Detecting Distribution

Transformer Faults
Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Written and Edited By:

Wayne Clark, P. Eng.
Senior Energy Industry Consultant

June 2005

2005 by IFD Corporation

All rights reserved. Published 2005
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Transformer Facts ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Fusing Operations ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Transformer Failures .................................................................................................................................. 2
Eventful Transformer Failures .................................................................................................................... 2
Field Experience ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Built-In Internal Fault Detectors .................................................................................................................. 4
TM
The IFD .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Technology Value to Utilities ...................................................................................................................... 5
Restoration Cost Savings through Productivity Improvements .............................................................. 5
Return on Investment Considerations ................................................................................................... 7
Aging Physical Infrastructure ................................................................................................................. 7
Customer Service .................................................................................................................................. 7
Risk Assessment ................................................................................................................................... 8
IFD Reliability Standards ............................................................................................................................ 8
Testing for Reliability ............................................................................................................................. 8
IFD Reliability in Service........................................................................................................................ 9
Other Transformer Fault Detection Methods .............................................................................................. 9
Fuses..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Current Limiting Fuses .........................................................................................................................10
Stronger Transformer Tanks ................................................................................................................10
Completely Self Protected Transformers (CSPs) .................................................................................10
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................12
About the Author .......................................................................................................................................12
Contributors ..........................................................................................................................................12
References ................................................................................................................................................13
Appendix A: Fault Protection and Identification Options and Benefits.......................................................14
Appendix B: Cost Analysis Possible Costs Associated with Transformer Faults....................................15

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Abstract
Utilities are constantly looking for ways to
increase productivity in the distribution system.
This means reducing the total lifecycle cost of the
system; improving labor costs, improving
customer service and protecting assets. This
includes the value of improved worker safety.
One area showing considerable promise of
increasing the productivity is rapid detection of
internal faults in pole top transformers.

Introduction
Utility line crews re-energize single phase, poletop transformers frequently1. Over time, vendors
improved the quality of transformers, fuses and
related tools and equipment, making it more
challenging for the line worker to detect
equipment failures. Additionally, the need for
faster problem resolution with fewer resources is
a constant management challenge. This paper
outlines these challenges and describes a
simple, direct, cost effective solution for utilities.
Pole top transformers are usually connected to
the primary supply network via a fuse cutout. The
fuse cutout is a protective device with two
purposes. Firstly, by separating a downstream
problem from the upstream supply, it limits the
number of customers affected by the fault or
overload. Second, by interrupting the flow of
power to the fault, the risk of damage to
equipment and injury to people is limited. The
protective characteristics of the link are intended
to serve both these purposes with a high degree
of reliability, while also minimizing the frequency
of unnecessary (nuisance) operations.
The reason for excessive current includes
internal faults caused by failure of the transformer
insulation system. However, unless the internal
fault produces signs on the transformers exterior,
it may be difficult to reliably detect and confirm its
presence without cumbersome and time
consuming measures. For example, it takes at
least 15 minutes to disconnect the secondary
leads to enable the line crew to measure the
impedance of the transformer and/or check the
integrity of the insulation by applying a test
voltage from a suitable source. Therefore, the
challenge to utilities is how they can efficiently
and reliably determine if an internal fault has
occurred.

Transformer Facts
Service personnel often need to locate, diagnose
and correct the causes of outages rapidly. The

work is usually outside normal working hours,

often in less than ideal working conditions and
with a high workload relative to the number of
skilled people available.
Consider these facts:

There are over 50,000,000 distribution

transformers in service in the USA and
2
Canada.
On average between 3% and 5% of the inservice population of pole top transformers
3
are re-energized annually, which is between
1,500,000 and 2,500,000 transformers per
year.

Transformer fuse operations are the most

common equipment failure on distribution
systems, comprising as much as 40% in one
4
study .

Distribution transformer failures follow a

bathtub curve. That is, the highest failure
rates are in the first few years of service and
then decline. Failures increase later, towards
the normal end of service life. In between,
severe overloading or lightning cause most
transformer failures.

In most jurisdictions, lightning is one of the

most commonly cited causes for outages
and transformer failure. Twenty five percent
5
is a typical number .

In an Ontario study, it was noted that, while

storms occur about 7% of the time, they
account for 30% of all outages. Moreover,
lightning is the most commonly cited cause
6
of equipment failure during storms .

Most lightning occurs during the evening and

7
night after hours , which because of the
weather and limited visibility, field crews are
often under additional pressure.

The Canadian Electricity Association (CEA)

analyzed how pole top transformer tanks
actually fail in service. Of a population of
over
400,000
units,
there
were
approximately 20,000 fuse operations per
2

ORNL Report 6804/R1

N. Cuk, S.H. Hicks. Development of an Internal

Fault Detector For Pole-Top Distribution Transformers,
Report No. T994700-5003, April 2002, prepared
for and available from CEA Technologies, Inc.
4,5,6,7
M.V. Lat, J. Kortschinski, S.L. Cress, W.A.
Chisholm, T.A. Gough, Ontario Hydro
Technologies*: Effect of Lightning on the Overall
Reliability of Distribution Systems, Report No.
160D597 December 1998 prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc.

N. Cuk, S.H. Hicks. Development of an Internal Fault

Detector For Pole-Top Distribution Transformers,
Report No. T994700-5003 April 2002, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc.

June 2005

Page 1

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

year. This information was obtained by

monitoring the Ontario Hydro (now Hydro
One) system over a three-year period. In the
20,000 fuse operations, a total of 4,000 units
failed per year. One in 270 fuse operations
were explosive in nature. This rate of
explosive failure is consistent with two
previous unpublished studies, one by
Ontario Hydro (1/300) and another by Nova
8
Scotia Power (1/250).
These studies indicate that, on average,
explosive transformer failures occur a few
times every day in North America.9

Fusing Operations
The fuse cutout is designed to protect the
transformer and related equipment and services.
About 20% of the time when the cutout operates
the transformer has failed. The rest of the time
the cutout has operated for a non-transformer
problem. However, unless the reason for the
failure is obvious, the line worker has a time
consuming problem determination process to
follow. A tool that can readily identify when a
component has failed saves time in all
circumstances.
If a transformer has obviously failed, the
Investigation can be stopped and the unit
replaced and resources can be more quickly
released to fix the next problem.
When the line worker knows the transformer is
not faulted which is in approximately 80% of the
refusing operations, the line worker can look to
different causes for the fuse operating before
starting the process of safely re-energizing. This
allows the line worker to focus on the more likely
outage sources and leads to a faster, safer
resolution to the problem. So in all circumstances
where the fuse has operated, the line worker
saves time if there is a transformer failure
identification tool.

