VOLUME XXVIII

WINTER 1992

THEQUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICALINSTITUTE OF AMERICA

GEMS&GEMOLOGY
VOLUME 28 NO. 4

WINTER 1992

T A B L E

O F

C O N T E N T S

What Did You Say the Name Was?

Richard T. Liddicoat
Letters

Methods for Determining the Gold Content of

Jewelery Metals
Meredith E. Mercer
Diamond Sources and Production:
Past, Present, and Future
Alfred A, Levinson, John J, Gurney,
and Melissa l3, Kirlzley

NOTES
AND NEWTECHNIQUES
Sapphires from Changle in Shandong Province, China
fingfeng Guo, Fuquan Wang,
and Gerry Yukoumelos

Gem Trade Lab Notes

Gem News
Gemological Abstracts
Annual Index

A B O U T THE COVER: T h e metal in which a gcm is ,set i s often as important as the

gem itself. Gold is the m o s t popular metul for fine jewelry, and yet there m a y be as
m a n y difficulties detern~iningthe actual void content of a piece as there are establishing the identity of the g e m set therein. Four different methods of testing gold
content m e evaluated i n the article hv Meredith Mercer in this issue.
T h e piec(x shown here, designed b y internationa~llyreno1v11ed goldsmith Elizabeth
Ga'ye, combine exquisite goldwork w i t h fine n ~ o b pearls,
e
diamonds, nnd cultured
pearl drops. T h e lar'qest niabe pearl is 16 mm x 13 m m ; 18k white gold and yellow
gold are highlighted b y wirework and granulation. Jewelry courtesy of Elizabeth
Caw.Plioto bv Hanover Studios, London.
Typesetting for G e m s &? Gemology 1,s b y Craphix Express, Santu Monica, C A .
Color separations are b y Effective Graphics, Compton, C A .
Printit~gis b y Wavarly Press, Eosion, MD.
0 1993 Gemological Institute of America All rights reserved ISSN 0016-626X
F

EDITORIAL
STAFF

Editor-in-Chief
Richard T.Liddicoat
Associate Editors
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D. Vincent Manson
John Sinkankas
Technical Editor
Carol M. Stockton
Assistant Editor
Irv Dierdorff
Editorial Assistant
Denise Hey1

Contributing Editor
John I. Koivula

Editors, Gem News

John 1. Koivula
Robert C. Kainmerling
En~manuelFritsch

PRODUCTION
STAFF

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Production Artist
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Word Processor
Ruth Patchick

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REVIEW BOARD

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New York, IVY
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Santa Monica, CA
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Santa Monica, CA
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Cambridge, MA

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Santa Monica, CA
Anthony R. Kampf
Los Angeles, CA
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Lake Tahos, NV
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Santa Monica, CA
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West Lafayette, IN

Editor
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Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

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Editors, Book Reviews

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Editor, Geniological Abstracts

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l? 0. Lebanon,

N{

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Santa Monica, CA
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Pasadena, CA
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London, United Kingdom
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Santa Monica, CA

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WHATDIDYOU SAYTHE NAMEWAS?

n this issue are letters to the editor regarding gemological nomenclature in general,
and, in particular, the suggested use of heliolite for the transparent labradorite
feldspar found to date only in Oregon. We applaud this type of dialogue. In gemology,
the matter of nomenclature is never far from the center of any misunderstanding.
Often the name chosen for a newly discovered gem material becomes the subject of
serious disagreements between well-intentioned and competent gemologists. Even
more often, the disagreements occur between marketer and gemologist.
In the science of mineralogy, there is a widely accepted procedure for naming a new
mineral. The name proposed is either accepted or rejected by a formally established
nomenclature committee of the International Mineralogical Associa tion. Names that
have been assigned since those that came to us from antiquity are usually based on
considerations such as: the desire to honor a scientist (e.g., lzornerupine); the chemistry
of the new mineral (e.g., fluorite); the relationship of this mineral to others that are
associated in some fashion, such as by structure or chemistry (e.g., phosphophyllite);
the color or another obvious characteristic (e.g., azurite, axinite); or some geographic
connotation (e.g., andalusite).
Usually, no economic factor is involved in the choice of a name for a new mineral that
does not have any gem potential. However, if a new species or variety has the beauty
and durability that portends a probable gem use, the situation becomes much more
complicated. Marketers who are given some measure of opportunity, either by control
of the new source or by access to an important market segment, can assign a name of
their choice without any established authority to prevent their action. The market
seems to regulate itself, as we have seen in some unsuccessful efforts such as the
attempted use of red emerald for the beautiful red beryl from Utah and pink emerald
for morganite. Market-driven nomenclature, therefore, is not always a bad situation.
We know that traditionalists on a scientist-dominated board with authority over
names might well have opted for zoisite over tanzanite, for example, when Tiffany and
Co. first introduced the term in the 1970s. We at Gems o)Gemology have supported
an author's right to use a term that has a reasonable gemological basis and is not fraudulent or otherwise misleading.
Attempting to establish the makeup of an all-powerful nomenclature board to serve
the gemological community would require more diplomacy than the United Nations
has ever mustered. In spite of a few disturbing examples, the system established by the
world market may be better than one more bureaucracy.

Richard T Liddicoat
Editor-in-Chief

Editorial

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

219

LETTERS

L
L L

MORE O N "MISNOMERS"
IN GEMOLOGY
While Dr. E. Gubelin [in his letter in the Fall 1992 issue
of Gems &) Gemology] was merely dismayed by the misnomers in American gemology, 1-"a more delicate creature''-have
been s h o c k e d a n d horrified. As M r .
Liddicoat said in his reply, terminology in gemology is
often driven by market forces. However, the duties of the
science of gemology are to preserve knowledge and to
resist merely becoming a shill.
It was indeed within the rights of Tiffany to coin the
term tanzanite for blue zoisite from Tanzania. Inasmuch
as the campaign was successful, it became the duty of
scientific gemology to duly record this definition and
establish it as the name of a mutually exclusive category
in the nomenclature scheme of gemstones. However,
Mr. Liddicoat tells us that brown zoisite is currently
"referred to as tanzanite by American and European jewelers alike." Since I question whether the general public
accepts this concept, I would classify such an appellation
as merely "jargon of the trade."
Now, it becomes the duty of scientific gemology to
either ratify and promulgate this concept by changing the
definition so that tanzanite means gem-quality zoisite (of
any color?)from Tanzania, or to take a stand and say that
some things are sin~plywrong-by definition.
The trend in the latter decades of this century has
been to give equal acceptance to all ideas. As a consequence, it appears that nothing can be judged to be right
or wrong a n y m o r e . It's just, " w h a t e v e r works."
Fortunately, science doesn't function that way. Unless
gemology chooses to follow the dictates of good science,
the future holds disaster.
Mr. Liddicoat says he does not like "the proliferation
of separate names for each color variety of a gem material." However, he feels one could make a good case for the
name green tanzaniie. This is confusing. If brown zoisite
is called tanzanite and blue zoisite is also called tanzanite, but green zoisite is called green tanzanite, then I
assume that the yet-to-be-discovered red zoisite would
be called red tanzanite-unless, of course, it was found in
some other country. Isn't all this simply a proliferation of
separate names for each color variety?
From the commercial as well as the gemological
point of view, I believe this proliferation is ideal. It has
done wonders for quartz, beryl, and corundum. Emerald,
aquamarine, and morganite are certainly more salable
names than green beryl, blue beryl, and peach beryl.
This also explains the trade's desire to use the term tan-

220

Letters

zanite instead of the scientifically acceptable zoisite.

However, tanzanite has already been defined, and science doesn't allow for the continual redefinition of terms
for con~mercialgain.
The point I believe Dr. Gubelin is trying to make is
simply that gemologists, as scientists, should use a little
intelligence in choosing which names they accept or promote. While Mr. Liddicoat says that Gems o) Gemology
would relish the opportunity to be the arbiter of terminology in the gem world, he admits that it is not and
uses that to justify the policy of allowing any author to
create a new "trivial name."
The CIA has always prided itself on being a recognized leader in the field of gemology and is fully aware
that, through GedG, it is indeed the de facto arbiter of
gem terminology in the U.S. Now the world, through the
pleas of Dr. Gubelin, is asking the CIA to act responsibly. If G d G does not wish to become part of the solution, then it must be prepared to be recognized as part (if
not most) of the problem.
W. WM. HANNEMAN, P13.D.
Castro Valley, California

ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE:
HISTORY OF HELIOLITE
With regard to the nomenclature controversy, I agree
with Mr. Liddicoat that sunstone in gemological literature is generally regarded as an aventurescent feldspar,
and is not, as Dr. Glibelin suggests, restricted just to
oligoclase. Although most aventurescent feldspars are of
oligoclase composition, Bauer (1904), Goodchild (1908),
and Galvao (1899) clearly refer to orthoclase a n d oligoclase sunstone \pedra d e sol, literally "stone of the sun,"
is the Portuguese term)).
In modern sources, Webster's Gems (e.g., 3rd ecl.,
1975) creates some confusion in the nomenclature of this
gem material with the statement: "The gem mineral of
the oligoclase variety of feldspar is sunstone, or as it is
sometimes known aventurine feldspar, . . ." This supports Dr. Cubelin's contention, but poses a further problem by implying that all gem oligoclase is aventurescent.
However, Webster goes on to note that some "sunstone"
may be orthoclase or labradorite. Thus, Webster uses the
term sunstone both in a restricted sense, and in the
broader sense for any aventurescent feldspar. Shipley
(1951) defines sunstone as an aventurescent feldspar,
usually oligoclase. Liddicoat (1989) places sunstone in
t h e albite-oligoclase group, restricting t h e term to

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

feldspars showing red-brown to orange spangles of

Worlzs) Vol. 7! Alzade~niyN ~ LSSSR,
I ~ 1962.
Galvio B.F.R. Lrans, (1899)Colnpendio de Minerfllogifl por A. de
hematite; where green spangles are present! he uses the
L(~pparent,H. Gk~mier,Paris.
term aventwine [feldspar].
Goodchild W, (1908)Precious Sto~les.A. Constable, London.
of Dr. P o ~ ~ g h Liddicoat R.T. Jr, (19891 tlondbook of Gem Identijiccltion, 12th
From this! I would second the s~~ggestion
(1989) that sunstoile be used only for an aventurescent
ed. Gemological I n s t i t ~ ~oft eAmerica, Santa klonica, CA.
Moraes B.P. (19891 Glossurio Geologico, 2nd ed. SAGRA, Porto
variety of feldspar! but it sh0~11dnot be restricted to
Alegre.
oligoclase, as this only w0~11dcause confusion d ~ to
~ e
Lopidory
Pough F, (1989)Mineral notes: Heliolite and s~111sLone.
past usage. Thus, for accuracyl when the term sunstone
Iourn(l1, Vol, 42, No. 10, pp. 16-18.
is ~ ~ s in
e dge~nologicalliterature! it should be modified by
Shipley R.M. (19511 Dictionury of Gemology, 5 t h ed.
Gen~ologicalInstitute of America, Los Angeles, CA.
the type of feldspar that exhibits aventurescence. The
Sofiano T.A. (1960)Rt~ssifln-EnglishGeological Dictionary. FIZp ~ ~ r imay
s t wish to stick wit11 aventurescent labradorite,
MATGIZ, Moscow IAner. Geol. lnst. facsimile ed., 19831.
or the lilzel which is clear and poses no problem.
Webster R.(1 975) Gems, 3rd ed. Newnes-Butterwortl~s,London.
More important! in lily o p i n i o ~is
i ~Dr. Poughls introduction of a new meaning for the term heliolite, which is
seconded by Dr. Giibelin. This term was "reintr~duced!~
CONFUSION AT THE TOP?
by Dr. Pough for the valid reason of providing a conveHELIOLITE VS. SUNSTONE
nient name for the magnificent red and green labradorite
now coming from Oregon. He suggests uiing the term for
"It is no1 really a mark of distinction for Q geologist's
any plagioclase feldspar that is clear e n o ~ ~ gtoh facet ancl
wrjting to be so obscure that (7 glossary is required for its
does not have aventuresceilce. Dr. P o ~ ~ gcites
h two early
comprehension."-J17les Bramstein
references where heliolite was used: Delemeth (18 11] and
Dana (18961. However, there are other! more recent! refIn response to Dr. Gt~belin'sletter and Mr. Liddicoat's
erences in which heliolite has been L I S ~ Cas~ a synonym
,
,
reply in the Fall 1992 i s s ~ of
~ eGems d Gemology, I hope
for sunstone or aventuresceilt feldspar. (That sunstone
the following will ;ewe as clarification with respect to
and heliolite are synonymous should be no s ~ ~ r p r i s e : the nomenclat~~re
of Oregon feldspar.
Heliolite+is-a modified transliteration of the original
Dr. Gt~belin'smain disagreement with the title of
Greek word! while sunstone is a translation of the sense
m y Winter 1991 G d G article! "Sunstone Labradorite
of the Greelz term.]
from the Poiiderosa Mine! Oregon," seems to be that
The famous Russian niineralogist A. Ye. Fersman) in
sunstone as a descriptive term is synonynlous with oligohis 1921 work Descriution of Precious and Colored Stones
clase andl therefore! i s inisapplied to a labradorite.
of Russia, uses the Russian terin for heliolite as synoilylnstead! he reconlinends the use of heliolite, the term
nioils with aventurine feldspar. In Sofiano (1960)! a
suggested by his contenlporaryl Dr. Pough, which is
sliglltly different R ~ ~ s s i aspelling
n
is give~i!but the transGreek for sunstone.
lation is heliolite. Galvio (18991also provides a fine lexiAt the rislz of being obvio~~s,
I w0~11dlike to remind
con of mineralogical names! whereby heliolite is equivaall readers that gemstones are j ~ ~ minerals!
st
albeit very
lent to s1117stone which is e q ~ ~ i v a l eto
i ~ aventurescent
t
pure mineralsl or sometimes rocks composed of minerfeldspar. Both Goodchild (19081 and Moraes Branco
als. Therefore! it seems reasonable that gen~ological
(1989)also L I S heliolite
~
as synonymous with sunstone.
nomenclature should conform to accepted mineralogical
These L I S ~ Sof heliolite were found with less than
tern~inologyand gi~idelines~
when possible. The planet
two h o ~ ~ of
r s searching. No doubt there are more S L I C ~
Earth's governiilg body for mineral names is the Comreferences. It appears that heliolite c o n t i n ~ ~ to
e s be ~ ~ s e d , mission on New Minerals and Mineral Names of the
i f not widely! as an alternate term for aventurescent
I~~ternational
Mineralogical Association (LMA].If a name
feldspar. Therefore! it seems inappropriate that the term
gets their approvalt then it is legitimate. If it does not,
now be adopted for a different type of gem feldspar. This
neither age nor acceptance by t h e gem c o m n ~ u n i t y
new usage w0~11donly add to the confi~sion.
makes the name scjentjfjcally accurate.
I recommend that t h e gemological c o m m u n i t y
The most blatant deviation from mineralogical terreject the use of 11eliolite as proposed by Drs. Pough and
minology occurs in gem variety names, most of which are
Giibelin. Either a different tenn should be found orl as
not sanctioned by the IMA. If a gem-industry name does
Mr. Liddicoat suggests, we should ask whether we really
not coidorm to IMA standards! then it is probably being
need another terin.
driven by marlzet forces. This is neither an indictment
D. B. HOOVER! D.Sc.! F.G.A.
nor a condemnation; after alll most of LIS in the gem busiArvada, Colorado
ncss are capitalists, J L I S ~because we take some portion of
a geographic name and slap a bit of Greek on its backside
Bauer M, (1904) Prgc~ousStones, Spencer transl,, 1968 ed., 2
does
not turn the result into SCIENCE. Why can't we
Vols. Dover, New Yorlc

