2

Structure and function

of cells

KEY KNOWLEDGE
This chapter is designed to
enable students to:
investigate the defining
characteristics of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells
identify cell structure and
organisation
identify cell organelles and
understand their functions
investigate the different
modes of transport of
materials across plasma
membranes
understand and apply the
principle of the surface-areato-volume ratio.

Figure 2.1 Breast cells viewed with a confocal fluorescence

microscope. A confocal microscope only collects light that is
in focus so that only in-focus images are seen. The cells have
been treated with special stains to highlight two different
cytoskeleton proteins, vimentin (green), found in cells within
cancerous tissue, and keratin (red). The cell membranes such as
the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane are not visible

22

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

in this image because they have not received special staining.

The position of each nucleus is made obvious by the black
spherical area within each cell. Cell boundaries are located in
the black area surrounding the stained part of each cell. In this
chapter, we will consider the basic structure and organisation of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and how those structures relate
to processes that are essential for the maintenance of life.

Clues from a pond

In July 1991, in Connecticut, USA, two young boys were fishing at a local pond.
They were attacked by three older boys and severely beaten until almost unconscious. The older boys then threw the younger boys into the pond where they
were in danger of drowning. Fortunately one of the young boys was sufficiently
conscious to save himself and his friend.
Three suspects were apprehended, but what material evidence was available to
place them at the crime scene?
Diatoms are single-celled golden-brown algae that are common in both sea
water and fresh water. Whatever the shape of a diatom cell (figure 2.2), its plasma
membrane is surrounded by a wall made of silica (glass) and pectin. The wall
is in two parts that fit together like a lid on a box with the cell inside the box.
Contact between a diatom cell and its environment takes place through thousands
of tiny holes in its glass coat.
(a)

(b)

Figure 2.2 (a) Each species of

diatom has a distinctive shape.
(b) A close-up of the silica shell of a
diatom (580). The silica and pectin
walls of diatoms survive long after
the cells that made them have died.
(c) An even closer view of the surface
of the silica shell (2340) shows the
detailed patterns and perforations.

ODD FACT
Deposits of diatom
coats have accumulated
for millions of years to form
thick layers on ocean floors
that are now part of geological
structures. The coats crumble
into a fine white powder that is
mined and used in a variety of
cleaning applications, including
toothpaste.

(c)

There are innumerable different species of diatoms commonly found, but

research has shown that the ratio of numbers of each of the species is different
from location to location. The ratio at a particular site is characteristic of that site,
even if it changes from season to season.
Lets return to the attacks at the pond and the need for material evidence.
Samples were collected from the pond and compared with diatoms found in the
mud on the shoes of both the victims and the suspects. The same 25 different
freshwater species were isolated from each of the samples. Statistical testing
indicated that there was no difference in the population ratios in each of the
samples. So the police had material evidence that the suspects were at the scene
of the crime. They were, in fact, guilty of the attack.
Diatoms are used extensively in forensic cases where it is important to establish whether death occurred in water and, if so, what kind of water and at which
location. Each pond and stream has its own populations and diatoms that live
in still water do not generally populate running waters. It is the presence of a
rigid wall that survives after the death of the diatom cell that leaves a trace and
this can be followed long after the death of a person.
The popular face of forensic science, as it is portrayed in many television
programs, tends to rely heavily on evidence gained from the DNA and other
analyses of animal tissues, such as blood, skin, hair and semen. However, forensic
botany also has an important role. In addition to diatom studies, the type of plant
material found at a crime scene and knowledge about where it grows may be an
important clue. Did a person die where the body was found or was it transported
from elsewhere?
Analysis of food in the stomach can indicate the time of death after a
meal. A plant cell has a wall of cellulose surrounding its plasma membrane.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

23

As cellulose is not digested, information about whether the persons last meal
was high vegetable or low vegetable may be a clue as to where the person last ate
and may lead investigators to people who saw the person there.
In this chapter we will consider the specialised structures that are found in
different cells and how those structures relate to processes that are vital for the
maintenance of life.

ODD FACT
Archaeologists and
palaeontologists examine
fossilised faeces to study any
bones and undigested parts of
fruit and vegetables. This can
help to establish the diets of
prehistoric humans and other
animals.

(a)

Examination of cells using various microscopes reveals much about their internal
organisation. Each living cell is a small compartment with an outer boundary
known as the cell membrane or plasma membrane. Inside each living cell is a
fluid, known as cytosol, that consists mainly of water containing many dissolved
substances.
Another feature shared by all living cells is DNA, the genetic material that
controls all the metabolic activities of a cell.
In contrast to these shared features, living cells can be classified into two different kinds on the basis of their internal structure:
Prokaryotic cells. These have little defined internal structure and, in particular,
lack a clearly defined structure to house their DNA. Organisms that are made of
prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes and include all bacteria (figure 2.3a)
and all archaeans, another group of microbes (refer to chapter 8).
Eukaryotic cells. These have a much more complex structure (see figure 2.3b)
than prokaryotic cells. All eukaryotic cells contain many different kinds of
membrane-bound structures called organelles suspended in the cytosol. These
organelles include a nucleus with a clearly defined membrane called a nuclear
envelope. The DNA of a eukaryotic cell is located in the nucleus. Organisms
that are made of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes and include all animals,
plants, fungi and protists, the single-celled organisms. Although a nucleus is
usually visible with a light microscope, many organelles are visible only with
electron microscopes.
Organelles are held in place by a network of fine protein filaments and microtubules within the cell, collectively known as the cytoskeleton. The filaments
of the cytoskeleton are visible with an electron microscope, but require special
staining to be seen with a confocal microscope (figure 2.1, page 22).
(b)

Figure 2.3 (a) Magnified image of a

bacterial cell, Streptococcus pyogenes.
Note the lack of a distinct, membranebound nucleus. (b) Transverse section
of marrum grass, the eukaryote
Ammophila arenaria, magnified 400.
The cells stained pink are hair cells.
Note the circular structure, a nucleus,
visible in some of the hair cells.
24

Looking at cells

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

The plasma membrane boundary

The boundary of all living cells is a plasma membrane which controls entry of
dissolved substances into and out of the cell. A plasma membrane is an ultra thin
and pliable layer with an average thickness of less than 0.01 m (0.000 01 mm).
A plasma membrane can be seen using an electron microscope.
Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Plasma membrane

present

present

Function

boundary of a cell; maintains the internal environment of

a cell by controlling the movement of substances into and
out of the cell

A plasma membrane contains both lipid and protein. A more recent model of
the plasma membrane is shown in figure 2.4. This model suggests that a plasma
membrane consists of a double layer of lipid, and that proteins are embedded
in this layer forming channels that allow certain substances to pass across the
membrane in either direction. This model is known as the fluid mosaic model.

Figure 2.4 The fluid mosaic model

proposed by Singer and Nicholson for
the structure of the plasma membrane
of a red blood cell. The lipid in the
membrane is a complex lipid known
as phospholipid. What does this
name suggest about this lipid? The
carbohydrate groups in the outer
surface form part of antigens (see
chapter 3).