Transformer Failures
The rate of transformer failures is often debated.
Few utilities have good tracking systems however
there are a few utilities such as Progress Energy

and HydroOne who have maintained detailed

records of transformer failures.
This paper
references these sources which are generally
supported by engineering and operations staff.
They are the best reference available for
numbers. Line workers typically state we rarely
report failures, re-energizing faulted units
happens all the time.
This said, most transformer failures are
uneventful. The combination of well built
transformers and fuses, the fault progression
inside the transformer, plus limitations on the
available fault current provides a degree of
protection to the system. When failures are
described as uneventful, it is important to
understand this is a relative term. It means the
failure did not result in an explosive release of oil.
However, the various techniques for internal fault
identification include re-fusing, and if the
transformer is faulted a fuse operation itself is a
dramatic event for the line worker, just less so
than a full transformer failure.

Eventful Transformer Failures

Eventful transformer failures describe a tank
failure where the tank is visibly damaged due to
an internal fault. The damage may cause no
significant impact, aside from the need to replace
the tank, or it could be catastrophic. Distribution
transformers always have the potential for
eventful failure. As line voltages and fault
currents have increased steadily over the years,
and continue to rise, this potential is realized with
increasing frequency. The fault energy available
between inception of a fault and fuse clearing
more frequently exceeds the withstand capability
of transformer tanks and lids.
While current related failures are rising, lightning
is still the leading cause of failures. High currents
from lightning (or from other sources) can cause
under-oil-arcing, either voltage surge through the
arrestor or by moving the leads by means of the
electromagnetic forces accompanying the
10
surge .
In addition, the oil itself could release energy
under fault conditions, when hydrogen is
11
released as a breakdown product .

Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,

Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution
Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report
149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc
9

Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,

Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution
Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report
149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc

June 2005

10

Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,

Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution
Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report
149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc
11

S.L Cress, M. Puszczynski, T. Gough, D.

Fischer, R. Beresh and S. Barret, Ontario Hydro
Technologies*: Characterizing the Overcurrents on
Distribution Systems, Report No. 161 D 917

Page 2

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

A number of researchers have identified the

failure mechanisms. All involve an arcing fault in
the tank, which creates a shock wave or pulse
(piston) of oil. The arc may be just under the oil,
above the core/coil assembly or deep down in the
tank. The arc energy causes a pressure pulse
with a fast rise time and a high peak pressure in
the air above the tank. The lid attachment of the
tank is the usual weak point but the welded seam
12 13
may also rupture , .
One question that naturally arises when
investigating an eventful failure is, What is the
threshold below which violent failures will not
occur? Despite numerous studies, the answers
are far from clear. Several test programs show
2
correlations with fault energy (I t), arc energy
(joules or Watt-seconds), available asymmetrical
fault current energy (It) and peak fault current.
The results indicate that tank failure is unlikely at
fault currents below 2,500 A symmetrical. This
assumes all the mechanical components of the
fusing system operate as designed and the
transformer tank is free of structural defects.

Field Experience
If the tank failed just before the fuse operated,
the consequences to the transformer might be
limited. However, faults often do not cause
eventful failure before the first fuse operation.
Eventful situations often occur when the line
worker is re-closing on already faulted units. This
can place line crews in a hazardous situation.
Internal transformer faults develop to the point
that the cutout will operate, but there may be no
visible external indication of a transformer fault
other than the fuse operation. It is often unclear
whether the transformer has failed or the fuse
has blown for some other reason in spite of a
thorough external examination.
In this situation, a line crew will normally re-fuse
and close back in the line. While many utilities
require crews to test the transformer, this is often
not done if everything appears okay. This is

December 1998 prepared for and available from

CEA Technologies, Inc.
12

Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,

Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution
Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report
149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc
13

N.P. Cuk, Powertech Labs: "Oil Tank Explosion

Resistance, Report No. 149D491 June 1990
prepared for and available from CEA
Technologies, Inc.

June 2005

understandable, since most fuse operations can

be attributed to lightning surges, short duration
overloads, improper fuse selection or installation
and secondary faults.
Unfortunately, if the transformer has already
developed an internal fault, this can set up the
conditions for an eventful failure, and put the line
crew in a perilous situation when re-fusing the
transformer.
Far from being a hypothetical
situation, there have been a number of injuries
and even fatalities from this situation over the
years. Almost any line crew with a decade or
more of experience can recount at least one
close call in a similar situation.
Most utilities have written procedures intended to
mitigate this risk. Some require isolating the
transformer and doing a ratio check of the
windings.
This involves climbing the pole,
disconnecting the transformer, testing the
transformer and then reconnecting it obviously
a time consuming process. This is a sound
approach, one that should be encouraged.
However, it is frequently not done due to
pressure placed on the line crew to restore
power, especially when weather conditions result
in large numbers of service interruptions or other
time pressures are imposed on the crew.
Some utilities may rely on a visual check of the
transformer, combined with specific precautions
by the workers to minimize their physical
exposure should a violent event occur. Some
linemen will pull the ring on the pressure relief
device to see if the telltale odor of electrical
burning can be detected (Note: this does not
work well in cold weather if the transformer has
had time to cool down. Pulling the ring will only
allow the pressure release device (PRD) to suck
in cold air, with no odor escaping. It is also an
unreliable technique if there has been limited
carbonization of the oil.) Moreover, the act of
letting cold moist air enter the tank is bad for the
transformer. Moisture is the enemy of paper
insulation and a large factor in transformer aging.
Lightning storms are perhaps the best example of
how a number of related factors can converge to
produce a large risk of a faulted transformer. In a
severe lightning storm, literally thousands of
fuses can operate in a limited geographic area in
a period of only a few hours. This creates
tremendous pressure on linemen working to
restore power. The temptation to move quickly
by simply re-fusing transformers and closing back
in is significant. At the same time, lightning may
have created faults that could lead to violent
14,15
. At times
failure when the unit is re-energized
14

Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,

Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution

Page 3

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

like this, the line crew needs all the help it can
get.

customer service, and, increase lineman safety

16.
associated with transformer failures

Built-In Internal Fault Detectors

The IFD only responds to internal transformer

faults. The purely mechanical design provides
inherent advantages over other sensing
schemes. The sensor is a specialized membrane
that is sensitive only to a rapid rise of pressure in
the air above the oil. This rapid pressure rise
occurs only during an internal fault. When the
membrane moves in response to the rapid
pressure rise, it releases a spring-loaded, readily
visible indicator on the outside of the tank. It
does not carry the sensitivity vs. selectivity
design compromises inherent in thermal and
electrical over current or waveform signature
sensing devices.