Fersman A.Ye. (1921)Descr~ptlonof Precio~lsu i ~ dColored LSto~les

o/ RUSSJ(I[in l~ussian].In Izbrclnnj~eTrudy (Collected

Please see LETTERS, p, 288

GEMS 81 GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

221

By Meredit11 E.Mercer

Verifying the gold content of karat-gold jewelry is a problem for the entire industry. This
s t ~ ~ compares
dy
four widely available testing
methods: d e ~ ~ s i(measured
ty
by hydrostatic
weighing),chemical reactivily (toz~chstone
testing), capocilive decay (Tri-Electronics
G-XL-18Gold Tesler),and X-ray fl~~oracence
(Seiko Ins~rumentsSEA 2001 Iewehy Assay
System). The latter t h e e methods all proved
~isefulw ' t h n certain limitations; hydrostatic
weighing was least szljtable. None of these
methods reliobly determined gold conteni
within the 3-ppt toler~znceallowed by U.S.
pl~zn?
b laws.

Ms. Mfcw is a m 8 m h assmiate h!tk

;R@~~~h~K&admer)i
ofthe &vc&W Instit&

n jewelry! the integrity of the metal is as impoitant as the

identity and integrity of the gemstones (&re 1).The misrepresentation of gold content (l'underlzaratingll)has been a
source of concern at all levels of the industry for literally hundreds of years. For the protection of retailers and consumers
alilze)a testing method that can verify the gold content of finished jewelry at point of sale is needed. Ideallyl this method
would be rapid! simple! reliable! inexpensive! nondestructivel
and widely accepted by the jewelry industry. The study reported here was conducted to determine whether existing methods
c o ~ ~ meet
l d these requirements. Four testing methods currently used in the trade-density! che~nicalreactivityl capacitive decay! and X-ray fluorescence-were applied to the same
set of well-characterized reference standards and the results
compared.
Gold-testing methods SLIC~Ias fire assay! touchstone testing) and l~ydrostaticweighing have been used since antiquity.
Tests for plated material include c~~tting)
heating! and ringing
(Oddy! 1983; Revere! 1990).Much worlz has been done on the
development of analyses to detect very sn~allquantities of
gold for mining ( Y o q 1980).Methods of analytical chemistry
(such as X-ray transmission! Compton scatteringl neutron
activation a ~ ~ a l y sinelastic
is~
scatteri~~g,
atomic absorption,
and particle-induced X-ray emission) can be quite accurate.
However! these methods usually call for complex and expensive equipnlent! as well as destructive sample preparation (de
Jau,1985; Kahn et al.! 1981; Demortier! 1984).To the author's
lmowledgel no work eval~latingtechniq~lesconmody used on
jewelry metals in tests of caref~~lly
characterized lzarat gold
alloys has been previously published.
BACKGROUND
Underlzoroting is the practice of lmowingly or u~~lznowingly
misrepresenting the gold content of a finished piece to be
higher than it actually is, A Jewelers Vigilance Co~nmittee
(JVC)study found that as much as 50%-70% of the un&ade-

Gold Testing

GEMS &A GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

tion hgold jewelry, for

customer and retailer
alike. There are also difierent alloy colors of gold,
Illustrated here, cloclwise
from the upper right, are a
141<green gold bee-shaped
pin set with pave diamonds; an 18l<green gold
pin set w'th diamonds and
a black opal; a 141z yellow
gold chain; a 141z ring of
red, white, and yellow
gold; and a 24k gold
Chinese tael. The "bee"
pin, chain, and sing are
couItesy of The Gold
Rush, Northridge,
California; the opal-set pin
is b y Silverhorn, Santa
Barbara, Caliform'a, Photo
0 GIA and Tino Hammid.

marlzed jewelry they tested was underlzarated (i.e.!

contained less gold than its lzarat mark stated;
Tolhuistl 1986).In contrast! JVC reported in the same
article that they found no underlzarating in a random
sample of trademarlzed iteins that they checked. Court
cases involving underlzarating are currently pending
in San Frai~ciscoand Honolulu ("Police beat)') 1989;
Badhain! 1990).The fact that there may be only slight
differences in visual appearailce between golds of
greatly different lzarat grades underscores the difficulty of detecting underlzarating in daily commerce
(figire 2).
United States law recognizes alloys containing
at least 417 parts per tho~isand(ppt; 41.7% or 101~)
gold as lzarat gold, and allows a tolerance of 3 ppt on

Gold Testing

unsoldered items (see Box A for an emlanation of the

relationshp between parts-per-thousand,percent! and
lzarat designations). A 7-ppt tolerance is allowed on
iteins containing solder. Thusl a 141z (nominallyl 583ppt) gold item that has been made or repaired with solder may be as low as 576-ppt gold. Where a quality
marlz stating gold content appears) it must be accoinpanied by a inanufacturerls trademarlz (Jewelers
Vigilance Committee! 1987; Shor! 1988). Although
this trademarlz has been legally required since 1906,
it is largely unenforced.
The oldest institution charged with protecting
the consumer from underlzaratii~gis the Worshipf~il
Company of Goldsmiths in London. In 13001King
Edward I of England required that all gold and silver

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

223

Figure 2. Although these lzorot-goldpieces are sin?ilor in color and appearance, they ore octually IOk,
14k, ond 18k (left to right). Gold courtesy of Dovid
H.Fell ond Compony, Inc., L,os Angeles,
California;photo by Maha Smith-DeMoggio.

wares be tested and marlzed by the goldsmith's guildl

a precursor of the Worshipful Company (Johnson,
1980). Later, wares had to be sent to the guild hall for
testing and marlzing (the probable origin of the Enghsh
word hallmarlz; Hare) 19851.
Todayl every item of goldl silver' or platinum sold
in the United Kmgdom must first be sent to one of f o ~ r
assay offices for hallmarlzing. Those that pass the
assay are marlzed with four (or sometimes five] marks:
(1] a inalcerls or sponsor's marlz; (21in certain cases, a
s y n ~ b o indicating
l
the fineness of the item; (3)the
fineness in parts per thousand; (4)the symbol of the
office where testing was done; and (51a letter in a partic~llartypeface that indicates the year of marlzing.
Not only does this inforination protect consunlersl
but it is also very val~iableto jewelry historians. Unlilze
U.S. law, British law allows no negative tolerance
(e.g.! an item that is 749-ppt gold cannot be marlzed
1 8 1 which
~~
is nominally 750 ppt; Assay Offices of
Great Britain! 1988).

BOX A: THE NOMENCLATURE

OF GOLD CONTENT
The gold content (also known as "finenes~'~)
of karat
gold is described in several ways:
Percent (%)is simply the ratio of gold (byweight) to the
total metal present, expressed as parts of 100. Thusl an
alloy that is three parts gold and one part alloy metal is:
31(3+11=314 75/100 = 75% (by weight)

Parts per thousand (ppt)is similar to percent, but compares the total metal (byweight) present to 1000, rather
than 100)parts. This increases the expressed precision.
Thus! an alloy containing seven parts fine gold and five
parts alloy metal is:
7/(7+5)= 7/12 = 0.583 = 583 ppt (byweight)
This could also be expressed as 58.3%. Legal tolerances
and requirements are usually expressed in ppt.
Karat (k, also abbreviated kt) is perhaps the most widely known measure of gold content-as well as the least
straghtforward to calculate and envision. It is also based
on the ratio of fine gold to total metal present (bywe&],
but it divides the total metal present into 24 parts. Thusl
each karat is 1/24 (byweight)of the whole [4.17%1or 41.7
ppt). The 583-ppt gold alloy [seven parts gold and five

Gold Tcsti~ig

parts alloy metal) discussed above can be described in

karats as:
7/(7+5)= 7/12 = 14/24 = 141~
This measure of gold content is spelled 'l1zarat1' in the
United States to help avoid confusion with "carat," the
measure of weight commonly used for gemstones. 111
Great Britain and British Commoi~wcalthcou~~tries~
it is
spelled "carat" for both applications.
Table A-1 correlates these three inasures of gold content.
TABLE A-1. Comparison of expressions of gold content.
Karat (k)

,' Note: tdosl

Percent (wi. %)

Park per tho~~sand

(ppt)

coufilr@sallow gold that is 99% (990ppf) pure lo be

described as '24 karat,'' IYpure gold ''

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 3. Ten liarat-gold reference standards were

used for this study (rigl~tto lefi):81i yellow, 1Olz
white, 10k yellow, 141z green, 14li red, 14k white,
141i yellow, 181z yellow, 221z yellow, and 24k.
Photo by Maha Smith-DeMaggjo,

International laws regarding lzarat standards vary

widely. Seven European countries signed the 1972
"International Co~lventionon the Control of Marking
of Articles of Precio~~s
Metalsl'' which established
standar&.and a~ithorizedlaboratories within member
countries:to apply a convention marlz certdying gold
content. This marlz allows each member country to
accept go-ods from other inen~berco~intriesw i t h o ~ ~ t
further verification. Today) hallmarlzing is compulsory in France! Ireland! Portugall Spain! Holland! and
Great Britain (P.V.A. Johnson! pers. conlm.l 1992);
some other E~lropeanco~intrieshave vol~intaryhallmarlzing progains. The effect of European economic
d i c a t i o n on hallmarking laws is still being worlzed
out (Johnson! 1992).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four methods for testing the gold content of lzarat
golds were selected for this s t ~ ~ ddensity)
y:
to~~chstone
testing) capacitive decay! and X-ray fl~~orescence
spectrometry. The criteria used in choosing these four
methods were no~~destructiveness~
ease of ope ratio^^!
andl except for X-ray fluorescencel low cost and portability, The same 10 reference standards were tested by
each method.
The reference standards in this study are lzarat
golds con~monly~isedin jewelry. They were c~lstom
cast) rolledl and given a brushed firus11 for GIA at Leach
and Gamer Technologyl North Attleborol Massachusetts. The standards range from 81z to 2 4 1 and
~ ~ include
yellowl white! red) 'and green golds (figure3).
The coinposition of each reference standard was
determined at Leach and Garner by fire assay and

Golcl Testing

directly coupled plasma spectroscopyl and then confirmed by fire assay and atomic-absorption spectroscopy at Goldsmith's Hall! London. The compositions found are shown in table 1.
Fire assay is one of the oldest methods lznown
for testing gold content. The earliest written mention of the technique dates from 1380 B.C. (Walchli
and Vuilleinierl 1987).In fire assay) the metal is oxidized at high temperature (cupelled]to separate base
metals from noble metals. Any silver present is then
removed from the residual metal by dissolution in
nitric acid. The weight of the remaining fine gold is
compared to the weight of the original sample to
establish the metal's original gold content.
In atoinic-absorption (AA)spectroscopyl the sainple is dissolved in a l i q ~ ~solution
id
and then vaporized
in a flame. The resulthg gas absorbs light in proportion to its elenlental compositionl which can be measured to produce a quantitative chemical analysis.