Carbohydrate groups

Protein
molecule
Phospholipid
bilayer
Cell
Protein
channel

Protein attached
to inner bilayer
surface

Movement in and out of cells

Figure 2.5 A partially permeable

barrier allows only some substances
to cross it.

All cells must be able to take in and expel various substances across their membranes in order to survive, grow and reproduce. Generally, these substances are
in solution, but in some cases, may be tiny solid particles.
Because a plasma membrane allows only some dissolved materials to cross
it, the membrane is said to be a partially permeable boundary (see figure 2.5).
(Partially permeable is also known as selectively or differentially or semipermeable.) Dissolved substances that are able to cross a plasma membrane
from outside a cell to the inside or from the inside to the outside do so by
various processes, including diffusion and active transport.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

25

SURFACE-AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO
Why are cells small?
The surface of some cells is elaborately folded. What
is the importance of these outfoldings?
Some animals have a greatly flattened shape. How
might this affect their survival?
Consider the surface area of cells compared with their
volumes. This value is sometimes called the surfacearea-to-volume ratio (SA:V ratio). The SA:V ratio of
any object is obtained by dividing its area by its volume.
Area refers to the coverage of a surface. One unit
2
of measurement of area is a square centimetre (cm ).
Volume refers to the amount of space taken up by
an object. One unit of measurement of volume is the
litre (L), but the volume of solid matter, such as a
brain, is sometimes expressed in units such as cubic
3
2
centimetres (cm ). (Note: For a sphere, SA = 3Pr and
3
V = 43 Pr , where r = radius.)
Looking at SA:V ratio
Examine the following data. Notice that as a sphere
increases in size, its surface-area-to-volume ratio
decreases.
Radius of sphere
1 unit
2
3
6
10

SA:V
3.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.3

What does this change in surface-area-to-volume

ratio values mean? The SA:V ratio of a shape identifies
how many units of external surface area are available to
supply each unit of internal volume. So, for a sphere
with a radius of one unit, each unit of volume has three
units of surface area to supply it. In contrast, for a sphere
with a radius of three units, each unit of volume has only
one unit of surface area to supply it. This interpretation
is shown diagrammatically in figure 2.6. In general, as a
particular shape increases in size, the SA:V ratio of the
shape decreases.
As part of staying alive, cells must take in supplies
of essential material from outside to meet their energy
needs. Cells have to move wastes from inside to the
outside. Efficient uptake and output of material is
favoured by a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio. It
is reasonable to suggest that cells are limited to small
sizes so that their surface areas are large enough to let in
essential material fast enough to meet their needs, and to
allow waste materials to diffuse out fast enough to avoid
the cells being poisoned by their own wastes.

26

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

 



 



 



 



!


 



 



 



!


 



Figure 2.6 As a sphere increases in size, the amount of surface

area for each unit of volume decreases.

Same volumes, different shapes

Cells differ in shape. How does the shape of a cell affect
its SA:V ratio?
Look at the SA:V ratios of some different shapes in
table 2.1 below. Although they differ in shape, they have
3
the same volume of one litre (1000 cm ).
The SA:V ratio varies according to shape. The flat
sheet has about 10 units of surface area for each unit
of volume. In contrast, the sphere has just half a unit
of surface area for each volume unit. What are the
biological consequences of the conclusion? Cells with
outfoldings can exchange matter with their surroundings more rapidly than cells lacking this feature.
A cell has an area of 10 units and a volume of two
units. What is its SA:V ratio?
Two cells (P and Q) have the same volume, but cell
P has a surface area that is ten times greater than that of
cell Q. Which cell would be expected to take up matter
from its surroundings at the greater rate? Why? What
can be reasonably inferred about the shapes of the two
cells?

A cell has many outfoldings on its surface. How would

these outfoldings affect its surface area as compared
with a cell with a smooth surface?
Summary
As a structure increases in size, its surface-area-tovolume ratio (SA:V) decreases.

Various shapes differ in their SA:V ratios, with this ratio

being highest in flattened shapes and lowest in spheres.
The size of cells is limited by SA:V ratios since these
ratios influence the rate of entry and exit of substances
into and out of cells.

Table 2.1 The SA:V ratios for different shapes with the same volume vary depending on the shape. Which shape has
the highest SA:V ratio?
2

Shape of container

Surface area (cm )

Volume (cm )

Approx. SA:V ratio

10 040

1000

10.0

600

1000

0.6

2 112

1000

2.1

483

1000

0.5

flat sheet (100  100  0.1 cm)

cube (10  10  10 cm)
flat pancake (height: 1 cm; radius: 17.8 cm)
sphere (6.2 cm radius)

Free passage: diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of a substance, typically in solution, from a region
of high concentration of the substance to a region of low concentration. The
process of diffusion does not require energy.
Figure 2.7 shows a representation of this process for dissolved substance X. At
all times, molecules of X are in random movement. At first, some molecules collide
with and cross the plasma membrane into the cell (see figure 2.7a). As long as substance X is more concentrated outside the cell than inside, more collisions causing
molecules of X to move from outside to inside occur than collisions from the
opposite direction. As a result, a net movement of molecules of substance X occurs
from outside to inside and the concentration of X inside the cell rises (figure 2.7b).
Eventually, the numbers of collisions occurring on both sides of the membrane
become equal. At that time (figure 2.7c), the number of molecules of X passing into
the cell is equal to the number passing out. Diffusion stops at the stage when the
concentration of substance X is equal on the two sides of the membrane.

Figure 2.7 Diffusion in action

(a) At the start, substance X starts to
move into the cell because of random
movement that results in some
collisions with the membrane.
(b) Midway, molecules of substance
X are moving both into and out of
the cell, but the net movement is
from outside to inside. (c) When the
concentration of X is equal on each
side of the membrane, the number
of collisions on either side of the
membrane is equal and the net
movement of molecules of substance
X stops. Does this mean that collisions
of molecules of substance X with the
membrane stop?

(a)

Outside

Start

(b)

Inside

Midway

Outside

End

(c)

Inside

Outside

Inside

One special case of diffusion is known as osmosis. The process of osmosis

occurs when a net movement of water molecules occurs by diffusion across a cell
membrane either into or out of a cell. Read the box on page 28 which outlines
the movement of water into and out of a cell when it is placed in a strong sugar
solution (figure 2.8a) and pure water (figure 2.8b) respectively.
Substances that can dissolve readily in water are termed hydrophilic, or
water-loving. Some substances that have a low water solubility or do not
dissolve in water are able to dissolve in or mix uniformly with lipid. These substances are termed lipophilic (sometimes called hydrophobic). Examples of
lipophilic substances include alcohol and ether. Lipophilic substances can cross
plasma membranes readily. This observation provides indirect evidence for the
presence of lipid in the structure of the plasma membrane. The rapid absorption
of substances, such as alcohol across plasma membranes, appears to be related to
the ability of alcohol to mix with lipid.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

27

OSMOSIS A SPECIAL DIFFUSION CASE

Consider red blood cells suspended in a strong sugar
solution, as shown in figure 2.8a. Water molecules can
pass through the plasma membrane in either direction,
but the sugar molecules cannot cross the membrane.
What will happen? The cell will shrink due to water
loss. A solution that has a higher concentration of dissolved substances than a solution or a cell to which it is
being compared is called a hypertonic solution.
When a plant cell is placed in a strong sugar solution,
the plasma membrane shrinks away from the cell wall

which retains its shape. Now consider cells suspended

in pure water, as shown in figure 2.8b. In this case, there
will be a net inflow of water molecules into the cell.
Why? The cell will swell and then burst. A solution that
has a lower concentration of dissolved substances than a
solution or cell to which it is being compared is called a
hypotonic solution.
If a cell is placed in a solution and there is no net gain
or loss by the cell, the solution must have the same solute
concentration as the cell and is called an isotonic solution.

