The Reading Process

Introduction
Reading is one strand of literacy. The reading process is complex and multi-dimensional. Effective
teachers have an understanding of this complexity and are able to use a range of teaching
approaches that produce confident and independent readers. Recent work completed by the NCCA
(Research Report 15, 2012) identified a number of components that need to be considered in the
teaching of reading towards recognizing this complexity.
Among these are:

the establishment of varied and rich vocabulary

development of phonological processes

the provision of a framework for teaching comprehension strategies

a need to ensure that motivation and enjoyment of reading are key aspects of the reading
process

a renewed focus on reading fluency

This booklet attempts to highlight the above components by providing some background knowledge
on each and by outlining practical opportunities for their application in the classroom. Each
component is an essential ingredient of a multi-dimensional definition of reading and provides
guidance for understanding how the reading process should be taught.

Components of Reading

Motivation refers to a childs eagerness and willingness to read.

The National Literacy and

Numeracy Strategy, Literacy and Numeracy for Learning and Life (2011), states that positive attitude
and motivation are vital for progression in literacy and numeracy. It also states that all learners
should benefit from the opportunity to experience the joy and excitement of getting lost in a book
(in both paper based and digital formats) (p. 43).

Teachers can promote excitement and motivation to read by providing students with

interesting and rich texts

choice of text

authentic purposes for reading

opportunities to explore, interact and experiment with text.

Motivated readers require a safe, supportive classroom

environment, one in which both the physical aspects and the
culture encourages opportunities to use and combine printed,
spoken, visual and digital texts. Students benefit from such an
environment that allows them to feel confident in taking risks,
in sharing texts, in responding openly to texts and in working
collaboratively with each other.

Levels of motivation and engagement have been found to predict achievement (Baker & Wigfield,
1999) and as such are key factors in determining childrens academic success. They are critical to
ensuring children develop both the skill and the will to engage in literacy activities. According to
Beers 2003, social and emotional confidence almost always improves as cognitive competence
improves (2003 pg.260).

Fostering an enjoyment of reading can be achieved in a variety of ways by ensuring

a print rich environment: which provides a broad range of reading material matched to
childrens stages of development and interests (Lipson, Mosenthal, Mekkelson, & Russ,
2004)

choice and control: to self-select books for independent reading, to self-select topics for
writing and to choose activities in response to reading material.

that the children are read to every day using varied voice tones and expressions.

optimal challenge in order towards moving children beyond their Zone of Proximal
Development (Vygotsky, 1978)

opportunities for collaboration and social interaction (Guthrie, et al., 2007). This can occur in
several ways: e.g. responding personally to texts, sharing likes and dislikes and in
recommending books to each other.

Other ways of motivating students are outlined in the table below:

Ideas for Motivating

Explanation

Students
Reading Time

Establish a time for independent reading DEAR time, USSR time

and be a role model for students by sharing your enthusiasm for
reading. Share with pupils which reading material you enjoy

Sharing

After independent reading sessions, allow time for students to

share what they have just read with partner/group/class

Reading to Students

Help students experience a wide variety of texts by reading many

different text forms, authors and genres regularly. It is very
valuable to allow time daily where the children are read to for the
sheer purpose of enjoyment

Using Fads

Make literacy links to current fads/trends such as current sporting

events

Films and TV

Provide opportunities for students to explore reading material

related to appropriate films/TV programmes

Poetry

Ensure a variety of poetry texts is available

Inventories/surveys

Distribute a questionnaire at the start of the year to help select

motivating material based on students interests

Book Discussion Groups

Provide opportunities for students to discuss a common text that

4

has been read

Class-created Books

Make a class book with sections dedicated to favourite jokes,

riddles or songs, etc. If your school has been involved in the
Write a Book competition, display books from the competition

Publicity Campaign

Have students create a publicity campaign for a text /author,

using posters, written advertisements etc.

Different Audiences

Pair students with reading buddies from different class levels

Reading Timeline

Get students to produce a timeline of their lives naming their

favourite texts at different stages throughout their years

Read with a Friend

Have multiple copies of a text available so friends can read it

simultaneously and discuss

This Is Your Life

Student groups who have read the same text can create a This Is
Your Life programme based on a central character. Introduced
guests can be other characters from text

Lonely Texts

Display lesser used texts under a banner called Loneliest Texts in

the Library! An incentive could be offered to students who read
and review such texts

TV vs. Reading

Create a chart recording time students spend reading vs.

watching TV at home. Jointly formulate guidelines for earning
incentives, e.g. Class reading time > TV time = Reward!

Where in the World

Give each student a copy of a world map. Every time they read a
text that relates to a country in some way, have students colour in
the country. Provide incentives for reaching specified goals, e.g. a
reward for every five countries coloured, etc.
Adapted From First Steps Reading Second Edition

Working with unmotivated students

Motivation is self-generated and happens within the child; it is not done to the child. (Lyons, 2003,
77).
Wood (1998) suggests that how the child views himself as a social being is a crucial determiner of his
motivation. Motivation and de-motivation for learning are not simply manifestations of individual
cognition but consequences of a complex interaction between the person and the social.
In order to work effectively with unmotivated students, teachers should

demonstrate that they are genuinely interested in the child, in what he thinks, what he does,
what he feels and what he cares about

select books and encourage students to write

stories that reflect their interests and their level of
achievement

anticipate

students

problems

and

prevent

inappropriate behaviours from occurring

create

warm

supportive

interpersonal

relationship with the student

show a personal interest in childrens lives by

demonstrating genuine interest, caring, commitment and concern

create learning situations and activities in which children are interested and can meet with
success

structure the environment to ensure childrens success

provide opportunities for children to take risks without fear of failure

value and praise childrens efforts

introduce tasks and books in such a way as to challenge and entice the children to become
involved

expect children to succeed

Useful Websites
http://resources.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/interactive/literacy/index.htm
http://www.oxfordowl.co.uk/FindBook
http://www.magickeys.com/books/index.html#books

Fluency is the ability to read aloud with expression to demonstrate an understanding of the
authors message (Department of Education and Training in Western Australia, 2004, p.30)
According to Mc Kenna & Stahl (2009) the three key components of reading fluency are

accurate word recognition

automaticity

appropriate rhythm and intonation of speech.