--

TABLE I. Compositions of karat-gold reference standards

used for this studya.
Reference
standard

Composition (wt.70)
Ag

Cu

Zn

Ni

24k yellow
22k yellow
18k yellow
14k yellow
14k white
14k red
14k green
10k yellow
10k while

8k yellow
'Reference standards a s 1 and am&&
(fire a s s y a d E p!asma) by
Leach and G m r Techm@y, M d h Atf/ebo, MA; unceftainiy in
measund vdue (k)v a k with anoy wntent and methd of measure
ment. Values in parentheses am from the Worsh@fu/Company of
analysis by fire assay and atomGoldsmiths Assay Ofice, London, U/<;
ic absorption.
a -not deieztd.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

For gold, silver, copper, tin, and cadmium, AA has

very high sensitivity (approximately 1 atomic part
per million [ppmJ1partper million atoms," not to
be confused with ppt]; Veillon and Slzogerboe, 1987).
The disadvantages of AA include the fact that it can
analyze for only one element at a time, and the possibility that error could be introduced when the sainpie is diluted to the low concentration necessary
(Willard et al., 1981, p. 141).
Directly coupled plasma (DCP)spectroscopy,
which is the technique used by the metallurgical laboratory that prepared the standards for this study, is
similar to atomic absorption. As with AA, the sample
is placed in a liquid solution, but it is then excited
by high-temperature plasma-a gas ionized by highly concentrated electromagnetic energy-rather than
by light. This excitation causes the emission of light
(i.e.,photons) with wavelengths that are characteristic of the sample's composition. The advantages of
DCP are that it can analyze several elements a t once
and that it can handle solutions in high concentrations (up to 25%), which increases the accuracy that
can be obtained for jewelry metals. Like AA, it is sensitive to approximately 1 ppin for most metals commonly found in jewelry. The primary disadvantage
of DCP is its unsuitability to automated operation
(Willardet al., 1981, p. 163).A related method, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)spectroscopy, is also frequently used, with similar results.
These three analytical methods, while more accurate and repeatable than the four methods examined
in this study, are also much more complex and expensive. Therefore, they are not suitable for general use
by most gemologists.
TESTS AND RESULTS
This study was conducted to examine the performance of each of the four testing methods on a set of
well-characterized reference standards. Only the 10 reference standards were tested. No metals other than
karat gold, no plated items or finished jewelry, were
examined. Other shapes and finishes would probably
produce somewhat different results.
Each method tested has unique advantages and
limitations, and direct comparison between methods
is difficult. The purpose of this work is not a competitive comparison of methods, but an individual
evaluation of each.

Density. Common alloying elements (such as nickel,

copper, zinc, and silver) have significantly lower den-

Gold Testing

Figure 4. A Mettler balance with hydmstaticweighing accessories was used to test the specific
gravities of the karat-gold reference samples. Photo
by Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

sities than gold. Density is often expressed as specific gravity (S.G.),a numerical comparison of the density
of a substance to that of water. Hydrostatic weighing
works on the principle that density can be measured
by the buoyant force acting on an object immersed in
a fluid.
According to legend, the ancient Greek scientist
Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.)discovered this principle in response to a gold-testing problem (van den
Waerden and Heath, 1983).King Heiron II of Syracuse
asked Archimedes if there was a way to determine,
without damaging the item, whether his new crown
was made of the fine gold he had specified or of the
adulterated alloy he suspected had been used.
Archimedes puzzled over the problem one day
while visiting the public baths. Stepping into a tub, he
watched water run out over the top-and realized
that an immersed object displaces fluid in a way dependent only on its volume, and irrespective of its weight.
Thus, he could find the volume of the crown by
immersing it in a vessel filled completely with water,
measuring the overflow, and comparing the volume
of the overflow to the volume of an amount of pure
gold that weighed precisely the same as the crown. If

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

the crown were pure gold, the two volumes would

be the same; but if the crown were gold alloyed with
a lighter metal, such as silver or copper, the same
weight of alloy must have a greater volume than pure
gold. Because gold is denser, that is, has a higher specific gravity, it displaces less water than an equal
weight of silver or copper.
This idea struck Archimedes so strongly that he
leaped up and, forgetting his clothing, ran home
through the streets shouting "Eureka, Eureka!" ("I
have found it!,').

weighing tray will falsely increase weight. The accuracy of the density method could be improved by
making a greater number of measurements per sample, but the time required to do so would make this
method impractical for most jewelry applications.
Moreover, only objects without stones can be tested.
This method also cannot detect gold-plated items
filled with a metal (suchas lead) that has a density similar to that of gold.

Method. The reader is referred to any of a number of

books on gemological testing for description of the
technique of hydrostatic weighing (e.g.,Webster, 1983;
Liddicoat, 1990) and to Sinlzanlzas (1986)for an indepth historical review of the use of this technique in
gemology. Weighings for this study were performed on
the equipment shown in figure 4.
Each standard was weighed in air and water four
times (except the 14k green and 8k yellow samples,
which were weighed only thee times each).Densities
were calculated according to the following equation:

Figure 5. Densities determined by hydrostatic

weighing are compared to densities calculated
from the analytically measured contents of the 10
reference standards. The mean result of f o w
weighings is shown for each sample. Y, W,R, G
indicate yellow, white, red, and green golds,
resuectivelv. Note that the densities calculated
apply onlyto the karat-gold samples used for this
study; different karat golds of the same color and
gold content m a y have different densities.

density ='(weightin air]/(we&t in air - weight in water]

The means and ranges for the densities determined for each standard are shown in figure 5. In addition, density was calculated for each reference standard
according to its known composition (asdetermined by
fire assay, DCP, and AA spectroscopy) and is shown
for comparison in figure 5. Calculated density is based
on the measured concentration of each element in
an alloy, multiplied by the known density of that
element.

Results. As figure 5 shows, most of the mean measured

data do not match the calculated densities (dashed
lines).In eight of 10 cases, the hydrostatic results indicate less gold than is actually present. The 3-ppt tolerance allowed by U.S. plumb law is too small to
show on this chart. For example, the 6-ppt (*3ppt]
plumb range for the 14k yellow sample corresponds to
a density range from 14.96 g/cm3 to 14.88 g/cm3. In
contrast, the mean measured value is 13.0 g/c~n3.
Evaluation. Although theoretically straightforward,
hydrostatic weighing presents practical difficulties.
The balance pan must be weighed first, and its weight
subtracted from the final water weight. Air bubbles
clinging to the test piece will falsely decrease weight,
while any water droplets on the wires holding the

Gold Testing

Y
8

Y W
-10-

Y W R G
-14-

Y
18

22

24

GOLD CONTENT BY FIRE ASSAY (k)

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

227

Chemical Reactivity. The property that sets gold apart

from most other metals is its relative inertness to
chemical reaction, which makes it highly resistant
to corrosion. This property can be used to test jewelry metals, because the gold in the alloy will react
much more slowly when exposed to acid than will the
other metals. In addition, the more alloying metal
present in proportion to gold, the greater will be the
magnitude of the reaction to the acid. This type of
testing is commonly known as "touchstone testing."
Corrosion is a property that occurs only in metals. Thus, to understand why and how corrosion
occurs, one must first understand that metals as a
group are unique among chemical elements. Their
electrons are not rigidly bound in place, but are free to
move about. In addition, electrons in different elements have different intrinsic energy levels, like different natural bodies of water at different altitudes. For
example, when two different metals are placed in
electrical contact, electrons flow from the metal with
the higher energy level (e.g., copper) to the one with
the lower energy level (e.g., gold),as water flows downhill. The removal of negatively charged electrons must
be balanced by the removal of positively charged ions
(atoms missing one or more electrons)from the same

Figure 6. The following tools are needed to determine chemical reactivity by means of touchstone
testing on an item believed to be 14k gold (clockwise from upper left): touch needles, 14k acid (43%
nitric acid), 14k touch needle, and a basalt touchstone. Note the streaks with acid next to the test
piece on the touchstone. Photo by Maha SmithDeMaggio.

Gold Testing

piece of metal. The changes in color and texture of

metals that we commonly associate with corrosion
result from this loss of material. (It is this flow of
electrons that also produces current in simple batteries, and it is this eventual depletion of material that
causes batteries to "go dead"). The higher the energy
level of a given metal, the more it will react in this
way. Thus, we may judge these energy levels by
observing chemical reactivity.
Touchstone testing for gold content, which
exploits this chemical reactivity in metals, is the origin of the phrase acid test. Touchstone testing is done
by visually comparing the reactions of a test metal
and the reactions of metals of known gold content to
the same acids simultaneously. References to the
comparison of uncorroded metal streaks can be found
as early as 600 B.C. (Walchliand Vuillemier, 1985).The
use of acid to measure the chemical reactivity of the
streaks dates to the 14th century. The acid reacts with
the atoms of other metals (such as silver, copper, or
zinc)in a gold alloy by creating the flow of electrons and
ions described above between microscopic regions richer in these other metals and regions richer in gold. The
resulting corrosion can be observed as a discoloration.
Method. In touchstone testing, the test piece is drawn
carefully across the surface of a fine-grained black
"touchstone" (commonly, a piece of basalt; figure 61,
producing a streak on the stone. The streak is braclzeted by streaks from "touch needlesu-strips of karat
gold of known gold content. A drop of acid is drawn
across all the streaksl and their subsequent reaction is
carefully watched. A judgment is then made as to
which touch-needle reaction most closely matches
that of the test piece. The test is repeated, with different acids or touch needles, as necessary. Nitric
acid, hydrochloric acid, and aqua regia are the most
commonly used acids. It is reported that accuracy to
at least 10-20 ppt, and (with experience)as close as 5
ppt, can be made with this method, given the availability of touch needles that are graduated to this
degree of fineness (Walchli and Vuillemier, 1985).
Tests were performed by the author on the stone
shown in figure 6 with 9k, 14k, 18k, and 22k yellowand red-gold touch needles manufactured by Bergeon
(No. 6675-9).The acids were mixed according to the
formulations used at Goldsmith's Hall. They included 91z (24% aqueous H N 0 3 ) , 14lz (43% aqueous
HNOs), 18k (43%aqueous HN03 with 0.06% NaCl),
and 22k (43%aqueous HN03 with 1% NaCl). Note
that these acids, while used in very small amounts, are

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

hazardous materials that must be handled properly.

Each sample was tested four times by drawing it
across the stone to create an even, consistent metal
strealz. On one side, a similar strealz was drawn from
a touch needle of possibly equal or lower lzarat weight.
(Aneducated guess is the best estimate initially.) On
the other side, a streak was drawn from the next-higher-karat touch needle. A drop of the acid estimated to
match the sample lzaratage was placed on the touchstone near the streaks. From this drop, a thin, even hue
of acid was pulled (with the acid dropper) across the
sample and touch-needle strealzs. At least two comparison touch-needle streaks and two different acid
reactions were used to test each sample.
Reactions were observed as they took place, and
the appearance of the various streaks was noted after
the acid had been soaked up with filter paper, in combined fluorescent/incandescent lighting. Between
tests, as needed, the touchstone was cleaned with
600-grit silicon carbide sandpaper lubricated with
olive oil.
Goldsmith's Hall also tested all but the 181z sample (whichwas not available at the time).Four different operators performed one test each on the nine
other samples, using acids mixed to the same formulas described above.

Results. The results of the author's tests and those

done at Goldsmith's Hall are shown in figure 7. All of
the data from tests performed at GIA lie within a statistically acceptable range of the known values, as do
most of the results from Goldsmith's Hall. The excep
tions are the data for the 10k yellow and 10k white
samples obtained by Goldsmith's Hall. The 14k red
samples and white samples showed a wide range of
values, as did the 18k, 22k, and 24k (yellow)samples.
As was the case with hydrostatic weighing, all of the
ranges are outside the 3-ppt tolerance specified by
U.S. plumb law.
Evaluation. Tests performed by a trained but inexperienced technician (the author) tended to be closer to
assayed values than those obtained by highly skilled
and experienced workers at Goldsmith's Hall. This
is probably due to the difficulty of creating a truly
blind test for the author, and indicates one bias inherent in this kind of testing. Especially notable are results
for the two 10k alloys, which were almost unanimously reported as 91z in the Goldsmith's Hall trials.
Ten-karat gold is almost unknown in Britain, where the

Gold Testing

--

U.S. legal plumb range

Mean of 4 test results
Range of 4 test results
GIA

m LondonA3say0~

w$'G
@j
fr .
A*

-10-

-14-

18

22

24

GOLD CONTENT BY FIRE ASSAY (k)

Figure 7. Gold content was measured by touchstone testing at GIA and at the London Assay
Office of Goldsmith's Hall. The mean and range of
four tests for each sample are shown (the 18k sample was not available for testing at the Assay
Office).The horizontal gray bars indicate the 6-ppt
(*3 ppt) range allowed by U.S.
plumb laws.

most common lzarat gold is 91z (which,as noted earlier, is not legally defined as karat gold in the U.S.).
Because touchstone results depend heavily on the
skill, experience, and bias of the observer, they tend
to be subjective. Also, some precision is lost with
high-karat golds because of the increasing similarity
of the reactions. Again, note that the acids are hazardous materials that must be used with caution.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

229

Figure 8. The components of the G-XL-18 Gold

Tester, used for capacitive decay testing, include
(from left to right): the G-XL-18 tester unit, an elecirical hook-up with test piece and electrolyte gel,
and a gel dispenser/probe wand.For this test, the
operator positions the test piece in the clip and
applies a drop of gel. With the probe touching the
gel, the operator then presses the button that corresponds to the color of the test piece. The results are
displayed on the tester unit. Photo by Maha
Smith-DeMaggio.