(a)
(i) Starting point

(b)
(ii) End point

(i) Starting point

Organic molecule
Water molecule

Sugar molecule
Water molecule
1. Water is more concentrated inside the cell than outside.
2. Water molecules move in random directions and some collide
with the plasma membrane.
3. Initially, the number of water molecules inside the cell colliding
with the plasma membrane and moving out is greater than the
number outside moving in.
4. These differential rates of random collisions with the plasma
membrane produce a net outward flow of water molecules
from the cell.
5. The cell shrinks because of this water loss.

(ii) End point

1. Water is more concentrated outside the cell than inside.

2. Water molecules move in random directions and some
collide with the plasma membrane.
3. Initially, the number of water molecules outside the cell
colliding with the plasma membrane and moving in is
greater than the number inside moving out.
4. These differential rates of random collisions with the
plasma membrane produce a net inward flow of water
molecules into the cell.
5. The cell swells because of this water gain and then bursts.

Figure 2.8 (a) Cell in strong sugar solution (b) Cell in pure water
The movement of some substances across the plasma membrane is assisted
or facilitated by carrier protein molecules. This form of diffusion, involving a
specific carrier molecule, is known as facilitated diffusion (see figure 2.9a). The
net direction of movement is from a region of higher concentration of a substance
to a region of lower concentration, and so the process does not require energy.
Movement of substances by facilitated diffusion mainly involves substances that
cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane by dissolving in the lipid layer of the
membrane. For example, the movement of glucose molecules across the plasma
membrane of red blood cells involves a specific carrier molecule.

Paid passage: active transport

Active transport is the net movement of dissolved substances into or out of cells
against a concentration gradient (see figure 2.9b). Because the net movement
is against a concentration gradient, active transport is an energy-requiring
(endergonic) process. Active transport enables cells to maintain stable internal
conditions in spite of extreme variation in the external surroundings.
In some situations, active transport of salts occurs. Animals that live in fresh
water, for example frogs (figure 2.10), tend to lose salts by diffusion across their
28

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

(a) Facilitated diffusion

 

 





 

skin-cell plasma membranes into the surrounding fresh water. Energy in the form
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is used to transport salt molecules against a
concentration, from the surrounding water where salt concentration is low, across
plasma membranes into cells where the salt concentration is very high.
This process involves a carrier protein for each substance that is actively transported. If the carrier protein for a particular substance is defective, the organism
may show a disorder. In human beings, a defect in the carrier protein involved in

the active transport of chloride ions (Cl ) has been found to be the cause of the
inherited disorder, cystic fibrosis.

(b) Active transport

 

Figure 2.10

 





i
fus
Dif

 

Figure 2.9 (a) Facilitated diffusion

occurs with substances that cannot
dissolve in the lipid layers of the
plasma membrane. (b) Active
transport. Does this process require
an input of energy?

To balance the loss

of salts that occurs
from frog skin cells
by diffusion, energy
is used to drive
active transport of
salts from a region
of low concentration
in the surrounding
water, across plasma
membranes, into
the frog skin cells
that have a high
concentration of salts.

s
salt
on

s
salt

ATP

Some bacteria thrive in highly salty water where other organisms cannot
survive (see table 2.2). How do these halophytic (salt-loving) bacteria maintain
a stable internal environment?

Table 2.2 Conditions inside and outside halophytic bacterial cell

Water concentration

Salt concentration

outside the bacterial cell

low

HIGH

inside the bacterial cell

HIGH

low

Salt molecules do not readily cross the plasma membrane. A net movement of
water molecules occurs down the concentration gradient from inside the cell to
outside. However, the bacteria have an efficient mechanism for active transport of
water. Water molecules are actively transported into the cell at a rate that compensates for the loss of water by osmosis, so that the internal conditions in the bacterial
cell remain stable. Energy is needed to power this water pump. Placed in the
same very salty conditions, cells of other organisms would shrivel and dehydrate.

Bulk transport
Refer to page 36 for more
information on lysosomes.

Solid particles can be taken into a cell. For example, one kind of white blood cell
is able to engulf a disease-causing bacterial cell and enclose it within a lysosome
sac where it is destroyed. Unicellular protists, such as Amoeba and Paramecium,
obtain their energy for living in the form of relatively large food particles that they
engulf and enclose within a sac where the food is digested (see figure 2.11a).
Note how part of the plasma membrane encloses the material to be transported
and then pinches off to form a membranous vesicle that moves into the cytosol
(figure 2.11b). This process of bulk transport of material into a cell is called
endocytosis. When the material being transported is a solid food particle, the
type of endocytosis is called phagocytosis.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

29

(a)

Absorption
Amoeba

Absorbed
food

Food particle

Digestion

Pseudopods

Engulfment

Entrapment

Lysosomes containing
digestive enzymes
Digested
food

Food
Food
vacuole

Figure 2.11 (a) Transport of a solid

food particle across the membrane of
an Amoeba. (b) Endocytosis occurs
when part of the plasma membrane
forms around a particle to form a
vesicle, which moves into the cytosol.

(b)

Outside cell

Lipid
bilayer

Cytosol
Endocytosis
bulk transport of
material into a cell

If material is solid

the process is called

If material is fluid

the process is called

phagocytosis
from the Greek
phagos = eating
and cyto = cell

pinocytosis
from the Greek
pinus = drinking
and cyto = cell

Figure 2.12 Endocytosis a summary

Lysosome

Although some cells are capable of phagocytosis, most cells

are not. Most eukaryotic cells rely on pinocytosis, a form of
endocytosis that involves material that is in solution being
transported into cells. Note the summary in figure 2.12.
Bulk transport out of cells (for example, the export of
material from the Golgi complex, discussed on pages 345)
is called exocytosis. In exocytosis, vesicles formed within a
cell fuse with the plasma membrane before the contents of
the vesicles are released from the cell (see figure 2.13). If the
released material is a product of the cell (for example, the
contents of a Golgi vesicle), then secreted from the cell is
the phrase generally used. If the released material is a waste
product after digestion of some matter taken into the cell,
voided from the cell is generally more appropriate.
Outside cell

Lipid
bilayer

Figure 2.13 Exocytosis (bulk

transport out of cells) occurs when
vesicles within the cytosol fuse with
the plasma membrane and vesicle
contents are released from the cell.