Each component affects comprehension in a different way.

Accurate word recognition: In order to improve reading fluency pupils should be reading at their
instructional reading level i.e. 90% - 95% accuracy.

Automaticity: This is the ability to read words without conscious decoding. Here your reading allows
you to read words fluently so that you can concentrate on comprehending the text. Mental energy
is required for decoding meaning therefore very little mental energy may be left for comprehension.

Rhythm and intonation: this is also referred to as prosody and concerns the ability to read with
some sort of inflection. It often prosody indicates a childs level of understanding about the parts of
speech contained in a sentence which is in essence a lower order form of comprehension.
While other opinions highlight the importance of reading rate in connection with reading fluency,
Beers contends that improving a students reading rate doesnt automatically mean a students
attitude towards reading improves or that comprehension improves (Beers, 2003) describes a range
of activities, both at home and at school, that are supportive of fluent reading. These include:

exposure to modelled fluent reading patterns at school and at home

provision of opportunities to practice the fluent reading behaviours in meaningful context as

opposed to in isolation

opportunities to focus on and practice reading developmentally-appropriate texts with

expression through guided and repeated reading activities aimed at expressive reading

opportunities to engage in fluent reading in a variety of texts at both their independent and
instructional levels.

The following link explores whole school approaches to reading that focus on enhancing reading
fluency http://www.pdst.ie/node/294.
Approaches addressed here include, Guided Reading, Reading Partners, Peer Tutoring, C.A.P.E.R.,
Readers Theatre and Shared Reading. Full details of all of these along with teachers opinions of
same are outlined in detail.
Other approaches to reading are tabulated below:

Activity

Method

Choral Reading

Children chorally read a portion of text altogether.

Taped Reading

In this activity, the teacher tapes the children reading individually. This
can be done with the microphone on your interactive whiteboard or a
tape recorder. The children may listen back to what they have read. They
self-assess their own reading.

Echo Reading

The teacher may work with a small group/whole class/individual. The

teacher models fluent reading and the children repeat the reading back to
the teacher. They echo the teachers expression and intonation etc.

Buddy Reading

Older children are paired with younger children. If children are too close
in age, some readers might feel uncomfortable when reading aloud. There
are benefits for the older and younger child here.

Useful Websites
http://www.aaronshep.com/rt/RTE.html
http://www.thebestclass.org/rtscripts.html
http://www.teachingheart.net/readerstheater.htm
8

The ultimate objective of reading is comprehension or the reconstruction of meaning

English Curriculum, Teacher Guidelines
The teaching of reading needs to include a range of comprehension strategies. Comprehension strategies can be
defined as the mental processes that good readers use to understand text. These strategies need to be
explicitly taught towards developing independent readers who engage meaningfully with text.
The process of comprehension begins before we start to read and continues even after the reading
is finished. Good readers use pre-reading strategies like previewing the text and use post-reading
strategies like summarizing in addition to the many strategies they use to make meaning during
reading itself. By dividing instruction into pre-reading, during reading and post-reading, teachers
can design activities for each stage that will improve students comprehension and also provide
opportunities for teachers to demonstrate strategies that readers can use at each stage (Pardo,
2004).

Strategies should be introduced and mastered individually. However, over time the child should
develop a repertoire of strategies which they can independently draw on when reading. For this
reason comprehension strategies should be developed from the earliest levels of the primary school
across a range of genres and modalities (both print and digital).

Children need opportunities to practice and consolidate these strategies in a cross curricular
manner. A variety of fiction and nonfiction texts including picture books can be used for strategy
instruction. Samples of such books are highlighted on the next page.

List of Reading Strategies

Reading Strategies

Description

Predicting

Helps activate prior knowledge

Based on clues in text (pictures, subtitles, etc.)

Connecting

Connecting prior knowledge to new information

Comparing

Thinking more specifically about connections they are making,

e.g. How is this different to.?

Inferring

Taking information from a text and creating their own

interpretations beyond the literal level.

Synthesising

Piecing information together as students read a text, to keep

track of what is happening

Creating Images

Creating sensory images to assist with overall comprehension of

a text

Self-questioning

Providing a framework for active learning as students engage

with the text to find answers

Skimming

Glancing quickly through material to gain an overall view of text

Scanning

Glancing through a text to locate specific details , e.g. names,

dates etc.