Even so, measurement of chemical reactivity by the

touchstone test can be relatively reliable if the operator is sufficiently skilled and free of bias.
An important advantage of this method is that
it can be used to test jewelry of almost any shape,
size, and finish, including stone-set pieces. In addition, plating can be detected by slzillful observation of
the mhomogeneous reaction pattern that occurs within the metal streak.
Capacitive Decay. This method was invented by
Leonid Radomyshelsky, a Jewish emigre from the
Soviet Union who had been trained as an electrical
engineer. After Mr. Radomyshelslzy opened a jewelry
store in the U.S., he became concerned about verifying the gold content of the jewelry he sold. Using his
engineering expertise, he devised an electronic method
to measure the "nobility" of metals.

Method. The G-XL-18 Gold Tester (figure 81, made

by Tri-Electronics Corp. of San Diego, California,
operates by measuring the capacitive decay rate of
the test piece. When a test piece is placed in electrical contact with the platinum cathode, the tester

Gold Testing

builds up a type of electrical charge known as "capacitance" between an electrolyte gel and the cathode.
This capacitance decays at a measurable rate that
varies with the gold content of the test piece. The GXL-18 tester measures the decay rate, compares it to
an internal computer file, and displays the karatage
that matches the measured decay rate most closely.
Two sets of tests were run on the Gold Tester,
both on the same instrument. For the first set, performed by the author, nine trials were run on each
sample. For the second set, performed by Mr.
Radomyshelslzy himself, five to seven trials (the number he recommends for this instrument)were run on
each test piece.
Because the G-XL-18 is designed to test gold only
in the range of 10k to 18k, we did not include results
for samples over 181z. However, we did include the 8k
sample, because 8k or 9k gold may be encountered
both in underlzarated 10k goods and in 81z or 9k goods
that are legal in various parts of the world. It was
understood, however, that while the tester is capable
of operating outside its design range, the accuracy of
the results might suffer.

Results. The data are presented in chart form in figure

9 (forstatistical consistency, only seven of the GIA trials are represented).As might be expected, the means
for the 81z sample are off by more than 1k,with a considerable range. Also interesting are the results for
the 14k yellow gold, which consistently produced a
121z read-out in the GIA trials. Although all of the
results fall within 21z of known values, this is still
well outside the 3-ppt tolerance allowed by U.S. law.
Evaluation. The inaccuracy encountered with the
14k yellow sample was traced to a higher copper content in the test piece than in the yellow gold used to
calibrate the instrument. When the 14k yellow sample was retested as a red gold, the mean of four tests
came to 13.61~~
with very little variability. This illustrates the risk inherent in directly comparing the
chemistry of one karat-gold piece to another that,
although of the same gold content, may have a very
different alloy composition. The poor results for the
8k sample simply confirm the manufacturer's stated
limitations of the instrument.
One disadvantage of the G-XL-18is that the presence of plating can only be detected by testing a small
area from which the plating has been removed. Also,
the curved surfaces of most chains, prong settings,
and other small, highly curved items will interfere

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

and relatively accurate quantitative analyses by this

method [Goldsteinet al., 1981).

-10-

U.S. legal plumb range

Mean of 5-7 test results
Range of 5-7 test results
GIA
Tri-Electronics

-14-

Method. When an X-ray strikes an atom, it may cause

the atom to emit a secondary X-ray that has an energy unique to the element from which it is emitted.
These secondary X-rays can be collected and analyzed
for information on sample composition. This is called
X-ray fluorescence (XRF)analysis, because atoms in the
sample respond to the original, incoming X-rays by fluorescing (emitting]characteristic secondary X-rays.
Tests were performed by the author at Seiko
Instruments, Torrance, California, on their SEA 2001
Jewelry Assay System, an XRF system with sophisticated software developed specifically for testing karat
gold [seefigure 10).One test was run for each reference
sample, with the instrument first calibrated to comparable standards when available. Standards were not
available for the 241z and 221z yellow, and 14k green,
test pieces.
Technicians at Goldsmith's Hall performed a second set of tests (onefor each sample, except the 18k
yellow) using the same-model instrument, also calibrated to comparable standards.

18

GOLD CONTENT BY FIRE ASSAY (k)

Figure 9. Capacitive decay testing was performed

by GIA and Tri-Electronicsusing the G-XL-18
Gold Tester. The means and ranges of five to seven
tests by Tri-Electronics,and seven tests by GIA,
are presented in comparison to the 6-ppt (+3ppt)
range allowed by U.S. plumb law. Although tests
were not conducted on samples above the
G-XL-18's 10k-to-18k design range, the 8k sample
was included to show how the tester responded to
a piece that was below the U.S. legal limit for
karat gold.

Figure 10. The SEA 2001 Jewelry Assay System for

X-ray fluorescence analysis was the most sophisticated method used in this study. The components
of this unit are (clocl<wisefrom top right): the liquid-nitrogen reservoir that contains the X-ray
detector, the sample chamber (on top of the console), a computer, and a monitor (here displaying a
typical spectrum). Photo courtesy of Seiko
Instruments Corp.

with the capacitive-decay reaction. Tri-Electronics

does not recommend the G-XL-18 for testing such
items. An advantage of this method is that it can be
used to test jewelry of most other shapes and most finishes, as well as stone-set pieces.
X-ray Fluorescence. In 1913, it was discovered that
exposure to high-energy radiation can cause atoms
to emit X-rays that are characteristic of the source
element's atomic number. In 1951, X-ray intensity
was correlated to the quantitative chemical composition of the sample. Development in the late 1960s
of the lithium-driftedsilicon X-ray detector and sophisticated computer systems paved the way for rapid

Gold Testing

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

231

Results. Figure 11 shows that 80% of the results from

tests performed by the author with the Seiko instrument were within 3 ppt of assayed values. The fact that
the 24k sample was 11 ppt below, and the 14k green
15 ppt below, their assayed values reflects the lack
of calibration standards noted above. The testing at
Goldsn~ith'sHall produced results that fell outside 3
ppt for the 14k green (14ppt below), the 14k white (5
ppt above), and the 81z yellow (4 ppt below) samples.
Evaluation. The results of X R I analysis are promising,
but several caveats must be made. Secondary X-rays
travel only very short distances through metal.
Therefore, the X-rays available for XRF analysis come
from only the first few microns [millionthsof a meter)
below the sample surface. Thus, only a very small
area is tested, which would not represent the bulk of
a sample that was plated or otherwise internally mhomogeneous. This surface sensitivity also causes a
strong dependence on shape and finish. Results for
convex surfaces, unusual finishes, or relief work are
generally unreliable.
Moreover, the XRF system must be calibrated to
an alloy of similar composition for reliable and accurate quantitative results to be obtained. Seilzo
Instruments calibrated their tester with standards
very similar to the reference standards used in this
study. Both alloy sets were obtained from the same
supplier. These results, therefore, may not represent
practical testing of a variety of alloys from different
suppliers. The greater variation in the data from the
Goldsn~ith'sHall tests supports this concern.
The greatest disadvantage of XRF for most in the
jewelry industry is that the system is considerably
more expensive than the other methods described
here, and it requires substantial technical skill both to
operate the equipment and to interpret the results.
Despite these limitations, X-ray fluorescence testing can be relatively accurate if the test piece is flat and
homogeneous, and the instrument is properly calibrated to a standard of similar shape, finish, and composition.
CONCLUSIONS
From this limited examination of 10 standard reference
materials of normal gold-alloy composition ranging
from 81z to 24k, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn:
1. Hydrostatic weighing appears to be unsuitable for
karatage determinations, as results are likely to be
unreliable.

Gold Testing

Y
8

Y
-10-

U.S. legal plumb range

GIA
London Assay Office

-14-

Y
18

Y
22

Y
24

GOLD CONTENT BY FIRE ASSAY (k)

Figure 11. X-ray fluorescence testing was conducted independently by both GIA and the London
Assay Officeof Goldsmith's Hall. One test of each
sample was made (the 18k sample was not available for Assay Officetesting). Several, but not all,
of the results lie within the gray bar that marks the
6-ppt (k3ppt)range allowed by U.S. plumb law.

2. Measurement of chemical reactivity by the touchstone test can be reasonably accurate if the operator is sufficiently skilled and free of bias. Plating can
be detected by a skilled and observant operator,
and the test is useful on jewelry of most shapes
and finishes, as well as on stone-set pieces.
3. Instruments that use the principle of capacitive
energy decay give results accurate to 2k in the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

range below 18k and above 81z. This method can be

used on pieces of many shapes and sizes, and on
stone-set pieces, but not on some chains, prong
settings, and other small, highly curved items.
Plating may not be detected.
4. X-ray fluorescence testing can be accurate to within 15 ppt of gold content if the test piece is flat
and homogeneous, and the instrument is calibrated to an alloy of similar composition.
None of the test methods examined here will
solve the underlzarating problem. In fact, none gave
reliable readings that fell completely within the 3-pp
plumb range allowed by U.S. law. However, some of
these methods may be of limited use in the retail setting to identify larger discrepancies in gold content.
Most of the errors found in this study were in the
form of erroneously low values. Although these would
not result in underlzaratmg if they were used by manufacturers and sellers to create and mark their jewelry, buyers might be mistakenly led to believe an item

had been underlzarated. Moreover, some values were

high, which could lead to unintentional underlzarating. Regardless, it is risky to rely on a testing method
that produces large errors in any direction.
A great deal more research is needed, both on the
evaluation of sophisticated instrumentation that may
be able to make the close determinations required by
plumb laws, and on the development of methods that
are more useful for the retail jeweler. An important
limitation of this study is that it does not address
actual jewelry in all of its shapes, finishes, and alloy
combinations. In addition, no plated metals were tested. Note, however, that a rhodium flash on white
gold would not be expected to substantially affect the
accuracy of any of these methods, with the possible
exception of X-ray fluorescence.
Underlzarating is a problem that has existed
throughout the history of "precious" metals. It will
continue to be a problem until and unless an inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and easily operable testing method is developed,

REFERENCES
Assay Office of Great Britain (1988)Haharlzs on Gold, Silver and
Platinum (pamphlet).The Assay Office, Publications Dept.,
Goldsmith's Hall, London,
Badham J. (1990)San Francisco D.A. uses tester in case against IPI
gold. National /ewelor, Vol. 34, No. 20, pp. 3, 82.
de Jesus A. (1985)Authentication of gold products by nuclear methods: A feasibility study on gold coins and jewellery. Gold
Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 132-139.
Demortier G. (1984)Analysis of gold jewellery artifacts:
Characterizationof ancient gold solders by PKE. Gold Bulletin,
Vol. 17, No. I, pp. 27-38.
Goldstein J., Newbury D., Echlin P., Jog D., Fiori C., Lifshin E.
(1981)Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Micrmvdysis.
Plenum Press, New York.
Hare S.M. (1985) Goldsn~jth'sHall in the City of London. The
Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths and Jarrold Colour
Publications, Norwich, U.K.
Jewelers Vigilance Committee (1987)National gold and silver
marking act. In CaliforniaJeweler's Association Buying Guide:
1987-88, pp. 94-96.
Johnson P.V.A. (1980)Assaying procedures at Goldsmith's Hall for
hallrnarldng purposes. Proceedings of the Second International
Seminar on San~plingand Assaying of Precious Metals 11,
March 18-19, 1980, San Francisco, IPMI (Inten~ationalPrecious
Metals Institute), Mentown, PA, pp. 147-157.
Johnson P.V.A. (1992)Hallmarking andanalysis of finished jewcllery. Precious Metals 1992: Proceedings of the 16th
International Precious Metals Conference, IPMI [International
Precious Metals Institute], Allentown, PA pp.205-211.
Kahn H., Dulude G., Conley M., Sotera J. (1981 ) Determination of
metals at high concentration by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Canadian Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 27-31.