30

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

Cytosol

Cell walls
Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes
Fungi

Plant

Animal

present

present

absent

Cell wall

present

Function

semi-rigid, protective structure deposited by the

cell outside the cell membrane

The plasma membrane forms the exterior of animal cells. However, in plants,
fungi and bacteria, a rigid cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The
absence of a cell wall is characteristic of organisms in Kingdom Animalia.

Composition of cell wall

The cell wall varies in composition between plants, fungi and bacteria (see
table 2.3).

Table 2.3 Composition of cell wall

Type of organism

Compounds present in cell wall

in various types of organisms. Why are

animals excluded?

plants

include cellulose

fungi

include chitin

bacteria

include complex polysaccharides

In some flowering plants, the original or primary cell wall in certain tissues
becomes thickened and strengthened by the addition of lignin to form secondary
cell walls. This process provides great elastic strength and support, allowing
certain plants to develop as woody shrubs or trees.

KEY IDEAS
The plasma membrane forms the boundary of each living cell.
Several different processes exist whereby substances may cross plasma
membranes.
Cell walls lie outside the plasma membrane of plant, fungal and
prokaryotic cells.

QUICK-CHECK
1 What is meant by the label partially permeable in reference to the
plasma membrane?
2 Which of the following is an energy-requiring process?
a osmosis
b diffusion
c active transport
d facilitated diffusion
3 What is the function of a cell wall?

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

31

Cell organelles
The nucleus: control centre
Nucleus

ODD FACT
The term
chromosome means
coloured body. The fact that the
cell of each species contains a
definite number of chromosomes
was first recognised in 1883.

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

absent

present

DNA is dispersed in cell

encloses the DNA

Cells have a complex internal organisation and are able to carry out many functions. The control centre of the cells of animals, plants, algae and fungi is the
nucleus (see figure 2.24, page 41). The nucleus in these cells forms a distinct
spherical structure that is enclosed within a double membrane, known as the
nuclear envelope. Cells that have a membrane-bound nucleus are called eukaryotic cells. The regular presence of a nucleus in living cells was first identified in
1831 by a Scottish botanist, Robert Brown (17731858) (see pages 78).
Cells of organisms from Kingdom Monera, such as bacteria, contain the
genetic material (DNA), but it is not enclosed within a distinct nucleus. Cells
that lack a nuclear envelope are called prokaryotic cells.
A light microscope view reveals that the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell contains
stained material called chromatin that is made of the genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The DNA is usually dispersed within the nucleus.
During the process of cell reproduction, however, the DNA becomes organised
into a number of rod-shaped chromosomes (refer to chapter 4, pages 834). The
nucleus also contains one or more large inclusions known as nucleoli which are
composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Textbook diagrams often show a cell as having a single nucleus. This is the
usual situation, but it is not always the case. Your bloodstream contains very
large numbers of mature red blood cells, each with no nucleus. However, at an
earlier stage, as immature cells located in your bone marrow, each of these cells
did have a nucleus. Some liver cells have two nuclei.

Mitochondrion: energy-supplying organelle

ODD FACT
Skeletal (voluntary)
muscles are ones that you
can move at will and that you
use when you stand up or throw
a ball. Skeletal muscle consists
of long fibres formed from the
fusion of many cells. As a result,
these muscle fibres contain
many nuclei, and are said to be
multi-nucleate. Is a muscle fibre
an example of one cell with
many nuclei?

32

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Mitochondria

absent

present

Function

site of production of much of the ATP required by a cell

Living cells use energy all the time. The useable energy supply for cells is
chemical energy present in a compound known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
(see figure 2.14). The ATP supplies in living cells are continually being used up
and must be replaced.
ATP is produced during cellular respiration (or just simply respiration). In
eukaryotic cells, most of this process occurs in organelles known as mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) which form part of the cytoplasm. Mitochondria
cannot be resolved using an LM, but can be seen with an electron microscope.
Each mitochondrion has an outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane.
Mitochondria are not present in prokaryote cells.
The role of mitochondria in respiration is discussed further in chapter 3.
Prokaryotes obtain their energy from a range of sources. This will be explored
in your later studies of biology.

(a)

(b)

NH2
C

O
O

HC

Triphosphate

CH
N

Adenine

HO P O P O P O CH2
O

C
H

OH

OH

D-ribose

}
Adenosine

Figure 2.14 (a) Chemical

(c)

structure of adenosine triphosphate

(ATP), which has three phosphate
groups, and so, adenosine tri( 3)
phosphate (b) Electron micrograph
of mitochondrion (s 78 000) (from
the Greek mitos  thread, and
chondrion  small grain). Which
is more highly folded the outer
membrane or the inner membrane?
m  mitochondrion, cm  cell
membrane. (c) 3-D representation
of a mitochondrion
(d) Mitochondria in heart muscle.
Suggest why heart muscle (hm)
contains large numbers of
mitochondria.

(d)

Intermembrane
space

m
hm
Outer
membrane

Inner membrane

Ribosomes: protein factories

Ribosomes

ODD FACT
Many biologists
agree with the hypothesis
that, thousands of millions
of years ago, mitochondria
were free-living organisms,
like bacteria. This hypothesis
suggests that these organisms
became associated with
larger cells to form a mutually
beneficial arrangement. This
idea is supported by the fact
that mitochondria contain small
amounts of the genetic material
DNA. The size of a mitochondrion
is about 1.5 m by 0.5 m. This
is similar to the dimensions of a
typical bacterial cell.

Function

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

present

present
site of protein synthesis

Living cells make proteins by linking amino acid building blocks into
long chains. Human red blood cells manufacture haemoglobin, an oxygentransporting protein; pancreas cells manufacture insulin, a small protein which
is an important hormone; liver cells manufacture many protein enzymes, such as
catalase; stomach cells produce digestive enzymes, such as pepsin; muscle cells
manufacture the contractile proteins, actin and myosin.
Ribosomes are the organelles where production of proteins occurs. These
organelles, which are part of the cytoplasm, can only be seen through a TEM
(see figures 2.15 and 2.16, page 34).
Ribosomes are not enclosed by a membrane. The structures of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic ribosomes are almost identical and function in a similar way.
Although ribosomes are free within prokaryotic cells, in eukaryotes many are
attached to membranous internal channels, called endoplasmic reticulum, within
the cell. Chemical testing shows that ribosomes are composed of protein and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

33

Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex:

transport, storage and export
Endoplasmic reticulum

ri

Function
Golgi complex

gm

Function

Figure 2.15 Prokaryotic cells. Note

the many ribosomes (ri) in each cell,
the lack of any internal membranous
structure and the dispersed genetic
material (gm).

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

absent

present

series of membranous channels for transport

absent

present
stacks of membranous sacs that package
materials for transport

The proteins made by some cells are kept inside those cells. Examples are contractile proteins made by muscle cells and the haemoglobins made by red blood
cells. Other cells, however, produce proteins that are released for use outside the
cells. The digestive enzyme, pepsin, is produced by cells lining the stomach and
released into the stomach cavity; the protein hormone, insulin, is made by pancreatic cells and released into the bloodstream.
Transport of substances within cells occurs through a system of channels known
as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Figure 2.16 shows part of this system of
channels in a cell. The channel walls are formed by membranes.
Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached is known as rough endoplasmic reticulum. Without ribosomes, the term smooth endoplasmic is used.
A structure known as the Golgi complex (also called Golgi apparatus or Golgi
bodies) is prominent in cells that shift proteins out of cells.
This structure consists of several layers of membranes (see figure 2.17). The
Golgi complex packages material into membrane-bound bags or vesicles for
export. These vesicles carry the material out of the cell.