Before the development a specific internal fault

indicator, all other approaches relied on indirect
measures, such as the logical approach of CSP
transformer designs. (The one exception is offline testing technology, which is somewhat
complex and time consuming to use when the
line worker is on the pole.) The industry needed
an innovative way to identify internal faults
directly and flag the fault outside the tank so a
line worker could easily see it.
When utilities began moving to higher distribution
voltages and higher available fault currents in the
1970s, the increases in available fault energy
resulted in most utilities experiencing an
increasing frequency of eventful transformer
failures.
Several research projects were
designed to gain an understanding of the
physical phenomena underlying these events.
The gas generation mechanism was quickly
identified as the main culprit.
The first work on internal fault detection
technology occurred in the late 1980s, when
engineers were conducting transformer withstand
tests. Testing showed internal faults produce
unique pressure signals. All other pressure
changes in a transformers air space occur 1000
or more times slower than the rate of rise during
the pressure surge created by internal arcing
faults. So, the rate of pressure rise can be used
to reliably identify the occurrence of an internal
arcing fault.

The IFDTM
One detection method measures the pressure
differential across a flexible membrane to activate
a fault signaling mechanism. One device that
incorporates this principle is the Internal Fault
Detector (IFD), developed by IFD Corporation.
The IFD was in development for over a decade,
and represents the result of a collaborative R&D
effort involving financial and technical support by
a group of utilities. The objectives of the IFD
were to improve lineman productivity, enhance

The IFD requires no power supply, is insensitive

to its electrical environment and does not depend
on the electrical status of the transformer to
operate. The IFD does not react to electrical or
magnetic fields or even temperature changes
(within the limits of the transformer design). It
operates reliably in an environment that would
destroy most electronic devices.
On a practical note, the simple mechanical
design and construction of the IFD make it
economic to manufacture and install in
distribution transformers, where large volumes
make unit cost an important selection factor for
utilities.
The IFD also includes a static pressure relief
device (PRD) that operates like a standard PRD.
Customers asked that this function be included in
the IFD so the solution would not require another
hole (point of failure) in the tank. This also
reduces the current total tank cost due to
elimination of the welded tank boss required in
most standard transformer designs. The IFD can
easily be added to an existing transformer and
only requires a punched hole to install. This
makes it easy for utilities to retrofit IFDs into
existing transformers, when they are returned to
stores, or when they are refurbished or rebuilt.

Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report

149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and

available from CEA Technologies, Inc
15

M.V. Lat, J. Kortschinski, S.L. Cress, W.A.

Chisholm, T.A. Gough, Ontario Hydro
Technologies*: Effect of Lightning on the Overall
Reliability of Distribution Systems, Report No.
160D597 December 1998 prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc.

June 2005

16
J.P. Chisholm, N. Cuk and S.H. Hicks, IFD
Corporation: Development of an Internal Fault Detector
for Pole-Top Distribution Transformers: Report No
T994700-5003 December 1998 prepared for and

available from CEA Technologies, Inc. or IFD

Corporation.

Page 4

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Figures 1 and 2 show a cross sectional drawing

and mode of operation.

transportation and, perhaps, installation. To avoid

this problem, the IFD is equipped with a plastic
shipping lock that is easily removed once the
transformer is mounted on the pole. The shipping
lock has a jagged shape and is bright orange, so
if it is inadvertently left in place, a line crew can
easily identify the lock from the ground.

Technology Value to Utilities

Figure 1
Prior to operation, the pressure detecting membrane
and its trigger shaft (red and blue vertical rod) are in the
lowered position, locking the indicator (yellow) in place.
The large spring on the right side stores the energy to
push the indicator out; the small coaxial assembly on
the left is the pressure relief device (PRD).

Challenges for utilities to continuously improve

cost/performance and service have never been
greater. This is compounded by the fact that
industry forces constantly shift and changes take
a long time to implement. Distribution systems
must integrate new and old technologies in an
evolutionary, cost effective way. Strategically,
utilities have to consider the value of technical
solutions over the life of the system, where key
forces include changing experiences and skill
levels of line workers, a drive to reduce costs and
improve service levels. Importantly, safety is high
in the corporate mission and objective
statements.
Productivity Improvements with IFD
Timesavingover 20% of costs in Distribution
Resource Commitment are labor costs.
Problem determination time is reduced. Many
utilities estimate IFD cuts anywhere from 15
minutes to 30 minutes from the time needed to
determine the problem.
Efficient crew utilizationright people, right
place, and right time; particularly during storms
and other high visibility events.
The average number of crews called out for any
given storm situation can be minimized for a
constant service level.

Rapid Pressure Increase

0.5 psi in 5-7 ms

Figure 2
When the membrane reacts to pressure pulse caused
by an internal fault, it moves up, carrying the trigger
shaft with it (red and green). This releases the
indicator, which is pushed out by the spring. Once this
happens, pressure is relieved through the IFD. The
blue arrows indicate the flow of gas through the
indicator assembly.

The IFD cannot be reset from outside the

transformer. This ensures the IFD on a faulted
transformer is not reset and the transformer
should not be re-energized without first removing
and inspecting the transformer in the shop.
The IFD is also designed to minimize the
chances that it will falsely operate under
conditions other than a fault, such as mechanical
shocks. With distribution transformers, this type
of
condition
sometimes
occurs
during

June 2005

These considerations were all a key part of

looking for low cost, simplicity and reliability in a
transformer fault detection tool. The end goal is
to assist in the journey of doing it right the first
time.
The IFD provides financial benefits to utilities in
the following areas:

Restoration Cost Savings

through Productivity
Improvements
Over 20% of costs in the distribution resource
commitment are labor. Therefore, improvements
in labor utilization will improve the bottom line.
The most obvious benefit of the IFD lies in the
ability of line personnel to quickly spot
transformers with internal faults.
This benefit will vary by utility, depending on their
practices with respect to outage management.