Gold Testing

Liddicoat R.T. Jr. (1990)Handbook of Gem Identification, 12th

ed. rev. Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA.
Oddy A. 11983)Assaying in antiquity. Gold Bulletin, Vol. 16, No.
2, pp. 52-59.
Police beat: under-karatcd gold (1989).Honol~ihAdvertiser, April
16, 1989, p. A13.
Revere A. (1990)Testing precious metals in the work shop. Jewelers'
Circular-Keystone,Vol. 161, No. 8, pp. 180-186.
Shor R. (1988)Subkarat gold: a "time bomb" set to explode. Jewelers'
Circular-Keystone,Vol. 154, No. 9, pp. 54-56.
Sinkankas J. (1986)Contributions to a history of gemology: Specific
gravity~originsand development of the hydrostatic method.
Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 156-1 65.
Tolhurst M.E. (1986)Rash of underkarating threatens trade: suppliers. National Jeweler. Vol. 30, No. 16, pp. 1,31,34-36.
van den Waerden B.L., Heath T.L. (1983) Archimedes. In
Encyclopedia h'itannica, 15th e d , Macropedia, Vol. 1, pp.
1087-1088.
Veillon C., Skogerlxx R. (19871Atomic spectroscopy.In S. Parker, Ed.,
Spectroscopy Source Book, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Walchh W., V~iierneirP. (1985)Touchstone testingof precious metm , 24, pp. 36-45.
als. A ~ ~ r u No.
Wilchli W., Vuillemcit P. (1987)Assaying gold by cupcllation.
Aurum, No. 29, pp. 56-64.
Webster R. (1983) Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification,4th ed. Rev. by B.W. Anderson, Butterworths,
London, pp. 650-652.
Willard H., Mei-ritt L., Dean J., Settle F. (1981)Instnunentd Methods
of Analysis. D. Van Nostrand, New York, pp. 127-174.
Young R. (19801 Analysis for gold: A review of methoi.ls. Gold
Bulletin, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 9-14.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

233

PAST,PRESENT,
AND FUTURE
By Alfred A. Levinson John J. Gurney, and Melissa B, Kirkley

Lz'

Africa was the major source of diamonds for

most of the 20th century, but Australia and
Sakha (of the Russian Federation) nowprodace about half of the world's supply. Also,
most of the production today comes from
primary sources (lzimberlites and lamproite),
whereas secondary (alluvial)sources dominated as recently as the early 1970s.
Although the annual production of rough
more than doubled in the 1980s, the production of rough yielding good-quality polished
gems has not increased appreciably. The economic potential of a lzimberlite or lamproite
occurrence depends on the tonnage and
grade of the ore, as well as on the quality of
the diamonds it contains. The authors prediet that the early 21st century will see the
Russian Federation as an even more important source of diamonds and Canada as a
major producer.

ABOUT THE AUTHO

Or. Levinson is professorin the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Calgary,
Alberta, Canada. Dr. Gumey is professor, and Dr.
Kirkley is post-doctoral research officer,in the
Department of Geochemistry,University of Cape
Town, Rondebosch, South Africa.

Acknowledgments: The authors sincerely

thank G.T. Austin, 6. T. Evens, R. E. Folinsbee,
M. R. Gent, P. A. Hawkins, R. B. Hudson,
A J, A. Janse, G. E. Jones, D, 6.Larkin,
M. Marchand, M. A. Menzies, f t G. Orr, H. G.var
Oss, and E. A. Schiller, for reviewing the manuscri
and for providing information or photos.

Gems & Gemobgy, Vd. 28,No. 4, 1992,w.234-25

G3 7993 Gemological Institute of Anenca

Diamond Sources

s it has over the last 100 years, the demand for fine-qualrty diamonds will inevitably increase in the long term.
Today, as markets in Europe, the United States, and Japan
mature, the industry can look toward the prospect of new
markets in emerging nations in Eastern Europe and Asia
(Rothschild, 1992). Yet the remaining life expectancy of a
number of important primary producers is thought to be less
than 25 years (e.g., Mir in Salzha/Yalzutia, of the Russian
Federation; Koffiefontein and the three mines still operating in
Kimberley, South Africa; the Mwadui mine in Tanzania),and
the significant secondary alluvial deposits on shore in South
Africa and Namibia approach depletion. Thus, to ensure an adequate supply of fine-quality diamonds from the mine to the
marketplace (figure 11, it is necessary to locate new diamond
deposits as older ones become exhausted.
This article addresses future diamond sources by first
reviewing past and present localities, and examining production figures and trends. Next, we summarize the geologic constraints on the occurrence of diamonds and the various
economic factors that must be considered in determining
whether a newly discovered pipe could become a viable mine.
On the basis of these critical factors, we predict what the
major sources of diamonds are likely to be well into the next
century, including the Russian Federation, Canada, and possibly even Antarctica.
DIAMOND PRODUCTION:
PAST AND PRESENT
A review of historic diamond sources shows that whereas
there were only two significant localities before the first South
African discoveries in 1867, about 20 additional producing
countries have been identified since then [table 1).The impact
on world production of these additional sources is phenomenal: from only about 300,000 ct in 1870 to 3,000,000 ct in
1920, to 42,000,000 ct in 1970, and over 100,000,000 ct in
1990 (figure2).If the impact of unreported, illicit mining is fac-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 1. Although production of rough diamonds is

at its highest level ever,
the deposits at many
major localities will be
depleted within the next
few decades. In addition,
good-quality gems represent a very small portion
of the diamonds mined at
most of the new localities,
Thus, there is a continuing
need to identify and evaluate potential deposits to
maintain the production
of fine "colorless" and colored diamonds such as
those shown here. Photo
courtesy of Christie's New
York; 0Tino Hammid.

tored in, figures since 1940 could actually be as much

as 20% higher for some countries in Africa and South
America (G.T. Austin, pers. comm., 1992).*Johnson
et al. (1989)estimate that the production of diamonds
in the year 2000 will be about 113,000,000ct.
Of particular interest for the purposes of this article is the fact that as recently as 1960 more than 80%
*Formore on illicit diamond mining, see Green (1981),
Greenhalgh (1985). Miller (1987), and fohnson et al. (1989). In the
cases of China and Russia (now the Russian Federation),precise
production data have not been released because diamonds are
considered strategic commodities (Miller, 1987), so the U.S.
Bureau of Minm figures for these countries are only estimates. It
is also recognized that other tabulations may vary,sometimes
considerably, from those in table 1.

Diamond Sources

of diamonds by weight were from secondary alluvial

deposits; by 1990, only about 25% were secondary.
This is another trend that is expected to continue
with improvements in the technology used to identify
and mine new primary deposits.
Total Diamond Production (Antiquity-1990). By
combining all the production of all the diamondproducing countries listed in table 1, we estimated
that the total production of diamonds, both gem
and industrial, from antiquity through 1990 is
2,213,875,000 ct (table 2), which is conservatively
rounded up (in recognition of the unreported illicit
production) to 2,250,000,000 ct. This is the equivalent of 450 metric tons (mt; 1 mt = 1.1 U.S. ton).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

235

TABLE 1. Estimated world rough diamond production in carats, by country, for the first year in each decade, 1870-1 9908,

plus other historical data (year diamonds discovered, year significant production began, production from secondary deposits),

Country
(older names in parenlheses)

INDIA
BRAZIL
SOUTH AFRICA
NAMIBIA (German Soulhwesl Africa)
GUYANA (British Guiana)
ZAIRE (Belgian Congo)
ANGOLA
GHANA (Gold Coast)
TANZANIA (Tanganyika)
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
(French Equatorial Africa)
GUINEA (French West Africa)
SIERRA LEONE
VENEZUELA
IVORY COAST
LIBERIA
BOTSWANA
LESOTHO
RUSSIA (USSR)
INDONESIA (Borneo)
AUSTRALIA"
CHINA'
SWAZILAND
OTHERS
YEAR'S TOTAL

Year
diamonds
discoveredb

Year
significant
production
beganc

Antiquity
1725
1867
1908
1890
1907
1912
1919
1910
1914

Antiquity
1730
1870
1909
1921
1917
1921
1925
1945
1947

1932
1930
1901
1929
1930
1966
1958
1829
Antiquity
1851
1955
1973

1950
1935
1955
1960
1958
1970

% 01 total
produclion
from
secondary
depositsd

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1960
-

1981

7
-

'Data lor 1870-1900: Bauer (1904, pp. 179,204), Len/en (1970, pp. 122, 159).
Data lor 1910. U.S. GeologicalSumy (1911) lor India, Soulh Africa, and Guyana;
Lenan (1970, p. 160) lor Namibia. Data lor 1920: Roush (1922). Data lor
1930- 1990- U S Bureau 01 Mines (lg30-1991) Yearly production ligures are
constantly being revised as new data are received, so the linal revised yearly production ligures may be many years in coming. The lollowing years (in parentheses) are the publication years in U.S. Bureau 01Mines (1930-1991) in which the
linal revisedpublicalion ligures presented in this lable may be lound: 1930
(1935); 1940 (1944); 1950 (19531360 (1961): 1970 (1972); 1980 (1984);and
1990 (1991). These are ollicial ligures only, and in mosl cases do no1 include
illicit production, which has historically been a problem in Zaire and Angola (as well
as elsewhere in Alrica and in Soulh America). Hole lhat mosl 01the reporledproduclion lor Liberia consists 01 illicit diamonds smuggled Imm olher parts 01 WestAlrica.
In this lable, 'hr" indicates production no1 reported in /he above references.
"Year diamonds discovered"sources, Bauer (1904) lor India, Bra~il,Soulh Alnca,
Guyana, Russia, Indonesia, and Australia, tenLen (1970) lor Namibia; Websler

(1983) lor Ghana, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Lesotho, and China; Maillard (1980) lor
Zaire, Angola, Central Alrican Republic, and Guinea; Wilson (1982) lor Vene~uela,
Liberia, Ivory Coast, Botswana, and Swaziland Other dales reported. Keller and
Guo-dong (1986, p. 16)and Miller (1987, p. 74) both report "the late 1940s"lor
China; Webster (1983) lor Guyana 1987, Zaire 1910, Guinea 1933, andBotswana
1955; Wilson (1982) lor Angola 1916, Guinea 1936,and Botswana 1967, Miller
(1987) lor Angola 1917; SIrnad (1991) lor Russia 1735 and a reference daling
back to 1375.
c"Yearsignilican/produclion began" refers to the lirsl year in which 100,000cl
were mined, except lor Bra/il which produced 20,000 cl in 1730-a signilicanl
figure lor lhat lime. A dash indicates that 100,000 cl were neverproduced in any
one year Sources' Bauer (1904) lor India, Brazil, andSouth Africa, Lenzen (1970)
lor Namibia, Lee (1981) lor Guyana, Roush (1922) lor Zaire; Imperial Mineral
Resources Bureau (1924) lor Angola; Kesse (1985) lor Ghana; US. Bureau 01
Mines (1930- 1991) lor all olher countries.
' 7 ; ollolal production Imm secondary deposits" is approximate in the case 01,

About 22% of this total was produced in the fiveyear period 1986-1990, largely as a result of the Argyle
mine in Australia, which by the end of 1990 was
responsible for about 8% of all diamonds ever produced and one-third of those mined for that year. The
present annual production from the Argyle mine is
essentially identical to the total world production
from India and Brazil from antiquity to 1869, that is,
about 35,000,000 ct.
In fact, about 94% of the world's total production of natural diamonds in 1990 originated from only

five countries (in decreasing order): Australia, Zaire,

Botswana, Russia, and South Africa.
Notwithstanding the number of carats produced,
w h e n the value of the rough is considered, the
sequence changes significantly ("World diamond niining," 1991). In decreasing order, the ranking of the
same five countries for 1990 based on estimated (US.)
dollar value is: Russia ($1.6bilhon), Botswana ($1.4billion), South Africa ($550-$650 million), Australia
($320 million), and Zaire ($225 million). The value
of the 1990 production from Namibia and Angola,

236

Diamond Sources

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

60-

INDIA
BRAZIL
SOUTH AFRICA
NAMIBIA
GUYANA
ZAIRE
ANGOLA
GHANA
TANZANIA
CENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
GUINEA
SIERRA LEONE
VENEZUELA
IVORY COAST
LIBERIA
BOTSWANA
LESOTHO
RUSSIA
INDONESIA
AUSTRALIA
CHINA
SWAZILAND
OTHERS
.
YEAR'S TOTAL

India (sane production, e.g., about 15,000-18,000ct per year since the 1970s,
has come Awnpipes-Maillard, 1980; Bliss, 1992); South Alma (where during
certain unusualperiods,e,g., 1933and 1941-1942, most or all production was
1mm alluvials);Zaire (where alluvials or eluvialsare close to, and overlie, kimberlite sources, and perhaps 10% 01current production is Irom kimberliles);Angola
(where minorproduction in the past was Irom kimberliles); and Russia (where signilicant alluvialmininghas been noted,particularly Imm the Vilyui River, but no
ligures are given-see Miller, W'.Johnson el a/., 1989: Mew, 1990: "World
diamond mining, 1991).
cAustraliaHad a recorded production 01about 202,000 ct between 1852and 1922
Irom severalalluvialdeposits in New South Wales, bul in no one year didproduclion exceed 100,000~1
(MacNevin, 1977); this production is not shown in this table
Miller (1987) and Johnson el at. (1989) estimated the annual production lor the
late 1980sat 2W.OOO-250,000cl and200,000-300,000 ct, respectively.
Most 01this production is probably from Russia and predates reporting 01
ollicial figures.
"

'

both about $250 million, exceeded that of Zaire, yet

each produced less than one-tenth as many carats of
diamonds as did Zaire (see table 1).
The Changing Concept of Diamond Value. The lower
value of the Australian and Zairean production results
from their high proportion (>90%)of industrial or
near-gem material. In recent years, industrial diamonds have represented only about 10%-15% of the
total value of all the diamonds mined annually
(Johnsonet al., 1989).