(a)

(b)

Ribosomes

ri

Transport channel

Figure 2.16 (a) Electronphotomicrograph showing channels of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (x 45 000) (er = endoplasmic
reticulum with ribosomes, ri = ribosomes, ne = nuclear envelope, n = nucleus) (b) 3-D representation of endoplasmic
reticulum with ribosomes

34

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

Both the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex also synthesise some
materials. You will study this aspect of their function in Nature of Biology Book
2, Third edition.
(a)

(b)

Figure 2.17 (a) Electronmicrograph ( 60 000)

showing a Golgi complex in a cell (g  Golgi complex, m 
mitochondrion) (b) 3-D representation of a Golgi complex

KEY IDEAS
Prokaryotic cells lack any internal membrane-bound organelles.
In eukaryotic cells, the nucleic acid DNA is enclosed within the nucleus, a
double-membrane-bound organelle.
Living cells use energy all the time, principally as chemical energy
present in ATP.
Mitochondria are the major sites of ATP production in eukaryotic cells.
Ribosomes are tiny organelles where proteins are produced.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membrane-bound channels,
continuous with the membrane of the outer nuclear envelope, that
transport substances within a cell.
The Golgi complex packages substances into vesicles for export.

QUICK-CHECK
4 True or false? Briefly explain your choice.
a A nucleus from a plant cell would be expected to have a nuclear
envelope.
b Bacterial cells do not have DNA.
c A mature red blood cell is an example of a prokaryotic cell.
5 Suggest why the nucleus is called the control centre of a cell.
6 Is the major site of ATP production the same in a plant cell as in an
animal cell?
7 A scientist wishes to examine ribosomes in pancreatic cells.
a Where should the scientist look in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm?
b What kind of microscope should the scientist use?
8 A substance made in a cell is moved outside the cell. Outline a possible
pathway for this substance.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

35

Lysosomes: controlled destruction

Lysosomes

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

absent

present
principal site of digestion within a cell

Function

Figure 2.18 Note the webbing

between the fingers in an early embryo
at 6 weeks development.

The human hand is a marvellous living tool that allows a person to grasp objects,
manipulate and investigate them. Typically, a human hand has five digits that are
separated from each other along their length. This is not always the case a
rare condition, known as syndactyly (pronounced sin-dack-till-ee), in which the
fingers are fused, can occur. How does this happen?
During human embryonic development, the hands appear first as tiny buds
with no separate digits (see figure 2.18). The separation of the fingers normally
occurs on about the 52nd day of development (see figure 2.19). This separation
involves the programmed death of groups of cells between the fingers. The
process of programmed cell death is called apoptosis. If this programmed cell
death does not occur, the fingers and toes form but they remain fused.
Animal cells have sac-like structures surrounded by a membrane and filled
with a fluid containing dissolved digestive enzymes. These fluid-filled sacs
are known as lysosomes. Lysosomes can release their enzymes within the cell,
causing the death of the cell. This process of controlled self-destruction of cells
is important in development: lysosomes appear to play a role in the controlled
death of zones of cells in the embryonic human hand so that the fingers become
separated.
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes and are the principal sites for digestion
of large molecules and unwanted structures within a cell.

Chloroplasts: sunlight trappers

Prokaryotes

Chloroplasts
Function

Figure 2.19 Later in embryonic

development as in this fetus at 12
weeks, individual fingers are visible
because the cells of the webbing have
been destroyed by enzymes secreted
by lysosomes.

36

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

absent

Eukaryotes
Fungi

Plant

Animal

absent

present

absent

site of photosynthesis and

storage of starch

Solar-powered cars have travelled across Australia. The power source for these
cars is not the chemical energy present in petrol, but the radiant energy of sunlight
trapped and converted to electrical energy by solar cells. Use of solar cells is
becoming more common in Australian households and it is not unusual to see
solar cells on a roof.
Solar cells are a relatively new technology. However, hundreds of millions
of years ago, some bacteria and all algae and then land plants developed the
ability to capture the radiant energy of sunlight and to transform it to chemical
energy present in organic molecules, such as sugars. The remarkable organelles
present in some cells of plants and algae that carry out this function are known as
chloroplasts (see figure 2.20a). The complex process of converting sunlight
energy to chemical energy present in sugar is known as photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is discussed further

in chapter 3, pages 6668.

Chloroplasts can be easily seen through a LM. They are green in colour owing
to the presence of light-trapping pigments known as chlorophylls. Each chloroplast has an outer membrane and also has an intricate internal structure consisting
of many folded membrane layers, called grana, that provide a large surface area
where chlorophylls are located. Stroma is fluid between the grana.
Prokaryotic cells do not have chloroplasts. Some kinds of bacteria, however,
possess pigments that enable them to capture the radiant energy of sunlight and
use that energy to make sugars from simple inorganic material. These are known
as photosynthetic bacteria.
The length of a typical chloroplast is 5 to 10 m. In comparison, the length of
a mitochondrion is about 1.5 m. In 1908, the Russian scientist, Mereschkowsky,
suggested that chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria that later took up
residence in eukaryotic cells. Some evidence in support of this suggestion comes
from the fact that a single chloroplast is very similar to a photosynthetic bacterial
cell.
(b) Grana

Inner
membrane

(a)

Outer
membrane
Stroma

(c)

Figure 2.20 (a) Internal structure of chloroplast showing many layers of membranes
(b) 3-D representation. Where are chlorophylls located? (c) Scanning electronmicrograph
( 78 000) of fractured red algae chloroplast. Note fine tubular endoplasmic reticulum on
outer surface of chloroplast envelope (scale bar  1 m).

Other membrane-bound structures

Other small membranous structures found in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells
include the endosomes (animal cells only) and peroxisomes. (These are dealt
with in more detail in Nature of Biology Book 2, Third edition.) Many plant cells
also contain vacuoles, some very large that almost fill a cell. Vacuoles are filled
with a fluid, mostly water, containing a number of different materials in solution,
including plant pigments.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

37

Flagella and cilia: whipping around

Figure 2.21 Thaumatomastix, a

colourless marine protist. Note the
two flagella F1 and F2. The scales and
spines that cover the entire cell are
made of silica.