Page 5

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Refer to the table located in Appendix B for a list

of potential costs a utility may experience due to
a faulted distribution transformer. The following
examples are illustrative:

Situation Analysis
Two Man Crew
In this example, a two-man crew, using a bucket
equipped vehicle or material handling aerial
device, investigate the outage. The crew may be
dispatched from a local office or central operating
center. The hourly rates for this combination are
quite high, including two skilled trades people,
expensive work equipment and often, overtime
pay rates.
While this arrangement has impressive work
capacity, most of the outages handled involve
inspection, re-fusing and re-closing. If the utility
adheres to a test before re-close practice, the
crew will spend a great deal of their time
isolating, testing and reconnecting transformers
with no internal faults.
Now consider the same operation, where
transformers are equipped with IFDs. If the
transformer has actually failed, the crew will in all
probability, know immediately by looking at the
IFD. If it has not operated, the crew proceeds
with its normal practice, just to be sure. If the IFD
has operated, they can order a new transformer
without even getting out of the truck.
In this case, (because the crew did not set the
outriggers or raise the boom) it can quickly
proceed to the next trouble call. The workers can
either go back to the original location when the
new transformer has arrived, or leave it for the
crew that brings out the replacement unit. If they
are lucky, the line workers may have the correct
spare on the truck.
Most utilities reviewing this scenario believed the
IFD would save at least hour, on average. One
standards engineer provided the following
savings range estimate.
Descripton
Truck and two crew (per hour)
Estimated fuse costs
Financial analysis when an IFD is installed
on the faulted transformer
Truck and two crew (1/2 hour savings)
Fuse savings (increase this by number of
attempts)
Savings per transformer
Less IFD cost
Net Savings per transformer

COSTS
$100-750
$5-25
SAVINGS
$50-375
$5-25
$75-370
$35-$45
$30-335

Situation Analysis
Two Man Crews During a Storm
Cost savings increase if we use the same
example above, but expand it to address a typical

June 2005

storm restoration. As mentioned earlier, about

30% of outages occur during storm situations.
Further, most storms hit outside normal working
hours. In these situations, most of the available
crews will be involved in restoring power. If the
utility can save hour of problem determination
time per transformer when paying time and a half
or double-time, the cost savings add up very
quickly.
For illustration purposes, consider the following
storm example:
Descripton
Transformers out of service
Transformers showing the IFD flag (faulted)
Problem determination time reduction (1/2 hour
multiplied by 20 transformers)
Financial analysis when IFD are installed on
the faulted transformers
Labor cost savings (10 hours multiplied by $200 to
$1,400 (overtime rate))
Fuse savings (20 units multiplied by $5 - $25)
(assumes only 1 fuse attempt)
Savings overall per 100 transformers
Savings per transformer

Units
100
20
10

SAVINGS
$2,00014,000
$100-500
$2,100 - $14,500
$21-145

These savings of time and money are related to

more than this one crew. By making trouble
crews more productive, utilities can delay (or
avoid) calling in additional crews. Improving the
efficiency of the first crew thus has a magnifying
effect on overall savings.

Situation Analysis
Critical Event
In this example, a two-man crew, using a bucket
equipped truck investigates an outage. The
transformer has an undetected internal fault, and
there are no external signs of a failure. When the
line worker closes the line back in, the
transformer has a catastrophic failure. The line
worker(s) is injured and can be expected to be off
the job for an extended period of time. Other
assets are damaged and repair is extensive.
Costs include: Time lost from work, time
dedicated to accident investigation and reporting,
uninsured medical costs covered by company,
employee's loss in earning power, economic loss
to the injured person's family, legal costs,
occupational health and safety worker wages,
supervisor time, management time, medical and
compensation insurance, cost of training
temporary or new employees, oil clean up, pole
replacement, landscaping, potential penalties,
potential fines and negative public relations.
It is difficult to consider this potentiality, and the
topic is often avoided due to its infrequency and
the nature of the subject. Nonetheless, the costs
for this type of incident are always extensive and

Page 6

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

range from hundreds of thousands of dollars to

17
millions .

costs, but also fewer and more widely dispersed

operations centers.

Return on Investment
Considerations

This step also results in an increase in average

travel time. Effectively, the availability of skilled
trade resources is reduced and the unit cost of
the workforce (wrench time) increases. Today,
the real, total burdened cost of wrench time for a
two-man crew with a bucket truck can be in the
hundreds of dollars per hour (as shown in the
earlier illustration).

The rate at which operational benefits can be

realized will vary from utility to utility. However, all
of the elements include improved operations,
better customer service, an improved safety
environment and better environmental protection.
Over the past number of years, the population of
linemen has reduced to about 110,000, half by
some measure of what it was 20 years ago.18
Utilities have restructured and outsourced. This
means utilities have to increase the efficiency of
the line crews. Additional savings will be harder
to come by and will require utilities (at least those
that have not already done so) to modify their
operating structure and practices. The trend to
improved productivity will continue and better
tools are key to achieving the business
objectives.
Two complementary strategies are at work to
create continued productivity improvements,
particularly in outage management.
The first (and in some ways the easiest step to
implement) is to increase the amount of
information available to the utility to manage
outages. This includes weather information, crew
locations, lists of available material and data sent
in from utility systems. This provides for efficient
central dispatch of the right quantity and type of
resources. Going under the catch-all title of
distribution automation, systems providing this
type of data include SCADA, GIS, DMS and
outage management. Every utility implementing
these systems seems to have its own unique mix
of capabilities, but the general trend for outage
management is the same.
The second strategy takes advantage of the
opportunities provided by these systems. With
centralized
information
collection
comes
centralized dispatch. For large utilities, this
effectively removes the role of the local dispatch
center. The result can be significant reductions in
dispatch operations, facilities and overhead

17

www.capschell.com\\CapSchell, Inc_ Research &

Education Services.htm
18
Jonathan Barnes and Richard Korman High-Voltage
Power Line Work Is A Peril, in McGraw_Hill
Construction, [online magazine] (02/23/04);
http://www.enr.com/features/bizlabor/archives/040223.a
sp

June 2005

Aside from the need for the utility to focus

resources more carefully, a new risk is also
introduced. With fewer available resources, the
utility is at a greater risk when large storms hit.
Against this background, the IFD can be seen as
a key information source, providing enhanced
and quick trouble shooting diagnosis.
For those utilities looking toward a future of
greater automation and even higher focus on
productivity and cost, the IFD is a valuable part of
the solution. Seen another way, the IFD provides
utilities with one of the most common information
requirements in outage management.