Determining Importance

Prioritising most important information from phrase, sentence,

paragraph, chapter or whole text

10

Summarising and
Paraphrasing

Reducing larger texts to focus on important elements

Re-stating/re-writing text in own words using key words to
capture main focus

Re-Reading

Creating opportunities for deeper understanding, word

identification and developing fluency

Reading On

Adjusting Reading Rate

Skipping unfamiliar word(s) and reading on to provide sufficient

context to determine unknown word/phrase
Adjusting rate where appropriate, e.g. slowing down to
comprehend new information, or speeding up to scan for key
words

Sounding Out

Using knowledge of letter-sound relationship to decode

unknown words

Chunking

Breaking multi-syllabic words into units larger that individual

phonemes

Using Analogy

Transferring what they know about familiar words to help them

identify unfamiliar words

Consulting a Reference

Using a dictionary, thesaurus, reference chart or glossary to

help find word meanings/pronunciations
Adapted from First Steps Reading Resource Book

The repertoire of strategies recommended varies. The diagram below places these strategies into 3
levels, ranging from the lower order literal type to the higher order evaluative type.

It is recommended that comprehension strategies are taught using the gradual release of
responsibility model (Pearson and Gallagher, 1983), as illustrated on the next page.
11

First, the teacher explicitly describes the comprehension strategy about to be taught and
states why good readers use this strategy when reading.

The teacher explicitly models the strategy by demonstrating and thinking aloud while the
children observe the strategy in action.

Following this, the teacher continues to model the strategy and invites the children to
contribute their ideas

Next, the children engage in collaborative use of the strategy through guided practice where
the teacher gradually releases responsibility for the strategy to the children through
scaffolding instruction and facilitation.

Finally, the children engage in independent use of the strategy in subsequent lessons.

12

When planning for comprehension lessons, Gill (2008) recommends that teachers ask themselves the
following questions as they preview the text.

Gills Questions Planning for comprehension

1. What do my students know about this topic?
2. What specific vocabulary or concepts do they need to understand before they can
understand this passage?
3. How can I get my students interested in this topic?
4. What purpose can I provide for the reading?
5. What activities will help my students engage in this text?
6. Do parts of this text allow for purposeful repeated readings?
7. Is there potential for teaching word identification strategies in this text?
8. What strategies do my students need to learn?
9. What strategies can I demonstrate with this particular text?
A booklet Guiding Comprehension - teaching for meaning outlining various comprehension
strategies and activities to support implementation can be found on http://www.pdst.ie/node/482

Useful Websites
www.pdst.ie/node/482
http://reading.ecb.org/
http://www.cdu.mic.ul.ie/Newresource/default.html
13

The limits of my language are the limits of my mind. All I know is what I have words for (Ludwig
Wittgenstein 1953)
Vocabulary development is the enrichment and extension of pupils word knowledge and
understanding. Vocabulary consists of the words we understand when we hear or read them
(receptive vocabulary) and words we speak or write (expressive vocabulary). We build vocabulary by
picking up words that we read or hear and through direct instruction from teachers or other
professionals. Mehigan (2009: 183-196) suggests that learning, as a language based activity, is
fundamentally and profoundly dependent on vocabulary knowledge knowledge of words and word
meanings. He states that four types of vocabulary are often mentioned by researchers:
Listening vocabulary the words we need to know to understand what we hear
Speaking Vocabulary the words we use when we speak
Reading Vocabulary the words we need to understand what we read
Writing Vocabulary the words we use in writing
He claims that these categories are significant because the source of childrens vocabulary
knowledge changes as they become more familiar with the written word.
There is a strong correlation between vocabulary and reading comprehension. Pupils who come to
pre-school/junior infants with a rich and varied vocabulary tend to have a better understanding of
the texts they read and, as their reading comprehension increases, their vocabulary knowledge
expands accordingly. Conversely, pupils who begin school with limited vocabulary knowledge may
struggle with reading comprehension which in turn can limit their vocabulary growth. Even in the
very young years of a childs life, vocabulary instruction can influence the childs reading ability
across the various subjects and throughout their school careers (Jalongo and Sobolak 2010). For
effective language instruction, teachers need to provide rich and varied language experiences, foster
an awareness and love of language and words, directly teach individual words and teach word
learning strategies. Beck et. al, (2002) categorise vocabulary into three main layers or tiers.
14

Kind of Word

Explanation

Examples

Tier 1

Tier one consists of the most basic words. Sight

words, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and early reading
words occur at this level.

clock, baby, happy, orange,

boy, friend

Tier 2

Tier two consists of high frequency words used by

mature language users across several content
areas. Tier two words are Important for reading
comprehension and oral communication, contain
multiple meanings and increased descriptive
vocabulary.

coincidence, absurd, hasty,

perseverance, malevolent,
treacherous, incredible

Tier 3

Tier three consists of low-frequency words that

occur in specific domains such as curriculum
subjects, hobbies, occupations, geographic regions,
technology, weather, etc.
We usually learn these words when a specific need
arises. E.g. condensation/evaporation in geography
or chlorophyll in science.

Cirrus; beaufort scale;

ferras sulphatae,
precipitation.

It important to remember that tier two and three words are not always clear-cut in their tier
classification. Condensation, for example could be included in either the two or three tier word
categories. Beck et al, (2002) recommend providing explicit instruction on the highutility words
(tier two) in reading classes. Teachers select tier two words based on their importance and utility,
their instructional potential, and students conceptual understanding. The word collaboration is an
example because students may have a conceptual understanding of what it means to work
together, even though they may not know the word collaboration. Contentspecific words are best
learned in the subject area where they are encountered. Teachers should select contentspecific
words that are the most important for understanding the concepts that students are expected to
learn. It is a good idea to pre-teach these important words prior to reading the text as this will
facilitate greater understanding. It is important to note also that full understanding and use of
vocabulary occurs only over time and multiple encounters. Learning new words does not just mean
recognising them in print, it involves acquiring new meaning and an in-depth knowledge of the word
(Beck, McKeown, Kucan, 2002).

