptions are automatically included since the watch is never stopped.

8.2.3 In assessing the Working Pace of the operator, the Work Study Officer is less
likely to fall into the temptation to adjust the Rating to the time taken by the
element than with the Flyback method, since only watch readings and not
actual times are recorded.

8.2.4 Workers and their representatives are likely to have greater faith in the
fairness of time studies as a basis for incentive plans if they can see no time
has been omitted.

8.2.5 Timing errors are much smaller or eliminated completely.

8.2.6 The click of the flyback stopwatch is absent and the operator is therefore less
conscious of being watched.

On the other hand the disadvantages are:

8.2.7 Additional calculation is necessary for each observation.

8.2.8 Confusion can occur both in watch reading and calculation when reading the
minute hand and the centiminute hand. This is particularly possible where the
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readings lie in the 70-99 centiminute region of the watch or where the minute
hand changes from one period of 30 minutes to the next.
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8.2.9 The final stopwatch time will be exactly the same as the elapsed time and
therefore there is NO UNACCOUNTED TIME. However, there is still bound to be
human error in over and under reading of the stopwatch. Such error is hidden
and cannot be calculated. Some unions and employers insist on cumulative
timing because they are under the mistaken impression that there is no error.
The main use of cumulative timing is in production studies where one is only
recording elements of lengthy duration. The abstraction of the individual
element times is both tedious and time consuming.

8.3 DIFFERENTIAL TIMING

A method for obtaining the time of one or more small elements. Elements are timed in
groups, first including and then excluding each small element, the time for each
element being obtained subsequently by subtraction. This method can be used in
conjunction with either cumulative or flyback timing.

However, Differential Timing is used in special circumstances and although the

Accumulative Timing is an improvement on Continuous Timing, the two principal
methods of timing remain Continuous Timing and Flyback Timing.

8.4 SELECTIVE TIMING

This is the total accumulated time for each element, over a number of timings, divided
by the number of timings. The element is taken ONE AT A TIME, but timed several
times (x 50 possibly). It is used to time individual elements in a work cycle where
there is a very fine element breakdown, (i.e. most elements being less than 0.10
duration – a total cycle time of say 0.20). Selective timing is limited to ONE element
(which may occur more than once in a cycle) at a time. In practice it is usual to time in
groups of five, and ten using

TOTAL TIME
NO OF OBSERVATIONS = AVERAGE TIME

9. HOW MANY CYCLES SHOULD BE TIMED?

In addition to the general principles which govern the number of cycles to be observed to
obtain a reasonably representative average time for any particular operation, the Work Study
Officer will gain some idea of whether further study work is necessary by the variation in the
average times he obtains from each study on the individual Analysis Sheets. In general,
however, at least 50 cycles of short cycle operations and at least 20 or 30 cycles of longer
cycle work should be observed.

10. DURATION OF STUDIES

The duration of a study depends to a very large extent on the nature of the operation under
consideration. It should not be carried on past a point where fatigue begins to affect the Work
Study Officer’s concentration, but on the other hand it should not be too brief as numerous
short studies tend to irritate operators. It is reasonable to consider 30 minutes as a minimum
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duration.

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