Aging Physical Infrastructure

In a survey by Navigant Consulting/Electric
Perspectives titled The Outlook for the North
America Power Industry, 91% of the executives
surveyed rated aging physical infrastructure as
19
critical or most critical problem facing the utility.
As utilities become more focused on life cycle
management of their assets, many have adopted
both
refurbishment
(life extension)
and
replacement programs, driven by asset condition
criteria and capital planning requirements. This
creates an opportunity for utilities to more rapidly
increase the penetration rate of IFDs on their
systems and accelerate realization of the service
and operational improvements presented by the
IFD.

Customer Service
In the era of electric utility deregulation and
competition, reliability of service to the customer
has become an important issue. Today, more
and more jurisdictions regulate utilities based
directly on customer service levels. Outages and
customer interruptions can be very costly.
Typical reliability measurements being adopted
are SAIFI (System Average Interruption
Frequency Index), SAIDI (System Average
Interruption Duration Index), and MAIFI

19

Navigant Consulting/Electric Perspectives Survey,

The Outlook for the North America Power Industry,
May / June 2004

Page 7

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

(Momentary
Index).

Average

Interruption

Frequency

In a study done by a large US utility, the SAIDI

cost of each outage currently result in an
expense to the utility of about $2 million per
outage minute. With 1.5 million customers this
becomes $2M/1.5M or $1.33 per customer per
minute. For utilities in these circumstances, the
efficiency benefits of the IFD in reducing outage
time can be directly calculated both in labor
savings and in avoided penalties.
When
utilities
reliability
performance
deteriorates, regulators often step in with specific
directives. These can be quite expensive, as they
often require crash programs of component
replacement or maintenance. Clearly, keeping
the customer happy with respect to reliability is
good business for the utility.
By making diagnoses faster and improving the
efficiency of trouble crews, utilities can reduce
average outage duration (SAIDI). As regulators
and other agencies become more sophisticated,
utilities can expect to be pushed to continue to
improve operational efficiency, worker safety and
customer service. The IFD is not a panacea for
any of these issues, but it does provide part of
the solution.

Risk Assessment
As mentioned in an earlier section, eventful
transformer failures do occur. These events can
be costly to a utility depending on the impact of
the event. Each utility has its own experience,
will likely know its own cost of accidents and
injuries, and can assign a value on worker
protection and accident prevention. Most large
utilities have enough actual experience to make
this calculation. Even the cost of reporting an
incident with the potential for injury, or where a
spill has required environmental cleanup, can
quickly reach thousands of dollars.
Accidents that result in injuries cost much more
and the costs of the investigation, treatment, and
increased insurance premiums can significantly
impact the bottom line. From this angle, any
improvement in worker safety yields a direct
bottom line benefit.
Risk Assessment Considerations

Avoiding re-energizing faulted transformers

means reduced events
Supports safety for utility employees and the
general public
Opportunity for accident/incident cost
reduction is significantbottom line
savingscompetitive advantage

The 2000 RIMS Benchmarking Study revealed

on average, that utilities spend $.50 of every
$1,000 of revenue paying workers compensation
claims, but some utilities report spending as
much as $1.05 of every $1,000 of revenue, or a
weighted average of $.86 per $1,000 of
20
revenue.
Recent studies by Liberty Mutual Insurance
Company and others indicate that for every hard
dollar spent on risk management situations, three
to five times that amount is spent in 'soft' dollar
support due to:

Lost wages

Public relations efforts

Lost time

Regulatory involvement

Cost of replacement workers

Retraining for the injured workers

Lower employee morale and productivity

The opportunity for accident cost reduction is
significant. An event can quickly move into the
million-dollar cost category. In this era of intense
competition and escalating insurance rates, a
reduction in this type of workers compensation
will generate noticeable bottom line savings and
directly impact a utilitys competitive advantage.

IFD Reliability Standards

The IFD must always sense a fast transient
overpressure (tested at 0.5 psi with 5-7 millisecond rise time). Therefore the IFD must meet
the following standards:

The overall design must exhibit constant or

increasing sensitivity over time. The IFD
must last at least as long as the transformer.
The materials used are designed for 30+
years of life.

Even after installation, the transformer may

experience
mechanical
shocks
and
vibrations that have nothing to do with its
electrical operation. Trees hit lines, cars hit
poles, inspection people hammer the pole to
test for soundness, etc. These types of
shocks have also been simulated with IFD
equipped transformers and none have
caused a false activation.

Testing for Reliability

The IFD is designed and production tested to
detect dynamic pressure pulses as low as 3.5
kPA (0.5psi) over 5-7 milliseconds. This
sensitivity ensures it will respond to energy
releases well below levels that would result in
expulsion of oil from the transformer. By
detecting faults at these levels, the line worker
20
RIMS, RIMS & Ernst & Young, RIMS Benchmark
Survey 2000, May 2001

June 2005

Page 8

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

can avoid triggering a more serious fault should

the transformer be re-energized.

IFD Reliability in Service

To date, there are tens of thousands of IFDs in
service that have an excellent track record. The
IFDs reliability is achieved through a simple,
sturdy design. Each IFD is tested prior to
shipping to the transformer manufacturer or
utility. However, the IFD is a mechanical device
and, as is the case with any mechanical device, it
is possible that it could fail.
Therefore,
equipment
and
work
procedures
must
incorporate the multiple barrier (aka defense in
depth) concept.
While IFDs have detected the vast majority of
transformer faults, IFD is aware it cannot detect
all transformer faults. Where the available
primary fault current is quite low, or where the
transformer experiences a burnout inside the
windings (i.e., in the secondary windings or inside
a winding where the short is not exposed to oil),
the mechanical energy released into the oil and
the air above it may be insufficient to trigger the
IFD. However, these types of faults are not likely
to place personnel at risk or create an oil spill.
The IFD is designed to reliably detect faults that
could present a personnel or environmental
hazard. The fact that it will also operate on most
faults that fall below the threshold levels for a
violent failure is an important, but secondary
benefit.
Operational experience to date tells us:

When the IFD has operated, the transformer

has failed internally and needs to be taken
down.