15

Activities to Support Vocabulary Development

Activity
Small words in big words

What is it?
Find some little words hiding in
words from the graph.

Semantic Gradient

Select one word from text.

Select three or four synonyms
for the word. Order the words
from simple to advanced.
Break compound word up into
their components.

Compound Words

Multiple Meanings

Vocabulary development to
encourage deep processing

To draw childrens attention to

the multiple meaning of words.

To gain a deeper understanding

of a word through questioning.
Word can be written on board
and four circles drawn around it
with the heading opposite (in
bold)

Examples
Caterpillar
Cat pill at
Scorching/sunny/sultry/humid
Wet/drizzling/showery/rainy
Sandcastle: sand + castle
Butterfly: butter + fly
Cross =emotion/verb/noun
Blue=emotion/colour/cookery
term
Orange
What is it? fruit/ colour /tree
What is it like? round/ juicy
What can we do with it? eat it
/squeeze it
Examples mandarin/tangerine

Word Wall

Can be used to display high

frequency words, word families,
names and other vocabulary.
www.carlscorner.us.com

Word Taxonomy

Word of the week

This is a list of words arranged

in alphabetical order pertaining
to a particular topic or subject
area.
Select word of the week and
discuss. Display word on a
laminated background. At the
end of the week a new word
may be displayed and the old
word displayed on the word
wall.

See next page

16

A
abandoned
afraid
awful
afterlife
alarming
apparition
autumn
B
bat
Beware
bewitching
bizarre
black cat
blood
bloodcurdling
bone rattling
bogeyman
bone
broomstick
bubbling
brew
C
cackle
cackling
cape
carve
cauldron
cemetery
chilling
cloak
cobweb
coffin
corpse
costume
cottage
creepy
creaking
crypt

D
dark
darkness
dead
deafening
decaying
demon
devil
devilish
disguise
dreadful
E
eerie
elf
enchant
evil
eyeballs
F
fairy
fangs
fantasy
fear
fog
fright
furious
frightening
frightful
frothing
fiendish
G
gaunt
ghastly
ghost
ghostly
ghoul
ghoulish
goblin
gory
grave
gravestone
grin
grim
Grim Reaper
grisly
groaning
grotesque
gruesome

H
hair-raising
Halloween
hat
haunt
haunted house
hayride
headstone
headless horseman
hobgoblin
hocus pocus
horrible
horrifying
howl
I
icy
isolated
invisible
K
knees knocking
L
Lantern
luminous
M
macabre
magical
magic wand
mask
masquerade
mausoleum
menacing
midnight
mist
monster
monstrous
moonlight
moonlit
morbid
mournful
moaning
mummy
mysterious
Michelle Hannafin
2013

N
night
nightmare
noises
O
October
ogre
orange
otherworldly
owl
ominous
P
paranormal
petrified
phantom
phenomenal
phosphorescent
poltergeist
potion
possessed
pungent
pumpkin
Q
quaking
quivering
quiet
R
repulsive
revolting
raucous
S
scary
scream
scythe
shriek
squeal
shadow
shadowy
shocking
skeleton
skull
smirk
spectre
spell
spectacular

S cont.
spider
spider web
spine-chilling
seething
sinister
spook
spooky
startling
summoning
supernatural
superstition
sweets
T
talisman
tarantula
tangled
terrible
terrifying
threatening
thrilling
tomb
tombstone
troll
U
unearthly
unnerving
V
vampire
vanish
W
wand
warlock
web
weird
werewolf
wicked
witch
witchcraft
wizard
wizardry
wraith
wrinkled
Z
zombie
17

Vocabulary Builder
Picture
Word

Word meaning:___________________________________________________

Synonyms

Root:

Antonyms

Clues to help me remember

Sentences
(1)___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
(2)__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_
18

Assessment of Vocabulary Development - How well do I know words?

Words

I know the
word and could
use it in
conversation or
in my writing

I know the
word and
understand
what it means

I remember
seeing it or
hearing it
before

Dont know it
and havent
heard it

Useful Websites
http://www.scoilnet.ie/reading_literacy.shtm
http://www.theschoolbell.com/Links/Dolch/Contents.html
http://www.vocabulary.co.il/english-language-games/
http://www.mrsperkins.com
http://pbskids.org/games/vocabulary.html
http://www.schooljotter.com/showpage.php?id=183565

19

Two Important Definitions

Phonological Awareness

Ability to recognise, combine and manipulate

the different sounds of spoken words

Phonics

The combination of (letters) in written language

and phonemes (sounds) in spoken language and
how to use these correspondences to read and
spell

Phonological Awareness
Phonological Awareness can be defined as an ability to recognise, combine and manipulate the
different sound units of spoken words (Department of Education and Training in Western Australia,
2004, p. 73). It is an aural and an oral skill that is unrelated to intelligence (as measured in I.Q. tests),
meaning that Phonological awareness is very different to Phonics. The starting point is the sounds
we hear in words as opposed to letters on a page. Phonological awareness is a central part of
learning to read (Adams, 1990; Goswami, 1986 ref; National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHHD), 2000). Although different to phonics, it is an important precursor to
learning phonics effectively (Savage, 2008).
Levels of Phonological Awareness:
Phonological awareness is an umbrella term. It can be divided into the following levels:

Syllabic Awareness

Onset and Rime

Phonemic Awareness

20

1. Syllabic Awareness:
This involves syllable blending, segmentation and isolation.
Syllable blending: The teacher demonstrates this by saying a word such as po-ta-to pronouncing
syllables with one second intervals between them before asking pupils What is this word?
Syllable Segmentation: the teacher presents words for segmentation by showing real objects or
pictures or by simply saying the word and asking the students to segment it e.g. win-dow-sill.
Kinaesthetic reinforcement can be helpful here i.e. get the students to use their two hands and to
touch their heads for the first syllable, their shoulders for the second syllable, their hips for the third
syllable, knees for the fourth and toes for the fifth. Alternatively get the children to clap and also say
how many syllables.
Syllable Isolation: teacher presents 2 syllable words which also happen to be compound words, for
example, postman, playtime, playground etc. The words are presented orally and the pupils are
asked to say the first part or first syllable on its own before advancing to the second syllable. The
teacher then proceeds to 2 syllable words which are not compound words for example, teach-er, table, etc. and asks the students to say either the first syllable or the second syllable only. Syllables can
then be isolated using 3 and maybe 4 syllable words.
2. Onset-Rime Awareness (Rhyming):
All syllables can be divided up into onsets and rimes. For example, the word bat b = onset, at =
rime. All syllables have rimes but not all syllables have onsets.
Children with ability to use onset and rime can:

recite nursery rhymes

tell you if words they hear (or see pictures of) rhyme with one another i.e. discriminate and
select rhyming words

think up words to rhyme with a visual cue or orally presented word i.e. generate rhyming
words independently (N Mhurch, 1998)

Activities to develop onset and rime may include the following:

Learn traditional Nursery Rhymes and Other Rhyming Poems

Listen to Stories with strong rhyming patterns e.g. Walker Books - This is the Bear series.

Rhyme Discrimination Exercises

o

Matching pictures that rhyme

Discrimination of pairs of rhyming words and non-rhyming words. Present pairs of

words orally and see if the pupils can tell you whether they rhyme or not. Examples
dog log
pen net
late mate and so on

21

Discrimination of words that rhyme with target word: Present a word orally. Now
call out a list of words and see if the pupils spot the ones that rhyme with the target
word. Example Target Word Bin

Bat, Pin, Win, Ten, Can, Twin.

Supplying Rhyming Words. This is rhyming at an oral or a productive level.

o

Rhyme completion: Ask children to finish rhymes e.g. I have a shoe. Its colour is ....(blue),
I have a kite, its colour is ..... (white)

I Spy: I spy something and it rhymes with ake. (cake), I spy something and it rhymes
with cook (look)

Composing Simple Rhymes: Give the structure of the first few lines e.g. I know a man.
His name is ....(Dan). He drives a .....(van) and so on.

Real Poems: Poems with predictable rhyming endings are useful here. Read the poem
emphasising the rhyming words. After practice, pause before some endings and see if
the pupils can supply the rhymes. Sounds Abound and Sound Linkage and Blueprint
for Literacy have lots of rhyme supply exercises. Rhyme Box: Put various objects in a
box. These can be used for eliciting rhymes.

Rhyming Games

Name of Game

Instructions

Play Ball

Students sit or stand in a circle. A criterion is

nominated for the type of word to be provided;
for instance, words that rhyme with cat. One
student is given a ball and tosses it to another,
saying a word that fulfils the criterion. Students
continue to toss the ball to one another until no
more words can be provided. The game then
continues with a new criterion.

Snap and Clap

Begin with a simple snap, clap rhythm, then say a

word. Students are challenged to repeat the
snap, clap rhythm and then to provide a rhyming
word; for example:
-

snap, snap, clap teacher says coat;

snap, snap, clap student 1 says float;

snap, snap, clap student 2 says boat.

This is continued until students cannot think of

anymore rhyming words; a new pattern with a

22

new word is then chosen.

Mystery bag

In the bag I can feel something whose name

rhymes with dish. What could it be?

What Could It Be?

This involves the creation of clues that are

presented orally for students to solve; for
instance:
Using onset and rime: Im thinking of an animal.
The animals name is /k/ /ow/. What could it be?
Using rhyming words: Im thinking of an animal.
The animals name rhymes with bat. What
could it be?
Rhyme awareness: listen while I say three words.
Tell me which one doesnt rhyme with the
others.

Stepping Place

Twelve A3/A4 numbered pictures are placed on

the floor. Teacher/child throws two dice and
child goes to that numbered picture and supplies
a rhyming word to match the picture they are at.
A variation of this could involve using only one
dice. Numbers 1-12 can be on laminated cards
and pictures can be changed regularly.

Pass it on

Children sit in a circle with the teacher in the

centre. The teacher throws a soft ball/bean bag
to a child and gives the child a word. The child
has to supply a rhyming word before passing it
back to the teacher.

Rhyme Time Game (supplying rhyming words to Materials Required: Picture

a given picture stimulus)
rhyming words on flashcards
-

stimulus

and

Show the picture e.g. picture of a dog

and ask class/pupils for rhyming words.
Record these on the blackboard. Accept
nonsense words but dont record.
When the pupils finish giving rhyming
words, present the rhyming words on
flashcards for the students. If they have
listed them, they win the card, if not the
teacher keeps the card.
Whoever has the most cards at the end
wins. Ask the students what these
23

rhyming words have in common i.e.

(rime ending).
Then elicit the particular letters that
make that ending.
This is more advanced as there is writing
and reading involved and the link to
phonics/phonics training is being made
with the introduction of the letters and
letter patterns. The following are some
rhyming lists to start off with (of course
some cards can be removed from the
pack if they are considered outside the
ability range of the pupils playing the
game).