Some bacterial cells and other single-celled organisms have a whip-like structure
that is attached to the plasma membrane and protrudes through the cell wall (see
figure 2.21). This structure is usually known as a flagellum (plural = flagella, from
the Latin word meaning whip). What role might this structure serve?
The rotation of a flagellum results in the movement of the organism. Some
bacteria have many flagella, such as the bacteria that cause typhoid (Salmonella
typhosa). Other bacteria, such as species of Pseudomonas, have one flagellum or
a cluster of several flagella at one end.
Many eukaryotic cells have one or many whip-like structures on their cell
surfaces. When many such structures are present, they are termed cilia (singular
= cilium, from the Latin word meaning eyelash); when only one or two are
present, they are termed flagella (figure 2.21).
In eukaryotes, each cilium and flagellum is enclosed in a thin extension of the
plasma membrane. Inside this extension of the membrane are fine protein filaments
known as microtubules. In the human body, the cells lining the trachea or air passage
have cilia that project into the cavity of the trachea. The synchronised movement of
these cilia assists mucus to travel up the trachea to an opening at the back of the
throat. Other human cells that have flagella include sperm cells.
Dr Peter Beech, a cell biologist, carries out research on the replication of cells
and their organelles. Figures 2.21 and 2.22 and figure 4.8a (page 80) show some
of his results. Read what he has to say about his work.

BIOLOGIST AT WORK
Dr Peter Beech Cell biologist
Dr Peter Beech is a Research Scientist and Senior Lecturer in
the School of Biological and Chemical Sciences at Deakin University in Melbourne. Peter writes:
Like many kids who watched Jacques Cousteau on television
exploring the worlds oceans, I wanted to be a marine scientist.
I spent summers at the beach wondering about how I could get
a job working with the sea. I was told go to uni, study science
and then see what grabs you. It was good advice, and I quickly
discovered that biology was indeed for me.
My first lab project was on identifying algal scales, the beautifully intricate cell coverings of many phytoplankton (figure
2.22). This work required an electron microscope, and I was
thus irreversibly led into the world of the subcellular, where
I could see scales being made, as well as the other cellular
organelles many of which are also found in our own cells.
My PhD was on how certain phytoplankton made their scales
and deposited them on the cell surface, as well as how they made
their flagella. Flagella are the whip-like appendages that beat to
propel cells through the water sperm tails are flagella. I was
not the first to realise that by looking at protists (as algae and
many other mostly unicellular eukaryotes are known), we could
learn a lot about cells. Many protists are ideally suited to laboratory culture and experimentation. Phytoplankton, for example,
are unicells that have all they need to get by in life on their own.
Often all that is needed to grow them in the lab is light and clean
sea water or pond water.

38

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

Figure 2.22 A transmission electron micrograph of

body scales made by an algal cell, of Chrysochromulina

pringsheimii. The scales and their intricate patterns are
constructed of polysaccharide fibrils and are made inside
the cell. Pr  proximal side of the scale, Di  distal side.

Figure 2.23 Dr Peter Beech

using an ultramicrotome
to cut very thin (70 m)
sections of plastic-embedded
cells for the transmission
electron microscope. The
dark line projecting down
from the ultramicrotome is
a side view of a thin, clear
screen that protects the thin
sections from the breath of an
operator.

From wanting to be a marine scientist, I thus became

a cell biologist. I had post-doctoral research jobs in
algal cell biology in Germany and the USA. The latter,
at Yale University, was as part of a team investigating
a newly discovered phenomenon called intraflagellar
transport. IFT, as it became known, is a great example
of how protists, in this case the unicellular, green,
soil alga Chlamydomonas, can open our eyes to principles that are important for all cells. In 1993, a PhD
student at Yale, named Keith Kozminski, showed that
the two flagella of Chlamydomonas exhibited a novel
movement that shuttled rafts of particles up and
down the flagellum like express lifts between the
penthouse and lobby of a building. The movement was
unrelated to flagellar beating and probably evolved to
deliver building materials to the growing flagellar tip.
We now know that IFT works in our eyes too. All
vertebrates have modified flagella (cilia) in their retinas.
Even though these cilia do not beat, they are an intricate part of the rod and cone cells in which they are
found: they are the transport tunnels through which
newly-made photosensory pigments (rhodopsins) pass
before they are assembled into light-detecting discs. We
now know that the rod and cone cells use IFT to transport the rhodopsins to the photo-receptive discs. Thus,
without IFT, wed be blind. In fact, wed have all sorts
of problems. Recent work indicates that IFT is important for the very existence of all cilia, from those in our
sperm or oviducts, to those in the kidney. Thus, thanks to
a dirt dweller with two bold flagella, we can now begin
to understand the fundamentals of numerous diseases
involving cilia.

In my own lab, we continue to use protists to learn

about all cells. We study how the two main energyproducing organelles of eukaryotes split into two to
reproduce; mitochondria perform cellular respiration,
and chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants
in algae. Though these two organelles do very different
jobs (mitochondria make ATP from sugars, and chloroplasts make sugars using light energy), they have similar
evolutionary histories. Mitochondria and chloroplasts
arose separately a billion or so years ago through the
capture of bacteria by early cells. The bacterium that
gave rise to the chloroplasts already had the capacity for
photosynthesis, and was probably similar to present-day
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). But how do mitochondria and chloroplasts now divide? We know that
new mitochondria and chloroplasts, like bacteria, can
only arise from the division of pre-existing individuals.
So perhaps organelle division molecules are the same
as those used by the bacteria? It turns out that many
mitochondria, such as those of the alga Mallomonas
(see figure 4.8a on page 80), appear to divide using a
protein called FtsZ and yes, FtsZ is used by bacteria to
divide nicely re-confirming that mitochondria really
are bacteria that now specialise in power production for
larger cells. Furthermore, we also know that chloroplasts
use FtsZ to divide. Interestingly though, the mitochondria
of lots of different organisms, including those of animals,
fungi and land plants, have independently dumped the
bacterial division mechanism, and developed their own.
Why? we now have the fun job of finding out.
One of my joys as a university lecturer is, of course,
to teach. In my cell biology classes, protists rule!

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

39

Putting it all together

The cell is both a unit of structure and a unit of function. Organelles within one
cell do not act in isolation, but interact with each other. The normal functioning
of each kind of cell depends on the combined actions of its various organelles,
including plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi complex.
In some cells, the plasma membrane is very highly folded. This folding
expands the surface area across which materials move into or out of cells while
the internal volume remains unchanged. This produces an increase in the surfacearea-to-volume ratio (SA:V) of cells.
Consider a cell that produces a specific protein for use outside the cell. Table
2.4 identifies the parts of a cell involved in this process.

Table 2.4 Parts of a cell involved in

producing a specific protein

Structure

Function

plasma
membrane

structure that controls the entry of raw materials, such as amino

acids, into the cell

nucleus

organelle that has coded instructions for making the protein

ribosomes

organelles where amino acids are linked, according to

instructions, to build the protein

mitochondrion

organelle where ATP is formed; provides an energy source for

the protein-manufacturing activity

endoplasmic
reticulum

channels through which the newly made protein is moved

within the cell

Golgi complex

organelle which packages the protein into vesicles for transport

across the plasma membrane and out of the cell

Figure 2.24 shows the typical structures of an animal and a plant cell,
including the organelles involved in the processes outlined in table 2.4. Examine
the two cells. Note the presence of protein filaments in each cell. These give a
cell shape; they form a kind of internal skeleton for the cell and also provide
a system for movement during, for example, mitosis (see chapter 4, page 77
onwards).