If the IFD has not operated, a primary arcing

fault has not occurred. In this instance,
existing utility safety procedures should be
followed.

The reliability of an indicating sensor needs to be

viewed in two ways: the likelihood of a false
positive (the sensor indicates a condition that
hasnt occurred) and a false negative (the sensor
failed to indicate a condition that has occurred).
To date, there have been no operations of an IFD
after the transformer had been installed, in which
the transformer had not failed (i.e., zero false
positives).
To date, no IFD has failed to operate on a
transformer that subsequently suffered an
eventful failure when it was re-fused. However,
the general principal of providing line workers
with overlapping safety barriers should be

June 2005

retained. For this reason, it is recommended that,

before re-fusing any transformer, line workers
should observe existing utility safety procedures
(e.g., ratio check or remote energization).
At the time of writing, three transformers have
failed non-violently without activating the IFD.
These units were torn down and the failure
evaluation showed there was only 40-100 amps
of fault current available and the faults were likely
due to manufacturing flawsall three units were
in service less than 24 hours. All the fuses took
minutes to operate.
To understand the occurrence of false negatives,
one needs to consider the physical conditions
that cause most transformer failures and the
intent of the IFD. Most internal failures are caught
by the protection system before migrating to a
violent failure. However, it is not usually obvious
the transformer has failed internally.
Violent transformer failure is the result of arc
energy released in or above the transformer oil,
which causes a rapid pressure pulse that either
ruptures the tank, or more commonly, causes the
lid to vent or blow off.
For a failure to occur, the arc must be under the
oil or in the air space above the oil. In test
programs, faults within windings have not caused
violent failures. It is likely that this occurs
because the fault energy available from the
system may be too low to support a high energy
arc, or there is neither the space nor the fuel (oil)
immediately available to generate a large gas
bubble.
However, even relatively benign transformer
burnouts will usually be detected by the IFD.
Field reports have indicated successful operation
of the IFD in locations where the available
maximum primary fault current would be less
than 1kA (symmetrical).

Other Transformer Fault Detection

Methods

Fuses
For over a century, the primary method of
detecting internal transformer faults is with fuses.
These devices have simple and direct operating
principles; high current melts a wire, which is
either sufficient in itself to interrupt the flow of
current or it initiates a mechanical (or chemicalmechanical) sequence in a cutout.
The advantage of these devices is that they both
detect and interrupt the fault current and, in the
case of overhead cutouts, visibly indicate

Page 9

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

operation. Their limitation is that they cannot

inherently discriminate between high current
caused by a faulted transformer and a high
current flowing through the transformer due to
another cause, such as overload. Furthermore,
fuse links are subject to age related problems
(caused by duty and environmental conditions)
that can alter their characteristics slightly over
time. The art of over-current protection design
and coordination is devoted to improving the level
of discrimination achievable, but the variables of
overloads, cold load pickup, lightning surges and
so on dictate that protection design will always
compromise sensitivity and selectivity.

them. This will not always change the

requirement for pole length, but it can on
occasion.
4.

The CLF itself is a fairly costly item and

needs to be installed by skilled power line
workers, whose wrench time costs more.
For these reasons, most utilities limit CLF
installation to locations where the available
primary line-to-ground fault current is 3,000
21
A symmetrical or more.

5.

As with all devices, CLFs also have their

problems. To operate properly, they must
remain dry on the inside throughout their
service life. Defects in seals or improper
assembly can lead to failure and/or high
replacement costs.
Unlike composite
insulator cores or surge arrestors, CLFs do
not reveal moisture ingress until they are
required to operate.

Current Limiting Fuses

In high fault current areas, current limiting fuses
(CLFs) are now used by many utilities to extend
the interrupting range of the cutout and prevent
explosive failures. Any electrical arc generates a
back voltage when it forms, and CLFs are
designed to internally generate many small arcs,
whose total back voltage is sufficient to quickly
cut off current flow to the fault.
In a well-coordinated application, the current
limiting fuse will only operate when it experiences
a high current fault and will allow enough energy
through to ensure operation of the expulsion
fuse. Ideally, on a low fault current, the expulsion
fuse should be the only fuse to operate.
Clearly, CLFs play an important role in the
prevention of catastrophic failures and help
ensure that high current faults are cleared
properly. However, as good as they are, CLFs
have limitations:
1.

2.

3.

They do not visibly indicate when they have

operated, causing a procedural problem.
Testing the fuse in place can be difficult to
do safely because of the position of the fuse
on top of the cutout. This problem can be
overcome with increased vertical clearance
or horizontal mounting of the CLF.
Following its operation, the cutout usually
drops out, but this does not indicate where
the problem is. Normally, the assumption
should be that the transformer has faulted,
since CLFs cannot usually see far past the
secondary terminals of the transformer. So,
diagnosing the cause of a fuse operation
where a backup CLF is present can be a
tedious process, involving a test of the CLF
and/or a ratio test of the transformer before
deciding on a course of action.
CLF installations take up space. Backup
CLFs, mounted vertically, require additional
space so that line workers can safely remove

June 2005

None of this discussion is meant to suggest that

backup CLFs should not be used where there are
high available fault currents. Their value in
preventing catastrophic failures outweighs their
shortcomings. However, CLFs should be seen
as a part of the solution along with safe work
procedures and other measures.

Stronger Transformer Tanks

One way to address the problem of violent
failures is to make stronger transformer tanks
that can withstand the energy of an internal fault
and not fail, leak or vent hot gases. This design
has been used in both distribution transformers
and other equipment, and it provides a degree of
fault protection. However, this approach is
expensive relative to the current, low cost of
regular distribution transformers.
To date, a test procedure that can reliably mimic
the energy dynamics of an internal arcing fault
has not been developed and thus cannot be
included in standards. However, some utilities
have moved toward requiring a higher standard
for tank strength.

Completely Self Protected

Transformers (CSPs)
Completely self protected transformers (CSPs)
combine an internal, under-oil primary fuse

21

S.L Cress, Ontario Hydro Technologies* and

R.M Godfrey, Acres International: Application
Guide for Distribution Fusing, Report 288 D 747
August 1998, prepared for and available from
CEA Technologies, Inc.