PAN: man, fan, can, ran, an, than, bran, flan,

span, tan ...
SIT: lit, knit, bit, fit, pit, hit wit, split, spit, it, kit,
skit, grit
POP: shop, hop, bop, crop, mop, sop, stop, top,
drop, flop, chop, slop.
SUN: bun, gun, run, stun, shun, pun, nun, spun
BELL: shell, smell, well, tell, well, cell, sell, yell,
dwell, hell, spell, fell, swell, Nell ...
(adapted from: Department of Education and Training in Western Australia (2004)First Steps
Reading Resource Book)
3. Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness is the awareness that spoken language consists of a sequence of phonemes (a
single unit of sound). There are 44 phonemes or individual sounds, 24 consonant phonemes and 20
vowel phonemes in the English language.
Features of effective phonemic awareness instruction are

child appropriate (NICHHD, 2001; Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998; Yopp & Yopp, 2000)

deliberate, purposeful and explicit

considered as one aspect of skill development within a balanced literacy framework and is
not meaningful in and of itself.

24

Time spent on word play, nursery rhymes, riddles, and general exposure to storybooks develops
phonemic awareness. Classroom activities and tasks which can be used to practise or assess
phonemic awareness (Adams, Treiman & Pressley, 1998; Yopp & Yopp, 2000) are as follows:

Phoneme blending: e.g. What word is /fl/o/p/ (flop)?

Phoneme categorisation e.g. Which word does not belong? Bus, bun, rag? (rag).

Phoneme identity for initial, final and medial sounds e.g. Does pack begin with a /p/ sound
(as in party)?

Phoneme segmenting e.g. How many phonemes are there in ship? (sh/i/p/).

Phoneme isolation e.g. Tell me the first sound in /paste/?

Phoneme deletion e.g. What is smile without the /s/? (NCCA, 2012: 126)

Phonemic Awareness Games

Name of Game
Mystery Bag

Explanation
Place some mystery objects in a bag. Select one
object at a time, but do not show it to the
students. Provide clues to help them identify it.
For example,
In the bag I can feel something whose name
begins with f. What could it be?
In the mystery bag I can feel a f /ish. What could
it be? The procedure is then repeated with other
objects.

Hunting for Words

Challenge students to go hunting for words in

the classroom, at home, or in the general
environment. The words should fulfil a given
criterion, such as words beginning with m,
words ending with t or words with four letters.
Students copy the words into their spy pads
and later they share and discuss them as a class.

Sing a Song

Using Songs and Rhymes for phonemic

awareness sung to the tune of Old McDonald
Had a Farm.

Tic Tac Toe

Tic Tac Toe is played in the same way as Noughts

and Crosses but students use pictures to create a
sequence of three (diagonally, vertically or
horizontally). Player A may have to choose
25

pictures of words that begin with the letter b

and player B may have to choose pictures of
words that begin with the letter s.
Students play the game in pairs. Each pair is
provided with a playing grid and a selection of
picture cards. Each student selects five cards
matching their given criterion. They then take
turns to place their cards on the grid. The winner
is the first to place three words horizontally,
vertically or diagonally on the grid.

Elkonin Boxes

Elkonin Boxes (Elkonin, 1973) support students

in identifying the number of sounds in a word,
which is not always the same as the number of
letters; for instance, bike has four letters but
only three sounds.
Draw up an Elkonin Box on the board. Ensure
that the box has the same number of spaces as
there are sounds in a chosen word. Begin by
asking students, for example, What sound do
you hear first in cat? When they respond with
the first sound, not the letter name, place a
counter in the first space. Repeat this procedure
for each sound in the word, saying What sound
do you hear next? Place a counter in the second
and third spaces respectively when each sound is
identified. Finish by counting the number of
sounds.

As an extension, Elkonin Boxes can be used to

help students identify the location of particular
sounds in a word. This could be done by giving a
word such as bat, and then asking the students
to put a counter in the space where they hear
the sound /t/.

26

(Adapted from: Department of Education and Training in Western Australia (2004)First Steps
Reading Resource Book)

Useful Websites
http://phonologicalawareness.org/6.html
http://www.freereading.net/index.php?title=Phonological_Awareness_Activities
http://www.earobics.com/gamegoo/games/pawpark3/pawpark3.html

Phonics
Systematic phonics instruction has been defined as follows:
Phonics is a method of instruction that teaches students correspondences between graphemes
(letters) in written language and phonemes (sounds) in spoken language and how to use these
correspondences to read and spell. Phonics instruction is systematic when all the major grapheme
phoneme correspondences are taught and they are covered in a clearly defined sequence. (DES,
2006, p. 18).
Research tells us that phonics should be taught early in a systematic and structured way and is best
preceded by training in phonological awareness. It is important that students understand that
letters have a name and represent sounds in words. Letters may represent a number of different
sounds depending on their position in the word and the surrounding letters. For a sound knowledge
of phonics, students need to be aware of the following points

letter names are constant, whereas sounds vary. It is important for students to know the
names of the letters of the alphabet to be able to understand which letters represent
particular sounds and vice versa

letters can represent different sounds, e.g. Andrew, Amy, Audrey

letters sometimes work alone and sometimes in groups, e.g. me, bread, sheet, team

the sound that a letter or a group of letters represents depends on where the letter is in a
word and what other letters surround it, e.g. cat, city, Christmas, chop

the same sound can be represented by different letters, e.g. beach, me, key, ski, thief

the same letter(s) may represent different sounds, e.g. rough, cough, dough, plough