KEY IDEAS
Lysosomes can digest material brought into their sacs. Lysosomes play a
role in organised cell death.
Chloroplasts are relatively large organelles found in photosynthetic cells
of plants and algae.
Chloroplasts have an external membrane and layers of folded internal
membranes and contain pigments called chlorophylls.
Chloroplasts can capture the radiant energy of sunlight and convert it to
chemical energy in sugars.
Structures known as flagella are present on many prokaryotic cells.
Cilia or flagella are present on many eukaryotic cells.
Flagella and cilia are cell organelles associated with movement.

40

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1


 







 
 
 


 





 






 



 





 

Nuclear
envelope

Nucleolus
Nucleus

Cytosol
Mitochondrion

Ribosome
Lysosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus

Plasma
membrane

Vesicle
Cell wall

Peroxisome

Microtubule

Figure 2.24 Compare (a) an

animal cell with (b) a plant cell. What
organelles are found in both of the
cells? What organelles are unique to
either plant or animal cells? What
other differences in structure are
there between the two cells?

Vacuole
Chloroplast

(b) Plant cell

Filament

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

41

QUICK-CHECK
9 Lysosomes are sometimes called suicide bags. Suggest why this name is
given.
10 Identify the following as true or false and briefly justify your answers.
a Plant cells without chloroplasts can capture the energy of sunlight.
b Chloroplasts can be seen through an LM.
11 List one location in the human body where cells with cilia are found.
12 Consider a cell with cilia beating on its surface. Identify one other
organelle that would be expected to assist in the action of these cilia.
13 List four cell organelles that are involved in the process of making
protein. What is the contribution of each organelle to this process?
14 Does an amoeba have organs? Explain.

Cells in multicellular organisms:

levels of organisation
Unicellular organisms must carry out all the metabolic processes necessary for
life. They are complex cells capable of independent existence. In contrast, multicellular organisms have millions of cells that depend on each other for survival.
During development of a multicellular organism, groups of cells become specialised to perform particular functions that serve the whole organism. Specialised
cells have fewer functions than those found in a unicellular organism but the
functions they have are very highly developed. In addition, each group of specialised cells must coordinate with other specialised cells. We will consider the
different levels of organisation that interact to ensure proper functioning for the
whole organism.

Tissues
When cells that are specialised in an identical way aggregate to perform a
common function, they are called a tissue. Different kinds of tissue (see figure
2.25) serve different functions in an organism. For example, cardiac muscle is
a particular kind of muscle tissue found only in the heart. Epidermal tissue is a
general name for any tissue that forms a discrete layer around a structure. It may
be a layer of plant cells forming the outermost cellular layer of leaves or it may
be the outer layers of human skin.
You will recall from pages 267 that the surface-area-to-volume-ratio (SA:
V) of a cell is important in determining the cells efficiency to move materials
across its membrane and that the higher the SA:V ratio of a cell, the more
efficient it is in carrying out those functions. The need for small cells can be
graphically demonstrated with regard to groups of cells (figure 2.26, page 44).
Exchange of materials between tissues and their environments has the potential
to be far more efficient if the tissue is made up of many small cells rather than
fewer larger cells.
This potential for efficiency of small cells becomes a reality only if each of
the cells in a group of cells is close to a delivery mechanism, capable of providing material to and removing material from the cells (figure 2.27, page 44).
A mass of small cells without a delivery system has no advantage over a single
large cell.
42

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

(a) Animal tissues

i

(b) Plant tissues

i

ii

ii

iii

iii

Figure 2.25 Various tissues (a) Different animal tissues: (i) Liver (ii) Fat or adipose (iii) Cardiac muscle
(b) Different kinds of plant tissue in a leaf: (i) Parenchyma (ii) Vascular transporting tissue, and (iii) Epidermal with cuticle
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

43

Number of cells filling

a particular space
one

eight

sixty-four

Total surface area

(height width number
of sides number of cells)

=1161
=6

= 0.5 0.5 6 8
= 12

= 0.25 0.25 6 64
= 24

Total volume
(height width length
number of cells)

=1111
=1

= 0.5 0.5 0.5 8

=1

= 0.25 0.25 0.25 64

=1

Surface-area-to-volume
ratio
(area volume)

6 1
=6

12 1
= 12

24 1
= 24

Figure 2.26 The number of cells occupying a particular space influences the rate of movement of
materials into and out of the mass occupying the space. The greater the overall surface-area-to-volume ratio,
the greater the efficiency of movement of materials. Arbitrary units have been used in this example.
Food and
oxygen

Wastes and
carbon dioxide

Food

Oxygen

Figure 2.27 For the inner cells of a

tissue to operate as efficiently as the
outer cells, they must have a delivery
system that transports food and gas to
them and takes away wastes. In many
animals, the delivery system is the
blood circulatory system.

Wastes

Carbon
dioxide

Organs
In multicellular organisms, groups of different tissues often work together to
ensure a particular function is successfully performed (figure 2.28). A collection of such tissues is called an organ. Your stomach is an organ. Tissues of
the stomach include an epithelium, smooth muscle cells and blood (see figure
2.28a). Other organs include your heart, brain and kidneys. A plant leaf is an
organ. Tissues of a leaf include an epithelium, vascular tissue and parenchyma
tissue (see figure 2.28b). Other plant organs include its root, stem and flower.

Organ systems
Your digestive system comprises various organs that work together to ensure that
the food you eat is digested and that the nutrients it contains are absorbed and
44

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

(a)

(b)

Blood

TS

TS

xy
Connective tissue
ph

par

Figure 2.28 Each organ is made up of many different kinds of tissues that enable the organ
Muscle

to perform its function. (a) Transverse section through a mammalian stomach with details of
three of the tissues present (b) Three of the kinds of tissues within a leaf (xy  xylem; ph 
phloem; par  parenchyma)

transported to all cells of your body. This organisation is called an organ system.
Your digestive system commences with your mouth and includes organs such as
your teeth, oesophagus, stomach, intestines and liver (figure 2.29). Once digested
Salivary gland food has been absorbed by cells lining the intestine, it is transported by the blood
Mouth
circulatory system throughout the body. This system links with the respiratory
Salivary
glands
system where it picks up oxygen, also for delivery.
Oesophagus
As blood delivers nutrients and oxygen to all tissues, it collects nitrogenous
and gaseous wastes for delivery to the excretory systems of the body.
Because plants do not move from place to place, their energy needs are far
Liver
Stomach
less than mobile animals. Hence, plants lack the equivalent of complex organ
Pancreas
systems such as the respiratory and digestive systems of animals. Green plants
produce their own food through photosynthesis and this process also delivers
Small
Large
oxygen directly to some cells. Other cells rely on diffusion to receive oxygen.
intestine
intestine
The extensive root system of a plant ensures that it absorbs sufficient water to
meet the plants requirements. An extensive vascular system delivers that water
Anus
throughout the plant; however, there is relatively little difference in the structure
of the various parts of a plant vascular system compared with differences found
in systems of an animal.
We will consider some of the organ systems of animals and plants in greater
detail in later chapters. A summary of the levels of organisation in multicellular
Figure 2.29 The main organs of a
organisms is shown in figure 2.30, page 46.
human digestive system
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

45

Figure 2.30 Similar cells group

together to form a tissue. Different
groups of tissues combine to form an
organ. Different organs work together
to form an organ system that has a
particular function. The systems of
a multicellular organism include the
hormonal and nervous systems that
coordinate and control the whole
organism.