Diamond Sources

.h.
0

50-

AUSTRALIA +
BOTSWANA

400

3s- go-

BRAZIL
SOUTH AFRICA

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

YEAR
Figure 2. Using the data provided in table I , this
generalized graph shows the increase in total
annual world production of rough diamonds (gem
and industrial) from 1600 through 1990. The arrows
mark the approximate years when each of the
major sources noted began significanproduction.

Whereas historically the percentage of diamonds

that are gem quality has been estimated at 20%-30%
e.g., Maillard, 1980; Atkinson, 1989))during
1985-1990 the percentage of diamonds classified by the
U.S. Bureau of Mines as gem quality rose to an average-of 46%.This is because, starting in 1983, the figures for "gem" included qualities of lower color,
clarity, and shape that are commonly referred to as
'near gem." Johnson et al. (1989)estimated that, on
a worldwide basis, gem diamonds have a per-carat
value that is roughly 10 times near gems, and near
gems have a per-carat value roughly 10 times that of
industrial diamonds. One source classified mine output for 1990 as 15% gem, 39% near gem, and 46%
industrial ("World market trends," 1991).
Several factors are responsible for this change in
the traditional classification of diamonds over the last
decade, including: (1)the growth of the manufacturing industry in India, and its ability to fashion small
diamonds economically from rough previously classified as industrial; (2)competition from synthetic
diamonds that has kept prices for natural industrial diamonds low, enhancing the value of those industrial
diamonds that could be reclassified as near gem; and
(3)increased consumer demand for more affordable
jewelry.
Today, it is no longer appropriate to consider diamonds in terms of "gem" and "industrial," but rather

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

237

Estimated total production of rough diamonds

from antiquity through 1990,by ~ountry.~

TABLE 2.

Country

Total production (ct)

Indiab
Brazilc
South Africad
Namibiae

Guyana'
Zaire9
Angolah
Ghana'
Tanzania
Central African Republic
Guinea
Sierra Leone
Venezuela'
Ivory Coastk
Liberia
Botswana
Lesotho
Russia
Indonesia'
Australiam
China
Swaziland
Others
WORLD TOTAL
'Allproduction figures are based on data in U.S.Bureau of Mines
(1930-1991)for both gem and industrial diamonds for the years 19301990,except as noted below. Wheredata for isolated years are missing, production has been estimated based on reported production for
the preceding and following years.
"India: The igure of 21,000,000
ct is an average of the estimates of
12,000,000ct and30,000,000ct, &en by Blakey (1977,p. 72)and
Maillard (1980,p. 26),respectively.
"Brazil: For 1 725-1850,Bauer (1904,p. 1 79);for 185 1-1869,Lenzen
(1970,p. 122);for 1870-1929,an average annual production of
200,000ct was assumed based on estimates of Lenzen (1970,p.
122)and Rich (1990,p. 34).
"South Africa: For 1867-1912, Wagner (1914,pp. 338-339);for
1913-1921,h u s h (1922,p. 587),for 1922-1923,estimatedat
2,000,000ct per year based on averageproduction of previous and
following years; for 1924-1929,Lenzen (1970,p. 177).
'Namibia: For 1909-1929,Wdliams (1932,Vol. 2,p. 562).
Guyana: For 1902-1929,Lee (7981).
9Zai~aire:For 1913-1929,U.S. Bureau of Mines (1955,
p. 489).
'Angola: For 1919-1921,Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau (1924);for
1922-1929,estimated at 200,000ct per year based on production
before and after this period.
'Ghana:For 19204946,Kesse (1985,Appendix 34.
Venezuela: For 1913-1939,Themelis (1987).
ivory Coast: For 1945-1959,Greenhaigh (1985,p. 4),
'Indonesia:In the period 1966-1990,489,000ct were produced. Earffer
production figures are intermittent and unreliable (Spencer et al., 1988).
The figure of 1,000,000ct @en in this table as the total production
since antiquity is an estimate, and it is in relativeproportion to the sip
nificant historical production from India.
"'Australia: For 1852-1922,202,000ct of alluvial production reported
by MacNevin (1977)is included.

Diamond Sources

in terms of "cuttablel' and "industrial." Czzttable

describes any natural diamond, regardless of quality,
where all or part of the rough is suitable for manufacturing into jewelry. According to the Central S e h g
Organisation in London, about 50% of the world's
diamond production today is considered cuttable, but
only about 12% (byweight) of the diamonds mined in
1990 will eventually be set into jewelry as faceted
stones. This is because near-gem material has a yield
of only about 15%-25%) compared to about 45% for
material traditionally classified as gems (Johnsonet
al., 1989).

Gemological Rarity. Even though 50% of the world's

rough diamonds are now classified as cuttable, and
the annual supply of rough more than doubled in the
period 1980-1990, the total amount of available rough
yielding good-quality polished stones (D-H color and
Fl-S12 clarity)of 0.5 ct or larger has not changed appreciably in the last decade and, in fact, may have
decreased (Moyersoen,1989).The Argyle mine, which
is responsible for much of the recent increase in world
diamond production, for the most part produces small
stones, of which only about 5% are gem quality
(Boyajian, 1988);many of these are browns and most
are difficult to cut. Near gems account for 40%-45%
of the production. The estimated current annual supply of rough diamonds worldwide that yield polished

Figure 3. Although the current annual production

of rough diamonds exceeds 100,000,000ct, only
about 2,000,000-2,500,000
ct yield good-quality
(D-H color, Fl-SZ2 clarity)stones 1 ct or larger. Five
countries, as noted here, are responsible for almost
90% of this production. Based on data in
Moyersoen (1989).

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

CARAT WEIGHT

^;

3 ,

Figure 4. The relatively small proportion of cut

stones 1.49ct and above in the total population of
gem diamonds is evident in this chart of the distributton, by carat weight, of a random sample of
9,000good-quality (D-M color; Fl-S12 clarity) polished diamonds submitted to the G1A Gem Trade
Laboratory, Inc., for grade analysis (1,000 each
from the years 1982-1990). Data provided by
D. V. Ma+bn; courtesy of the GIA Gem Trade
Laboratory, Inc.

gems of 1 ct or more amounts to about 2.0-2.5 million carats (Moyersoen, 1989).Assuming an average
55% weight loss during cutting for good-quality
stones, the annual supply of polished gems in this category is about 900,000-1,100,000 ct.
The main countries that produce rough goodquality stones of 1 ct or larger are shown in figure 3.
Both Australia and Zaire have had only a minor effect
on the availability of such stones. Both countries are
included in "Others" in figure 3.
The current annual production of polished stones
0.5 ct or larger with D-H color and F1-VS2 (not to be
confused with the broader, to S12, range given above]
clarity is only about 300,000 (k50,000 ct]. No more
than three 1 to 2 ct polished D-fl~
~iw
1ess stones are
produced each day. Further, fewer than 5,000 cut
stones of D-color, 0.5 ct or larger, in all clarity grades
are produced annually (Moyersoen, 1989).
Similar conclusions can be drawn for diamonds
examined at the Gemological Institute of America.
Figure 4 presents the size distribution, by carat weight,
of a random sample of 9,000 diamonds (1,000 from
each year, 1982-1990) from all diamonds submitted to
the G I .Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc., during that period. Represented are stones ranging from D to M in col-

Diamond Sources

~~,--ff;.
GIA COLOR GRADE

<iifcc7

Figure 5. O f the random sample of 9,000 cut diamonds (D-M color, Fl-S12 clarity) described in figure 4, only 7.5% in the size range 0.99-1.98 ct were
graded D-color. The decreasing proportion of
stones graded H-M reflects the fact that stones of
lower quality are less likely to be submitted for
grade analysis. Data provided by D. V. Manson;
courtesy of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc.

or (which differs from the D-H color range given

above) and Fl-S12 clarity. This figure clearly shows
the significantly lower proportion of stones 1.49 ct
and above. The desirability of certain weights (i.e.,
2.0 and 3.0 ct), and cutting to those weights, is apparent in the fact that there are larger proportions of
stones in the 1.99-2.48 ct and 2.99-3.48 ct categories
than in the categories that immediately precede them.
Figure 5 shows the distribution of D-M color
stones in the 0.99-1.98 ct range within these same
9,000 diamonds, which confirms the rarity of D-color stones. The decreasing proportion of stones graded
H-M is a reflection of the fact that stones of lower
quality are less likely to be sent for grade analysis.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that
rough diamonds that yield good-quality polished gems,
especially 0.5 ct or larger, are not common, and that
stones over 1.48 ct are particularly rare. Depending on
the characteristics of the mine, on the order of 100,000
tons of kiinberlite or secondary material may have
to be processed to produce a single piece of rough
from which a 1-ct D-flawless diamond can be cut.
GEOLOGIC FACTORS
In the last decade, vast amounts of new information
have become available on the origin of diamonds,

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

239

Figire 6. Presently, the

Finsch mine is the largest
producer of diamonds in
South Africa, with production in 1990 of 4,177,572 ct
(De Beers Consolidated
Mines, 1992). although the
m g h averaged only 0.03 ct
per stone. When the pipe
was discovered in 1960, an
estimated 1400 m of kimberlite had already been
eroded away and the outcrop at the surface was 44.2
acres (1 7.9 ha). This photo,
taken in September 1990,
reflects the cone shape
characteristic of kim berlite
pipes and that the mine is
pinching out at depth (present depth approximately
600 m). Note that the area
shown here is larger than
the original pipe because of
the requirements of openpit mining.

such as when they were formed and how and where

they reached the earth's surface. General reviews of
these topics may be found in Gurney (1989),Atkmson
(1989),Kirkley et al. (199l), and Mitchell (1991).
Secondary deposits historically have been the easiest to find because they often cover large areas; for
example, the alluvial diamond deposits in Zaire are
spread over about 150,000 lzm2 (Johnsonet al., 19891,
although only certain sections are economically viable.
By comparison, economic primary deposits (lzimberlite or lamproite pipes) are small; they have a median
surface (outcrop) area of only about 30 acres (12
hectares [ha])and only rarely exceed 250 acres (Bliss,
1992).This is one explanation for the fact that alluvial
diamonds have been known for at least 2,000 years, but
the first primary source was not discovered until
approximately 1869, in the Kimberley region of South
Africa (Janse,1984).As mentioned above, after 1960,
with the discovery of the major primary deposits in
Russia, Botswana, and Australia added to the South
African deposits, production from primary deposits
grew until it accounted for about 75% of the total
world production in 1990.
Primary Deposits. Most diamonds form deep within
the earth, usually at depths of 150-200 km, in periDiamond Sources

dotite or eclogite source rocks. The diamonds are

transported to the surface by lzimberlite or lan~proite.
Although as many as 1,000 lzimberlites occurrences
are known to contain diamonds (Kirkley et al., 1991),
as well as seven lamproites, only 50-60 lumberlites
and one lamproite (Argyle)worldwide have ever been
economic.
An uneroded lzimberlite pipe consists of three
zones: root, diatreme, and crater. The root zone, at
the bottom of the pipe, has a vertical extent of about
0.5 kin and is found about 2-3 kin below the surface.
The diatrerne zone usually contains the bulk of the
lzimberlite ore and, therefore, most of the diamonds.
Its vertical extent in a medium to large lzimberlite
pipe is 1-2 kin. The crater zone occupies the upper
parts of the pipe and is represented on the surface by
an eruptive (volcanic) crater. Kimberlite pipes are
rarely found complete; rather, most are partly eroded
(figure 6). With increasing depth, the root zones narrow and merge into feeder dikes, usually about 60 cm
(2 ft.) wide, which will contain diamonds if the pipe
itself does. However, these may not be economic
because of die high cost of mining such narrow zones.
Econoniic lzimberlites are concentrated in those
portions of cratons that are of Archean age (olderthan
2,500 My [million years]-for example, Kirkley et al.,
GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

1991; Janse, 1992).Cratons are parts of the earth's

crust that have attained stability and have been little
deformed for a very long period of time, generally
more than 1,500 My.
Janse (1984, 1992) defined the following three
major portions of cratons, each representing a different age of formation, to facilitate their comparison
and the preliminary evaluation of their economic
potential: (1)archons-Archean, older than 2,500 My;
(2)protons-early to middle Proterozoic, 2,500-1,600
My; and (3)tectons-late Proterozoic, 1,600-800 My
(figure 7).
Although at this time, all economic lzimberlite
pipes (and dikes) worldwide occur on archons, some
noneconomic lzimberlites (e.g.,the State Line Group,
Colorado-Wyoming)and lamproites (e.g., the Prairie
Creek lamproite pipe, Arkansas), as well as the highly productive Argyle lamproite pipe, occur on protons. Thus, protons may have considerable economic
potential for diamonds, particularly in lamproites. No
economic primary diamond deposit has yet been found
on a tecton [or in any younger primary environment).
Nun~erousother geologic and geophysical factors
[e.g., geotl$rrnal gradient, thiclzness of the craton) are
,

also taken into account during modem exploration

programs for primary diamond deposits. The reader is
referred to Atlzinson (1989) and Helmstaedt and
Gurney (1992)for further information on these subjects, which are beyond the scope of this article.
Some cratons have been actively explored for over
100 years with ever-increasing sophistication, but
with an ever-decreasing success rate; the Kaapvaal
craton in South Africa is a case in point. In the 90
years since the Premier deposit was discovered in
1903, the only large and significant finds in South
Africa have been those now worked as the Finsch and
Venetia mines. Although the latter is scheduled for full
production in 1993, with a projected annual output of
5,900,000 ct (Anglo American Corp., 19921, this craton is now considered a t the mature stage (i.e.,
approaching its ultimate potential), from the point of
view of diamond exploration.
Secondary Deposits. The moment a lumberlite pipe
reaches the surface, it is subjected to weathering and
erosion. Given a worldwide average erosion rate of 1
m every 30,000 years, a typical lumberlite pipe 2.3
kn1 deep could be completely eroded away (except

Figure 7. his generalized world map shows known cratonic areas. The major portions of each craton (here
referred to as archons, protons, and tectons) are indicated. To date, economic diamond-bearing kimberlites
have been found only in archons, those portions of a craton that are older that 2,500 My. After Janse (1992).