The following are key aspects of phonics that need to be taught and can be subsequently assessed
using printed text:

knowledge of the sounds of letters and letter clusters

27

ability to use analogies to identify unknown words (e.g. identify sat if cat is already
known)

ability to use the initial sound and context to identify a word

ability to identify the initial and final sounds in a word

ability to blend sounds into words

ability to apply knowledge of letter patterns (e.g. long vowel sound in CVC words)

ability to self-check whether an attempt is meaningful. (NCCA, 2012, p, 233)

A suggested sequence for teaching phonics might be the following

The ability to say the sounds of the
letters

The ability to sound out and read

CVC words

The ability to sound out and read 4

letter words with initial and final
blends (short vowel sounds)

The ability to understand and read

magic e words (long vowel sounds)

The ability to understand and read

vowel digraphs (long vowel sounds)

The ability to segment and read

multisyllabic words

28

Strategies for teaching phonics

Making and Breaking Words

This strategy comes directly from Reading Recovery (Clay, 1993). The teacher makes a word that the
child already knows (a regular phonic word) from their current reading for example like. The child is
shown how to generate more words by changing the initial letter for example hike, mike, bike. The
child reads the new words by running their finger under each one and reading them. The child
should always locate the known word or similar words in a book after activity to link the strategy
back to the text. This technique can be used for adding inflections, or changing the medial vowel, as
well. Making and breaking words helps a child to see how words work and how you can read or
write a new word by looking at and thinking about a known word.

Chunking

If a child can learn chunks or parts of words that are often found together, they can look for those
parts in unknown words that they are trying to read (Clay, 1993, Fox, 2004). For instance in the case
of an unknown word such as farmer, the teacher prompts by saying find a part you know or can
you find a little word in that big word? The child might identify farm or er. The child or children
can brainstorm words with these chunks and make a chart or list which uses the above chunks for
example, farmhouse, farmyard, farming, farmed, teacher, player, rubber. These can be practiced for
reading.
Another way teachers can practise the use of chunks is to write out several unknown words that
have chunks in them, and let the child underline the parts that they know to try figure out the word
(Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2008). Always remember to let the child see examples in a
book that the child/children are reading.

Useful Websites
http://curry.virginia.edu/go/wil/rimes_and_rhymes.htm#Week1
http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/vtc/ngfl/ngfl-flash/alphabet-eng/alphabet.htm
http://www.starfall.com
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/wordsandpictures/clusters/blender/index.shtml
http://resources.teachnet.ie/pbarry/flash/index.html
http://www.tampareads.com/phonics/phonicsindex.htm
http://www.schooljotter.com/showpage.php?id=183569

29

Sample Decoding Strategy Chart

Decoding Strategy Chart

Step 1: Look for the word parts at the beginning.

(prefixes)
Step 2: Look for word parts at the end.
(suffixes)
Step 3: Look for familiar spelling patterns in the base word.
(Think about the 6 syllable spelling patterns.)
Step 4: Sound out the word parts and blend together.
Step 5: Say the word parts fast.
Ask,
Is that a word Ive heard before?
Does it make sense in this sentence?

30

Assessment in Reading
Schools measure the effectiveness of reading initiatives in many different ways. In order to do this, it
is crucial that we gather and analyse information before we begin an initiative, so that on conclusion
we can repeat a similar assessment in order to measure the success of the initiative. In this section,
we outline some of the many sources of evidence that we can use to monitor pupils reading
development and the impact of our reading initiatives.

Assessment is the process of generating, gathering, recording, interpreting, using and reporting
evidence of learning in individuals, groups or systems, which relies upon a number of instruments,
one of which may be a test. Educational assessment provides information about progress in
learning (Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum, Guidelines for Schools, NCCA: 2007: 4)

Reading Assessment Continuum

SelfAssessment

o
o
o

Questionnaire
Reading Logs
Tools to allow pupils to reflect on positive aspects of their work and to focus on
an area for improvement e.g.
- WWW (What Went Well) and EBI (Even Better If)
- Two Stars (identifying the positives) and a wish (identify area for
improvement)
- Ladders (See pg. 85 Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum,
Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007))
- Thumbs up/ thumbs down (Pg. 85 also, NCCA, 2007)
Rule of Thumb when at the library the children choose books independently.
If on the first page the children come to a word they cannot read they raise their
little finger. They continue this with each difficult word they meet and if they
get to their thumb on the first page then the text is too difficult for them.
31

o
o
o

Numerical scale of understanding 1-5

Prompts the most important thing I learnt was... what I found difficult was...
what helped me best...
KWL What I know already, What I Want to Know, What I have Learned (Pg. 92,
NCCA, 2007)

Conferencing

o
o
o

Guided reading
Independent reading
Conferencing record sheet teacher/parent (see Appendix for C.A.P.E.R.)

Portfolio
Assessment

o
o

Running Records
Taped Reading

Concept
Mapping

Graphic Organisers

Questioning

o Blooms Taxonomy of Questioning

See pg. 86-88, Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum, Guidelines for Schools
(NCCA, 2007)
Evaluation

check, critique, hypothesise, judge, debate

Synthesis

create, compose, plan, design, propose, formulate, invent, predict,

construct, imagine, devise, combine

Analysis

Analyse, compare, investigate, identify, order, connect; distinguish,

contrast, categorise, separate, explain, infer

Application

Solve, use, construct, examine, apply, calculate, show, illustrate,

complete, classify, demonstrate, modify

Understanding Retell, summarise, describe, explain, discuss, interpret, outline,

predict, restate, compare, estimate, contrast
Knowledge

tell, list, define, name, when, where, identify, show, state, locate,
relate, who

32

o
o
o

Teacher
Observation

TeacherDesigned
Tasks and
Tests

Building Bridges of Understanding Comprehension Development

o
o
o
o

Checklist
Running Records
Drumcondra English Profiles

Oral assignments
Individual tasks
Group tasks
Cloze tests

Standardised
Testing

Interpreting Standardised Test Results

Standardised test results may be interpreted in different ways and at different levels.
Individual pupils results can be analysed, tests can be examined from a whole class
perspective and both of these analyses can then be utilised to feed into the building of a
whole school picture. This whole-school picture allows us to identify trends, emerging
patterns or whole school strengths and areas for improvement. This big picture will
inevitably prove invaluable when used as a basis for whole school planning in English.