Page 10

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

(either a weak link or a CLF) and a secondary

breaker with the standard transformer and surge
arrestor.
For faults beyond the secondary
terminals, the breaker operates. If the internal
primary fuse operates, the transformer is
assumed to have faulted.
The all internal design of the over current
protection on CSPs, plus use of transformer
mounted surge arrestors, makes for a compact
installation, which preserves valuable pole space
and is less visibly intrusive. Moreover, the
secondary breaker provides ready indication of
overloads or secondary faults.

6.

CSP transformers inherently cost more than

non-CSPs.

7.

CSPs do not provide visual indication of a

primary fuse operation, which has to be
inferred during customer outages and the
secondary breaker being in the normal
position. This inference can be incorrect.
(For example when the secondary has
become disconnected or broken for some
reason.)

8.

If the utility is actually paying for its system

losses (either directly or via performance
based regulation incentives), thousands of
secondary breakers can add a real cost
burden. If the utility is not paying for losses, it
should consider that one day it might have to
incur these costs.

9.

Finally, many linemen do not like CSPs

because CSP tanks cannot be energized via
a cutout. Furthermore the esthetic benefits of
more compact construction can reduce
working clearances.
Energizing any
apparatus with a live line clamp is an
operation that makes all experienced trades
people nervous. Some utilities mitigate this
risk by energizing the CSP transformer with
the first upstream switch, but this brings with
it a reduction in service to the other
customers downstream of the switch. To
counter the service impact of this practice on
main feeders, some utilities have taken to
adding cutouts to CSP installations in these
locations. This is a logical approach, but it
negates many of the benefits the CSP
offered in the first place.

Unfortunately, there are several problems with

the CSPs:
1.

All fuse operations require a change out of

the transformer to replace the fuse, even
when the transformer is not faulted.

2.

Weak-link fuses can be blown by factors

other than a transformer fault. If the arrestor
operates as it is designed and other factors
stay within design limits, nuisance operations
of the weak link should never happen.
However, the real world experience of many
utilities over the years has been different.

3.

CLFs in transformer tanks have to be under

the oil. The seals have to last for the life of
the transformer and the element has to
perform reliably for 30 years. Good lightning
protection is a must. As discussed before, a
line worker will not discover that a CLF seal
is leaking unless and until the CLF is called
on to perform. Because a crew will have to
take down the transformer to replace the
fuse, internal fuses must be well protected
against non-fault operations. Therefore,
CLFs must not be exposed to lightning
surges that could cause operation. In theory,
the position of the arrestor next to the
bushing should provide for close to ideal
surge protection. In practice, lightning
arrestors do not always last as long as
transformers. In short, the odds of a
CSP/arrestor combination lasting 30 years
are not all that strong.

4.

With CSPs, the secondary breaker is always

on and requires some energy to function.
This adds to the life cycle cost of the
transformer.

5.

The secondary breaker must also maintain

its operating characteristics for 30 or more
years over a broad range of temperature
variation.

June 2005

Refer to the chart in Appendix A for a comparison

of options for fault detection.

Page 11

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Conclusion

The presence of an internal fault is difficult to

detect without disconnecting the load and
testing the integrity of the insulation.
Re-energizing a faulted transformer will
cause further damage due to the escalation
of the fault. Also, the transformer can fail
violently during this operation, increasing the
safety risk to the line crew and increasing
utility costs and service delays.
The transient pressure rise in the airspace of
the distribution transformer is a finger print
common to all internal arcing faults.
Detecting and signaling the presence of an
internal fault with a built in detector can:

Eliminate long interactive diagnostic

procedures that are prone to human
error,

Accelerate restoration of customer

service, and

Improve line crew safety.

Contributors
Don Duckett, P. Eng. has been active in the
electric distribution utility industry since 1967.
Daniel Desrosiers, P. Eng. 25+ years with
Hydro Quebec.
Stuart Hicks, P. Eng. has over 40 years of
experience
in
Canadian
utilities
and
manufacturers.
Stephen Hudson, P. Eng. 10 years in the
manufacturing industry.
Robert Panting, retired from utility operations
after a 40+ year career.
Robert Thompson, transformer manufacturer
with over 25 years industry experience.
Mal Swanson, P. Eng. Over 30 years electrical
industry experience.

The internal fault detector (IFD) was developed

with the participation of a number of utilities to
enable crews to quickly identify transformers with
potentially dangerous internal faults. With over
70,000 in service, it has proven itself to
dependably perform this function.
More strategically, the IFD represents another
small step on the journey to a distribution system
where, more and more, information is used to
improve customer service and the effective
utilization and safety of more valuable resources.

About the Author

Wayne Clark, P. Eng. Electrical Engineering,
University of Windsor, has been active in the
electric distribution utility industry since 1976. Mr.
Clarks career spans engineering, management,
operations, strategy, project management,
business transformation and systems integration.
Moreover, this experience has been accumulated
as an employee, consultant and contract
manager in a variety of utility and utility-related
organizations including TXU, Acres International,
HydroOne, Toronto Hydro, Georgian Bay Hydro,
CEATI, Aquila Networks, Electrical Safety
Authority, and the Association of Major Power
Consumers of Ontario. Mr. Clark is a member of
the Registered Professional Engineering Society,
Province of Ontario (Certificate of Authorization),
IEEE Power Engineering Society. Mr. Clark can
be reached at: 705.728.3284 or by email at
[email protected].