Proton

Diamond Sources

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

241

for the root zone and feeder dikes) in 69 My (Kirkley

et al., 1991).
Diamonds can be transported great distances and
subsequently concentrated into a variety of secondary
deposits amenable to mining. In close proximity to the
primary diamondiferous kimberlite or lamproite
deposits, diamonds may be found in economic eluvial
or colluvial (i.e., those not involving stream transport] concentrations. With increasing distance, and
where river transport and mechanical processes of
concentration are involved, alluvial placers may form.
If the diamond is carried to the marine environment
either onshore (i.e.,beach, beach terrace, dune) or offshore (i.e., marine shelf, sea-floor],marine processes
such as wave action may form economic secondary
deposits (Gurney et al., 19911. In general, alluvial
deposits have a higher percentage of gem-quality diamonds than do primary deposits. However, there are
exceptions, most notably Zaire, where only about 5%
of the large alluvial production is fine-quality gems.
The presence of alluvial deposits also implies the possible existence of kimberlite or lamproite pipes
upstream in the drainage area.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF
PRIMARY DEPOSITS
The major factors in determining whether a newly
discovered lzimberlite or lamproite pipe will be economically viable are its tonnage (size)and grade (concentration of diamonds),as well as the value (size and
quality]of its diamonds. Other factors include location
of the pipe, tax environment, and environmental legislation.
Even in economic kimberlite pipes, gemlcuttable
diamonds typically are found in very small amounts
and sizes, and in extremely variable qualities. These
factors, along with those of gemological rarity discussed above, must be considered in the economic
evaluation of any primary diamond occurrence.
Consulting geologist A. J. A. Janse (pers.comrn., 1992)
states that at least 10,000 tons of lumberlite must be
processed to obtain a valid estimate of the grade of
any single lumberlite pipe, and as much as 100,000
tons for a complete feasibility study. To determine
the average per-carat value of the stones recovered,
at least 5,000 ct-and possibly as many as 10,000 ctshould be evaluated (Atkinson, 1989; Jennings, 1990).
MAJOR DIAMOND-PRODUCING
AREAS IN THE 21ST CENTURY
The information presented in the preceding pages can
help in predicting what diamond deposits are likely to

242

Diamond Sources

be important in the future, as well as where new ones

are likely to be discovered, what types they will be, and
what factors should be considered in evaluating their
economic potential.
Although many secondary deposits continue to be
important and cannot be ignored, their overall role
in diamond production is declining. Marine deposits
would seem to have great potential, but first the technological difficulties of exploration and mining offshore must be overcome.
We predict that in the next century, most new
major diamond deposits will be of the primary type,
which are particularly attractive exploration targets.
Such deposits, when economic, are likely to be long
lived and amenable to large-scalemining, as well as to
deterring illicit timing. For example, two-thirds (about
66,000,000 ct) of the total world production of diamonds in 1990 came from just eight primary mines
(Argylein Australia; Orapa, Letlhalzane, and Jwaneng
in Botswana; Mir and Udachnaya in Russia; and Finsch
and Premier in South Africa [figure 81).Most of these
will have had a mine life of at least 30 years (some,hJke
the Premier, possibly over 100 years) before they are
exhausted of diamonds.
Given the current and projected decline in the
discovery of new deposits on some cratons now commercially exploited for diamonds, the greatest potential for new, large, and economically important
primary diamond deposits will be in those cratonic
areas with large archons (and, less favorably, protons)
where exploration to this point has been hampered by
inhospitable location and climate, as in Siberia and
northern Canada, or by the presence of special overburden conditions, such as the glacial cover in North
America and Siberia.
On the basis of what has been discussed to this
point, it is possible to predict the locations of major
sources of diamonds for the 21st century, starting
with secondary deposits and then turning to primary
deposits.
Secondary Deposits. Although the discovery of significant new secondary deposits is unlikely, given
that most potential areas have been explored, we
believe that increased production from two presently known areas will have a profound effect on the
supply of fine-quality diamonds within the next few
years.
Angola. For the past 70 years, the Lunda Norte area
of Angola has been a consistent producer of diamonds. In 1990, Angola was the world's seventh

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

largest producer by weight, with most coming from

the Cuango River Valley (figures8 and 9).In marked
contrast to the predon~inantlyindustrial production
in nearby Zaire (East Kasai province), that in Angola
is reportedly 70% gem quality, with an average
value of about $185 per carat; 15% of these are
stones of 2 ct or more ("World diamond mining,"
1991; "World market trends," 1991).Illicit trade traditionally has been a major problem (e.g., Miller,
1987; Johnson et al., 1989),and it is widely believed
that in 1992 the value of smuggled stones will have
well surpassed Angola's official diamond exports of
about $200,000,000 (Contreras, 1992).
Angola has significant reserves of both alluvial
diamonds and, it appears, primary deposits. Alluvial
production at Lucapa is estimated at 400,000 ct annually, with additional operations further northeast, in
the Andrada region ("World diamond mining," 1991).
In addition geologists have identified more than 300
lumberlite pipes. However, present political instability in this region makes it difficult to assess the longterm impact of these reserves.

ANGOLA

NAMIBIA

Marine Deposits. Meyer (1991)and Gurney et al.

(1991)reported on the vast resource of diamonds
(estimated to be at least 1.5 billion ct) that may
exist off; the west coasts of South Africa and
Namibia (again, see figure 8). It is estimated that
90%-95% of these are gem quality. These diamonds were released from weathered diamondbearing lzimberlites in the ancient and present
Orange River (and probably other) drainage basins,
and were then transported to the west coast where
they were deposited in the marine environment.
Raised marine deposits now on land have yielded
almost 100,000,000 ct, but similar deposits still in
the marine environment have yet to be fully
prospected.
In 1990, about 75,000 ct of diamonds were rtcovered from the offshore Namibian waters, with another 128,000 ct offshoreof South Africa (Gurney et al.,
1991).Offshore Namibian production almost tripled
in 1991, to about 212,000 ct, with 170,744 ct produced by De Beers Marine alone (DeBeers Centenary
AG, 1992; Namibia, 1992).Although production is
difficult and expensive at present, the west coast off
southern Africa should be an even more important
source of fine-quality diamonds by the early 21st century. Possible future opportunities also include marine
diamonds associated with the Argyle field (i.e.,off the
northwest coast of Australia),the Russian Federation
deposits (in the Arctic Ocean, near the mouths of

Diamond Sources

Figure 8. For most of this century, Africa has supplied the vast majority of diamonds to the world
market. The three Botswana mines and South
Africa's Finsch and Premier mines are still among
the most productive. However, all of the primary
South African operations shown here-with the
exception of the newly opened Venetia mine-are
mature operations that will probably be depleted
in the early 21st century. Although the proportion
of diamonds produced from secondary deposits
worldwide has decreased greatly over the last
three decades, the secondary occurrences noted
here-alluvial deposits in Angola and marine
deposits offshore Namibia and South Africaare likely to be of increasing importance
in the future.

north-flowing rivers like the Lena), and even off the

north coast of Canada (in Coronation Gulf).

Primary Deposits. We believe that the cratons of

the Russian Federation and North America have

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

243

Figure 9. Extensive aLluvial deposits are being worked in Angola, with a significant production (1,300,000ct
reported in 1990) of rough that is reportedly 70% gem quality. Angola appears to have major reserves that
could last well into the ji~t-iireonce the problems of political instability and irregular production are
resolved. Here, illegal miners work one of the many active areas in the country. Photo 0Paul

t h e greatest p o t e n t i a l for producing major

amounts of diamonds in the near and intermediate (i.e., 10-25 years) future. In the very distant
future, perhaps in 100 years, Antarctica could be a
major producer.

The Russian Federation. T h e eastern Siberian

republic of Salzha (formerly l a o w n as Yalzutia), in
the Russian Federation, C.I.S., already is a major
diamond-producing region. Mining activity has progressed rapidly since the discovery in 1953 of die
first diamond in the Malaya Botuobiya River, a
tributary to the Vilyui River, and the discovery of
the first lzimberlite (Zarnitsa) in 1954 (figure 10).
The desirability of prospecting for diamonds in
these Archean areas was first noted by Russian academician Vladimir S. Sobolev. In the late 1930s, he
realized that similarities between the geologic
structure of the central Siberian shield and the interior plateau area of southern Africa suggested the
possibility of great diamond riches i n Siberia.

Diamond Sources

Prospecting on the basis of this relationship started

in 1947.
In 1955, the richly diamondiferous Mir pipe (17
acres [6.9 ha]) was located; only 10 days later, the
Udachnaya pipe, 400 km to the north and about 20 l a
south of the Arctic Circle, was found (again,see figure
10).By 1956, the number of known pipes had risen to
40. To date, the Arnakhinsky Exploration Team has
found more than 500 kimberlite occurrences. These
kimberlites lie in clusters that straddle the Arctic
Circle to 400 k m north. The diamond contents of the
lzimberlites range from zero to highly economic (e.g.,
Meyer, 1990).The first inining started, at Mir, in 1957.
Augmented by the mining of alluvial deposits in the
nearby Vilyui River, total annual production had risen
to an estimated 5,200,000 ct by 1965. The smaller
Intemationalaya pipe was opened next, followed by
Ailzhal to the north, the larger Udachnaya pipe 60
km away (about 49 acres [20 ha]), and Sytykanslzaya
halfway between. (Formore on diamond mining in this
region, see Meyer, 1990.)

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Intemationalaya has now reached the end of its

working life as an open-pit operation. Underground
mining of the root zones of the pipe is hampered by
the presence of saline water containing hydrogen sulfide and sometimes by the acid conditions in the
Devonian sediments above the archon in which the
pipe is emplaced. Currently, there is no active mining
of kimberlite at Mir, though production from stoclzpiled ore continues. The main current mining activity is at the Udachnaya open pit. However, it is now
a mature mine (figure 11).Production in this area is
augmented by that from Ailchal and Sytykanslzaya.
A new major deposit, the Jubileynaya, is scheduled for
full production in 1994195. This very large pipe, nearly the size of Orapa (262acres [lo6 ha]),was concealed
by an overlying diabase sill that has been stripped
away to allow open-pit mining (Meyer, 1990).
The five older lzimberlite mines (Mir, Internationalaya, Aikhal, Udachnaya, and Sytykanslzaya]and
their associated alluvials have provided the more than
270,000,000 ct of diamonds estimated to have been
produced from the Yalzutia region since 1960.

Figure 11. The Udachnaya lzimberlite is currently

the most important diamond-mining operation in
Salzha. It is about 49 acres (20 ha; fohnson et al.,
1989) in surface area. Large dump trucks remove
the lzimberlite and waste rock at a rate of about
1,000 metric tons per how. The mine operates 24
hours a day and throughout most of the year.

<

Figure 10. 'The Yakutian craton of eastern Siberia (again, see figure 7) is presently one of the most productive
diamond-bearing cratons in the world. The mines shown here are located in the republic of Sakha (formerly
Yakutia) ih the Russian Federation (C.I.S.).The craton, on the left, has two exposed portions: the Anabar
Shield i n the north (I), and the Aldan Shield in the south (II). Note the elaborate pattern of archons surrounded by protons. The main producing lcimberlite areas are shown in black and marked by A and B. The
maps on the right show the important diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes in the Malaya Botuobiya field (A)
and the Alakit and Daldyn fields (BJ

1. Mir
2. Internationalaya
3. Aikhal
4. Jubileynaya
5. Sytykanskaya
6. Udachnaya
7. Zarnitsa
8. Dalnaya
9. Yakutskaya
10. Leningradskaya

<
Lena Rwsr

MALAYA
BOTUOBIYA
FIELD

Arction
Proton

Diamond Sources

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

245

Figure 12. The diamonds of the Sakha region, in

eastern Siberia, are noted for their excellent color,
clarity, and shape. This 2-cm crystal in lzimberlite
is from the Mil mine. Courtesy of the Houston
Museum of Natural Science; photo 0Harold &>
Erica Van Pelt.