33

Interpreting and Reporting on Individual Pupils Performance:

See Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum, Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007)

pg 62 & 63 Interpreting Standardised Test Results in English Reading and

Pg 65 Reporting Standardised Test Results in English Reading

Whole School Analysis of Standardised Tests:

Excel is a simple tool that can be used to compile and analyse whole school results in
English and support a school in analysing standardised test results. See www.pdst.ie for
excel files, seen below.

Diagnostic
Tests

Neale Analysis
Jackson Phonics
Running Records
o Reading Fluency Test number of words read in one minute minus
the number of errors made
Aston Index
CHIPS see www.pdst.ie and www.sess.ie for more

34

Sample Assessment Tools for Reading

Self-Assessment
Two Stars and a Wish

Reading Response
Sentence Starters

I began to think of
I love the way
I cant believe
I wonder why
My favourite character is
That reminded me of

35

My Reading Response Journal

Title:
My favourite part of the story is:

I liked it.

My favourite character is: ________

because

It was alright.

I didnt like it.

Reading Attitude Questionnaire

Place a cross on the line that shows how you feel about reading
1. Do you like to read books at home?
Yes, a lot

No, not at all

2. Do you like to get books for presents?

Yes, a lot
No, not at all

3. Do you like someone reading books to you?

Yes, a lot
No, not at all

36

4. Do you like to read in free time at school?

Yes, a lot
No, not at all
Reading Survey for Students
Section A
(1) When I am reading, I think about what will happen next and I guess from
the authors clues.
Always

Sometimes

Never

(2) When I am reading I make pictures of the story in my head.

Always

Sometimes

Never

(3) When I am reading I think about things the story reminds me of e.g.
something from my own life, something from another story or something from
the world.
Always

Sometimes

Never

Section B
(4) What do you do when you are reading and you come to a word that you
dont know?

(5) What do you do when you can sound out words in your reading but you
dont understand what the reading means?

Section C
(6) I like being a good reader

37

 Agree

Dont know

Disagree

(7) I read at home with my family

Agree

Dont know

Disagree

(8) I go to the library

Agree

Dont know

Disagree

(9) I learn a lot of things from reading

Agree

Dont know

Disagree

(10) I read about my hobbies

Agree

Dont know

Disagree

38

Suggested 6 Step Approach to a Reading Lesson

Steps to a

Possible Focus

Reading Lesson
Prior knowledge

1. Book

Context of the book

Introduction

Predict using cover, title, author

Difficult words
Picture Walk

Consolidating various strategies e.g. connecting or word attack

2. Strategy

skills e.g. chunking

Check
Remind children of skills they will be using

3. Independent
Reading

Reading aloud or Silent reading (pace, rate, intonation, expression,

fluency)
Here the teacher supports the child in specific areas to drive
improvement

Comprehension

4. Returning to
the Text

Effective questioning (literal, inferential and evaluative a mnage

of all)

Critical thinking through discussion

5.Response to

giving opinions

the Text

asking questions
follow up activity

Where?

6. Re-reading

When?

Guided Text

Why?

39

Working with your children

Top Tips for Parents/Guardians

Infants to 1st
1. Read to your child
as often as you can
2. Talk about books /
characters / plots
3. Enrol your child in
the local library
4. Provide a good role
model by reading
yourself / other
family members
5. Keep audio tapes of
familiar stories to
play in the car
6. Vary the type of
books read
stories / poems /
information
7. Accept your childs
efforts with praise
8. Concentrate on
what he /she got
right
9. Make reading
together enjoyable
10. Take part in school
based initiatives
like Shared
Reading

2nd to 4th
1. Continue to read to
your child every day.
2. Read some of the
books your child enjoys
so you can discuss it
with him/her.
3. Encourage your child to
read to younger
brothers/ sisters.
4. Ensure that your child
knows that you value
and enjoy reading
yourself.
5. Make sure there is a
wide variety of reading
material in your home
newspapers,
magazines,
information, cookery
books etc.
6. Enrol and encourage
your child to visit the
local library once a
week...
7. Discuss favourite
authors.
8. Encourage your child to
read articles / headlines
in newspapers.
9. Encourage your child to
guess unknown words.
10. Praise your childs
efforts

5th to 6th
1. Encourage your child to
visit the local library as
often as possible.
2. Recognise and praise
your childs efforts in
reading.
3. Ensure your child has
access to a wide range
of reading material
newspapers,
magazines, guides etc.
4. Take an interest in
different childrens
authors.
5. Discuss ideas and
points of view
proposed by
newspaper articles etc.
6. Provide a well-lit study
/ reading area.
7. Ensure that you value
and enjoy reading
yourself.
8. Allow your child to
choose his /her own
reading material.
9. Encourage your child to
read for information
timetables / weather
forecasts / menus
10. Encourage your child to
try and guess unknown
words.

40

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