June 2005

Page 12

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

References
N. Cuk, S.H. Hicks. Development of an Internal
Fault Detector For Pole-Top Distribution Transformers,

(02/23/04);
http://www.enr.com/features/bizlabor/archives/04
0223.asp

Report No. T994700-5003, April 2002, prepared

for and available from CEA Technologies, Inc.
ORNL Report 6804/R1
M.V. Lat, J. Kortschinski, S.L. Cress, W.A.
Chisholm, T.A. Gough, Ontario Hydro
Technologies*: Effect of Lightning on the Overall
Reliability of Distribution Systems, Report No.
160D597 December 1998 prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc.
S.L Cress, M. Puszczynski, T. Gough, D. Fischer,
R. Beresh and S. Barret, Ontario Hydro
Technologies*: Characterizing the Overcurrents on
Distribution Systems, Report No. 161 D 917
December 1998 prepared for and available from
CEA Technologies, Inc.
Ray Piercy, Reinhard Filter and Steve Barret,
Ontario Hydro Technologies*: Distribution
Transformer Internal Pressure Withstand Test, Report
149 D 491A Dec 1997, prepared for and
available from CEA Technologies, Inc.
N.P. Cuk, Powertech Labs: "Oil Tank Explosion
Resistance, Report No. 149D491 June 1990
prepared for and available from CEA
Technologies, Inc.
J.P. Chisholm, N. Cuk and S.H. Hicks, IFD
Corporation: Development of an Internal Fault
Detector for Pole-Top Distribution Transformers:
Report No T994700-5003 December 1998
prepared for and available from CEA
Technologies, Inc. or IFD Corporation.
American National Standards Institute, Standard
C57 12.20 1997: Standard for Overhead Type
Distribution Transformers
Canadian Standards Association, Standard C2M91 (2003): Single-Phase and Three-Phase
Distribution Transformers, Types ONAN and
LNAN
S.L Cress, Ontario Hydro Technologies* and R.M
Godfrey, Acres International: Application Guide
for Distribution Fusing, Report 288 D 747 August
1998, prepared for and available from CEA
Technologies, Inc.
1www.capschell.com\\CapSchell, Inc_ Research
& Education Services.htm
Jonathan Barnes and Richard Korman HighVoltage Power Line Work Is A Peril, in
McGraw_Hill Construction, [online magazine]

June 2005

Page 13

Appendix A: Fault Protection and Identification Options and Benefits

Productivity &
Customer Service
Improvement?

Visible Isolation
of Transformer?

Visible
Transformer
Fault Indication?

Standard
transformer &
cutout (base case)

No

Yes**

Cutout with Backup

CLF

No

Completely Self
Protected
Transformer
Internal Fault
Detector

Description

Material Cost

No

Safety
Improvements &
Environmental
Protection?
No

Labor Cost

NA

Standard line crew

rates

Usually

No

Yes

$60-100*

Standard line crew

rates

Yes

No

No

Yes

$200-300**

Standard line crew

rates

Yes

Yes**

Yes

Yes

$35-50

Less than 5 minutes at

standard transformer
manufacturer labor
rates

* Does not include changes to pole height or installation cost. The offset cost of no longer installing a standard PRD in the transformer tank is not included.
** From cutout operation

Detecting Distribution Transformer Faults

Page 14

Appendix B: Cost Analysis Possible Costs Associated with Transformer

Faults
The following costs will vary by utility. This table was compiled from data gathered from engineers
and experts with experience in managing distribution systems. The cost ranges represent
different methods of accounting for costs and/or different cost structures or utility practices,
depending if the costs are fully burdened Furthermore, this section touches on possible costs
when there is an injury. Although the concept of putting a price on injuries may be offensive to
some, many utilities may track these figures.

Description
Operational Cost Savings
2 line crew & truck (hourly)
Lineman & scout truck
Materials Cost Savings
Lightning arrestors
Bushings
Fuses
Poles
1ph structure material
3ph structure material
9.5m pole cca
12.5m pole cca
Anchor
Epoxy arm 1ph
Epoxy arm 2ph
8' wood cross arm
Arrestor 9kv
Arrestor 27kv
Arrestor bracket
Cutout 15kv
Cutout 27kv

Effort
(hours)

Estimated Costs

.25 - .75
.25 - .75

$100-750
$60-400

.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1
.25 - 1

$40-80
$50-100
$3-50
$250-500
$31-192
$134-475
$130-200
$250-400
$30-100
$65-150
$100-200
$40-100
$30-70
$50-80
$5-30
$60-100
$80-140

Potential Cost Reduction Associated with IFD Use

Transport time
Clean up crew
Supervisor time
Paperwork to announce spill (1 cupful or greater)
Environmental officer
Spill clean up kit

Detecting Distribution Transformer Faults

Avoided Costs per Incident

.5 - 2
.5 - 10
.5 - 10
1.0 - 4.0
.5 - 10

$100-1500
$100-10,000
$100-10,000
$100-5,000
$100-10,000
$75-150

Page 15

Increasing Distribution System Productivity

Description
More Serious Events Potential Cost Reduction
Damaged tank removal (additional time)
Transport time
PCB lab test & shipment
Contaminated soil disposal fee/ barrel
PCB clor-n-oil test kit
Clean Up crew
Supervisor time
Paperwork to announce spill
Environmental officer time
Fill repair/sod/landscaping resources
Permit to dispose of soil
Digger truck
Pole replacement - labor only
Load pole
1 ph pole assemble & install
3ph pole assemble & install
Transfer 1ph xfmr c/w c.o.
Transfer 3ph xfmr bank c/w c.o.
Connections at xfmr
Connections at ser. Ent
Span of triplex run
Span of prim 1 ph run
Arrestor installation
When Injuries are Involved
Legal fees
Occupational health and safety worker
Supervisor time
Management time
OSHA
Medical expenses
Compensation insurance
Cost of training temporary or new employees
Time lost from work by injured employees

Effort
(hours)
.5 - 4
.5 - 2
.5 - 10

2.0 - 16.0
2.0 - 16.0
2.0 - 16.0
20 - 100
2.0 - 16.0

Estimated Costs
$100-1,500
$100-1,500
$100-10,000
$0-50,000
$100-500
$200-10,000
$200-10,000
$200-10,000

2.0 - 4.0
1.5 - 3.0
.25 - .75
.5 - 2
1.0 - 3.0
1.0 - 3.0
2.0 - 5.0
.25 - .75
.25 - .75
.25 - .75
1.0 - 3.0
.25 - .75

$200-10,000
$0-200
$400-3000
$175-1,000
$100-500
$75-200
$100-500
$100-500
$200-1,000
$50-200
$50-200
$50-200
$100-500
$50-200

10 - 100
10 - 100
10 - 100
10 - 100

$3,000-500,000
$1,000-100,000
$1,000-100,000
$1,000-250,000

Lost time by workers other than those injured buy who were
directly or indirectly involved in injuries
Uninsured medical costs covered by company
Employee's loss in earning power
Economic loss to the injured person's family
Potential penalties
Potential fines
Customer Service Costs
Failure to fulfill customer commitments
Unrealized Revenue
- Business
- Consumer

June 2005

Page 16