Individual cell

Tissue
Group of similar cells
carrying out same
function

Organ
Groups of different
tissues working
together for a
particular function
Examples:
reproductive system
root system
transport system

Organ system
Group of organs
serving a particular
function

Examples:
respiratory system
excretory system
transport system

Organism
Contain several organ
systems

KEY IDEAS
Single-celled organisms are able to carry out all the metabolic processes
necessary for life.
In multicellular organisms, cells become differentiated to perform
specialised functions.
The different levels of organisation of cells in multicellular organisms are
single cell, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism.
Individual cells in a group of cells must be able to receive an adequate
supply of materials and get rid of wastes.
Each system serves the needs of other systems.

QUICK-CHECK
15 What characterises a tissue, an organ and an organ system?
16 Classify each of the following as tissue, organ or system.
nerve cells in the tip of a finger
fleshy part of an apple
a flower
nose, trachea and lungs
a human liver
layer of fat around a kidney

46

NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1

BIOCHALLENGE
1

2
A

Explain whether this cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

Name the parts of the cell membrane that are labelled

A, B and C.

4
At start
Cell one

Cell two

After 20 minutes
Water
Cytosol
Cell

SA:V = 1

Nutrient
molecule

SA:V = 3

If both of these cells are in the same environment, which

has the capacity to absorb more nutrients per unit volume,
per unit time?

Explain whether the process occurring in this diagram is

active transport or diffusion.

Name the organelle and describe its function.

Where in a plant cell would you find this structure?

What is its function?

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

47

CHAPTER REVIEW
Key words
CROSSWORD

active transport
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
apoptosis
archaeans
bacteria
cell membrane
cell wall
cellular respiration
cellulose
chlorophylls
chloroplasts
chromatin
cilia
cytoskeleton
cytosol
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
diatoms
diffusion
endocytosis
endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
endosomes

eukaryotes
eukaryotic cells
exocytosis
facilitated diffusion
flagellum
fungi
Golgi complex
grana
hydrophilic
hypertonic
hypotonic
isotonic
lipophilic
lysosome
microtubules
mitochondria
nuclear envelope
nucleoli
organ
organ system
organelles
osmosis
partially permeable
peroxisomes

phagocytosis
photosynthesis
phytoplankton
pinocytosis
plasma membrane
primary cell wall
prokaryotes
prokaryotic cells
protein filaments
proteins
protists
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
ribosomes
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
secondary cell walls
stroma
surface-area-to-volume
ratio (SA:V ratio)
tissue
vacuoles
vesicle

Questions
1 Making connections
a Use at least eight of the key words above to make a concept map relating
to the organelles observed in the cytosol of a plant cell. You may use other
words in drawing up your map.
b Use at least six of the key words above to make a concept map relating to
the movement of substances across a cell membrane. You may use other
words in drawing up your map.
2 Applying your understanding Identify five locations in a typical cell where
membranes are found. Describe how membranes in these various locations
assist in the function of cells.
3 Communicating understanding Substances can enter or exit a cell through
various processes.
a Prepare a table with the following headings:
Name of process
Energy cost
Identify the processes by which material crosses the cell membrane and
complete the table.
b Identify one other useful heading and add it and the relevant information
to your table.
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NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1


 Before experiments

Nucleus

Animal cell

Nucleus

Plant cell

 After experiments

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

Experiment 3

Experiment 4

Experiment 5

Experiment 6

Figure 2.31
(a) Cells before experiment
(b) After experiment

4 Analysing data and drawing conclusions In a

series of six experiments, animal cells and plant
cells were placed in solutions of different concentrations.
Solution 1: distilled water
Solution 2: same concentration as the cytosol of
the cells
Solution 3: higher concentration than the cytosol
of the cells
The initial appearance of the cells was as shown in
figure 2.31a. After several minutes in the solutions
the cells appeared as shown in figure 2.31b.
Which solution had been used in each of the
experiments? Explain what has happened to the
cell in each experiment.
5 Communicating understanding Where are the
following in a eukaryotic cell?
a control centre of a cell
b site of control of entry or exit of substances to
or from a cell
c energy source for cell
d internal transport system
e site of packaging for export from cell
f self-destruct button for cell

6 Applying your understanding

a List the following in order of decreasing size from largest to smallest:
ii tissue
iii mitochondrion
i cell
iv nucleus
v nucleolus
vi ribosome.
b List the following in order from outside to inside a leaf cell:
ii cell wall
iii plasma membrane
i nuclear envelope
v nucleolus.
iv cytosol
7 Analysing information and drawing conclusions Suggest possible explanations for each of the following observations:
a Flight muscle fibres of bats contain very large numbers of mitochondria.
b One kind of cell has a very prominent Golgi complex, while another kind
of cell appears to lack this organelle.
c Chromosomes were seen in many cells of the root tip tissue of a flowering
plant.
d After being soaked in water, a limp lettuce leaf becomes crisp.
8 Communicating ideas Discuss the validity of each of the following statements.
a A tissue contains groups of cells where each group has quite a different
function.
b Delivery mechanisms are important if a group of small cells is to operate
more effectively than one large cell.
c The surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cell influences the rate at which
substances can enter or exit the cell.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS

49

Figure 2.32
9 Analysing information A scientist carried out an experiment to determine
the time it took for a cell to manufacture proteins from amino acids. The
scientist provided the cell with radioactively labelled amino acids and then
tracked them through the cell to establish the time at which protein synthesis
commenced. He monitored the cell 5 minutes, 20 minutes and 40 minutes
after production started in order to track the proteins from the site of synthesis to a point in the cell from which they were discharged from the cell.
The scientist made an image of the cell at each of these times but forgot to
mark each image with its correct time. The images are given in figure 2.32.
Radioactivity is indicated by the green spots.
a Which cell corresponds to each of the particular times of viewing? List
the correct order according to time of viewing.
b On what grounds did you make your decision?
10 Using the web Go to www.jaconline.com.au/natureofbiology/natbiol1-3e
and click on the Cell organelles weblink for this chapter.
a Locate the definition given for the term lysosome. Do you agree or
disagree with the definition? Explain your answer. (Check descriptions or
definitions given in other resources or at other sites if you are unsure.)
b The website provides a number of ways in which you can test your knowledge of cell organelles. Try them out. Which way works best for you?
11 Using the web Go to www.jaconline.com.au/natureofbiology/natbiol1-3e
and click on the Biology Project weblink for this chapter. Scroll down and
click on Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes and Viruses. Click on Prokaryotes, read
the information on the page then answer the following questions.
a What is the simple statement used to summarise prokaryotes?
b What are three of the possible shapes found within prokaryotic cells?
c Compared with a typical eukaryotic cell, how much DNA is found in a
prokaryotic cell?
d Explain what you think is meant by the statement: Eukaryotes have
enslaved some of your brethren to use as energy generating mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1