Unfortunately, official data for diamond grades and

value, tonnage mined, total production, and future
reserves-such as are routinely published by many
mining companies-are completely unavailable for
this region. At the Mir pipe, grades of up to 4 ct/mt
have been reported, along with 2 ct/m3 in high-grade
gravels dredged from the Vilyui River. Ailzhal is also
extremely high grade, and some of the diamonds out
of Udachnaya have been described as being of exceptional clarity and color. In general, diamonds from
the two producing regions are noted for their excellent
shape for cutting, since a high proportion are extremely regular, sharp-edged, flat-faced octahedra.
Exceptionally large stones are rare, but well-formed
crystals over 20 ct are not uncommon (figure 12).
Despite the lack of official data, the apparently
high grade of luinberlite pipes in this region is important in attempting to assess its impact on the diamond industry into the 21st century. There are many
known diamondiferous lumberlites, some of considerable size (e.g., Zarnitsa, at 53 acres 121.5 ha], is larger than the Finsch mine, 44.2 acres [17.9 ha], in South
Africa), in Salzha and in other parts of the Russian

Diamond Sources

Federation that are not currently exploited. In the

past, Siberian kimberlites with less than 0.5 ct/mt of
diamond were considered barren, and economic grade
was greater than 2 ct/int. Elsewhere in the world, the
Argyle larnproite is the only primary deposit that consistently meets this criterion! Therefore, the possibility exists that lzimberlites found but not previously
worked will prove viable in the future.
The relatively recent discovery and sampling of
diamondiferous lcin~berliteson the Baltic Shield near
Arkhangelsk (on the White Sea, in the province of
Oblast, near the border with Finland) gives added
potential to the future supply of diamonds from the
Russian Federation. It has been speculated that mines
could be established on at least one lzimberlite, the
Lomonosovskaya, and perhaps on as many as five
lumberlites. Like those in Salzha and other localities,
this new lzin~berliteprovince lies close to the Arctic
Circle.
One concern regarding future production is that
the superb quality of many of the diamonds from
Salzha is not matched by diamonds from lzimberlites
elsewhere in the region; in these latter lzimberlites,
resorbed diamonds and those that are colored, including yellows and browns, are more abundant. This
may translate into a lower average value per carat for
the diamonds. hi addition, the fact that many deposits
lie well within the Arctic Circle, some in low-lying,
waterlogged ground, and in regions where there is
absolutely no infrastructure (figure13))signifies logistical problems that will take time to overcome.

Figure 13. Future diamond production in the

Russian Federation could be hampered by the lack
of infrastructure in the remote regions where diamondiferous lzimberlites have been found. In this
1990 photo, a special exploration vehicle (with
tracked propulsion) is used to ford a river en route
t o the Zarnitsa lzin~berlitein Salzha.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Archon
Proton

ITecton

Canada. There has never been a profitable diamond

mine in North America. Although the occurrence
at Prairie Creek (Crater of Diamonds State Park,
near Murfreesboro, Arkansas) produced an estimated 100,000+ ct during the period 1907-1933
(Waldinan and Meyer, 1992), it was not economic.
The diamondiferous lzimberlites found subsequently-for example, in clusters in the State Line district
of Colorado and Wyoming, in the Lake Ellen group
near Crystal Falls, Michigan, and at scattered localities elsewhere in the United States and eastern
Canada (Janse, 1992; Waldman and Meyer, 1992)have also been noneconomic. However, the United
States is situated mostly on geologically less favorable protons and tectons (figure 14), whereas
Canada has some of the largest areas of the world
that are underlain by archons. Recent exploration
activity in Canada has revealed the existence of several diamondiferous lzimberlites that may prove to

Diamond Sources

Figure 14. North America

contains the largest
known craton in the world
(again, see figure 7), shown
here with the three agebased divisions identified
(afterHoffman, 1988;
Janse, 1992). Archons
(Slave, Rae, Hearne, etc.)
are the most favorable
areas for economic diamondifero~zslzim berlite
pipes. Although n o economic lzimberlites have
been found thus far on a
proton, diamonds have
been found in lzimberlite
pipes in the Trims-Hudson
Orogen. Kimberlites have
also been found in the
Grenville tecton, at least
one with traces of diamonds. Specific diamondbearing occurrences noted
are: CW-ColoradoWyoming; FC-Fort a la
Come; KL-Kirkland
Lake; LE-Lake Ellen;
LGLa de Gras; NONoranda; PC-Prairie
Creek; SI-Somerset
Island; SL-Sturgeon Lake.

be economic. On the basis of this favorable geology

and the intensity of the current exploration, we predict that Canada will be a major producer of diamonds by the second decade of the 21st century.
Isolated discoveries of diamonds were reported
in the United States as early as the 1840s, in North
Carolina, Georgia, and California (e.g., see Kopf et al.,
1990).The most significant, from the point of view of
exploration, were the diamonds found in glacial drift
in Ontario and the Great Lakes states as early as 1863.
Almost a century ago, Hobbs (1899)concluded that the
diamonds had been transported by glaciers, and that
the apex of the fan along which they traveled indicated that the source was located in the James Bay
Lowlands (figure 15).
Exploration was particularly intense in this area
of eastern Canada during the late 1970s and early
1980s, but no lzimberlites were reported (Brummer,
1984; Janse et al., 1989; and Reed and Sinclair, 1991).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Whiter 1992

247

ONTARIO

\,

':

1:

1.
South i
Porcupine

ma-

Figure 15. Early evidence of possible diamondbearing kimberlites in North America are the diamonds found in glacial deposits in the Great Lakes
states. The diamonds are believed to have originated from the fames Bay Lowlands of Ontario. This
map of the region shows the limits of Pleistocene
glaciation and the last glacial advance, the known
diamond occurrences in glacial deposits, the total
number of diamonds found in each state (e.g.,
Indiana, 34, and the paths that the diamonds may
have taken from their presumed sowce(s) in the
fames Bay Lowlands. Note that of the more than 80
diamonds that have been found in glacial deposits
thus far, only two were in Canada: the 0.25-ct
South Porcupine and the 33-ct Peterborough. After
Hobbs (1899) and Brummer (1984).

Diamond Sources

A few kimberlites in other parts of eastern and northern Canada, such as on Somerset Island (Raearchon),
north of the Arctic Circle, and near Kirkland Lake,
Ontario, and Noranda, Quebec (both in the Superior
archon),reportedly have uneconomic amounts of diamonds. Numerous other kimberlites are known in
the Grenville tecton, at least one of which-at He
Bizard, 15 lzm west of Montreal-yielded 10 small
diamonds (Brummer, 1984).Some exploration activity continues today in eastern Canada, particularly
in Ontario.
In western Canada, five diamonds were allegedly found in glacial drift near Cumberland House in
eastern Saslzatchewan in 1948, but this has never
been substantiated; the first major staking rush
occurred in 1961, about 6 lzm west of Prince Albert.
Two diamonds, each about a quarter inch (0.64cm) in
diameter, were reportedly found. (See Strnad, 1991,
and Gent, 1992a and b, for the history of diamond
exploration in Saskatchewan.)
The present exploration activity in Saslzatchewan
started in 1987, when Monopros Ltd. (DeBeers's exploration company in Canada) staked property; in
November 1988, Monopros announced the discovery
of a diarnondiferous lzimberlite about 30 km northwest
of the site of the 1961 staking. Soon thereafter, several
other companies filed claims for diamond exploration
in various parts of Saslzatchewan (figure 16).
In September 1989, joint-venture partners Uranerz
Exploration and Mining Ltd. and Cameco Corp.
announced the discovery of seven kimberlite pipes
in the Fort A la Come area (figure 17).They subsequently announced the recovery first of microdiamonds (<0.5mm in diameter) and then of four larger
diamonds. Two years later, clusters of lzimberlite
pipes were discovered under a 100-m-thick glacial
overburden; all of the 15 sites (out of 70 potential)
that were drilled proved to be diamondiferous. To
date, Uranerz and Cameco have reported the recovery
of 160 small diamonds, weighing a total of 7 ct; the
average stone is 0.04 ct, and the largest is about.0.5 ct.
There has been no official report of the quality of
these stones. The best preliminary grade reported for
any kimberlite tested is low, about 0.1 ct/mt, but the
average grades of these pipes are typically much lower (0.01-0.02 ct/mt). However, because of the thick
overburden, the large-scale bulk testing that is
necessary for meaningful evaluation has not been
completed.
In 1992, kimberlite-specific garnets and chrome
diopside were identified in glacial-till samples taken
in the southwestern part of Saslzatchewan close to

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 16. Since 1987, more

than 50,000,000 acres have
bean staked or claimed for
diamond exploration in
western Canada. This map
shows the locations staked
as of mid-December 7992,
Most of the exploration
activity is for IhberLites,
altho~~gh
that in the vicinit y of D11bawit Lake is for
lamproites. The dashed
line in southwestern
Saskatchewan, in the
vicinity of Val Marie-Eas t
Poplar, encompasses an
area of many small claims.

IC de Gras

'Point Lake)

,.' *------

BRITISH

COLUMBIA

the Montana border (Swansonand Gent, 1992),but no

kimberlite pipes have yet been announced.Geologically, this area is within the favorableWyoming archon. As
of December 7, 1992, approximately 1,794,000 acres
(726,000 ha; 2,800 sq. mi.) had been staked in
Saskatchewan for diamond exploration (M. R. Gent,
pers. comrn., 1992).
In British Columbia, Alberta, and the western
part of the Northwest Territories, intermittent exploration for diamonds has been in progress for as much
as 20 years by major mining companies such as
Cominco, BP Minerals, Lac Minerals, De Beers oper-

Diamond Sources

IT" - '
EDMCtf

ating via Diapros and Monopros, Falconbridge

Exploration, and Corona [Godwin and Price, 1986;
Dummett et al., 1987).
Of particular importance in this exploration has
been the identification of certain characteristic heavy
minerals, referred to as indicator minerals (specifically, pyrope garnet, ilinenite, chrome diopside, and
chromite), that are associated with kimberlites. The
dispersion of these minerals into secondary concentrations such as alluvials has been used in diamond
exploration since the 1870s in South Africa and elsewhere (Dummett e t al., 1987; Atkinson, 1989;

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 17. This drilling

Jennings, 1990).Although indicator minerals do not

provide conclusive evidence that a lzimberlite is diamondiferous, they (rather than diamonds) are typically used to locate kimberlites because they are more
abundant than diamonds and more recognizable. Thus,
they are more likely to be found in any reasonably
sized sample.
In western Canada, various types of glacial
deposits, such as eslzers (long,narrow, sinuous ridges
of material deposited by a stream flowing under a
glacier), perform the same function as rivers in dispersing minerals from a kimberlite. Although more difficult to follow and interpret than an alluvial trail, a
glacial trail should lead to the primary source of a dispersed mineral (thesame concept used by Hobbs in the
Great Lakes region; again, see figure 15).Folinsbee
(1955)did the first thorough geological study, including the use of heavy minerals, of the Point Lake-Lac
de Gras area of the Northwest Territories (again, see
figure 16).Years later, such a trail of heavy indicator
minerals eventually led one exploration companyDia Met Minerals Ltd.-back to the Lac de Gras area
in search of diamonds (Richards, 1992; Walsh, 1992).
Beginning in 1989, Dia Met Minerals began to
acquire ground in the area, eventually staking
1,500,000 acres (606,000ha).In April 1990, a geologic structure was discovered under Point Lake (figure
18) that indicator minerals and geophysical surveys
strongly suggested was a kimberlite pipe.
In August 1990, Dia Met entered into a joint ven-

Diamond Sources

ture with BHP-Utah (now laown as BHP Minerals),

the North American arm of the major Australian rnining company Broken Hill Proprietary Ltd. About a
year later, the presence of diamondiferous lumberlite
was confirmed when a hole drilled at an angle from the
shore penetrated this rock under Point lake. Eighty-one
small diamonds, all less than 2 mm in diameter, some
reportedly gem quality, were subsequently recovered
from 141 m of drill core weighing 59 1%. Early in 1992,
160 tons (still a relatively small sample] of kimberlite
were obtained, from which 101 ct of diamonds were
recovered (0.63 ct/ton), Twenty-five percent of these
were reported to be "gem quality" (excluding neargems); a few were in the 1-3 ct range. In September
1992, it was announced that nine additional kimberlite pipes had been discovered in the same general
area, all containing diamonds in variable proportions.
Although the grade of the Point Lake deposit, 0.63
ct/ton, is very good by average world standards for
primary deposits, and approximately 80 million tons
of lumberlite have already been delineated, there has
been no clear statement or independent confirmation
as to the actual quality of those stones categorized to
this point only as "gems."
The discovery of the Point Lake and nearby kimberlites (now laown as the Lac de Gras lzimberlite
field) has resulted in the largest and most exciting
staking rush in Canadian mining history. In the
Northwest Territories, as of December 14, 1992, at
least 19,365,000acres (7,840,000ha)had been staked by

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Dia Met, Monopros, and at least 50 other companies

and individuals (again, see figure 16).It is anticipated
that the entire Slave archon will be staked by the end
of January, 1993.
Staking is now proceeding eastward (near
Dubawnt Lake] to the Rae archon, portions of which
contain the largest geologic province of lamproitic
roclzs in the world (Peterson, 1992).Similar roclzs are
found as far south as southern Alberta. It is significant
that of the only 25-30 lamproite occurrences known
worldwide, seven of these contain diamonds.
I11 Alberta, intermittent and very secretive diamond exploration has been in progress for at least 15
years, much of it also based on heavy-mineral samphng
in conjunction with geophysical surveys. In 1990,
Monopros acquired 1,680,000 acres (680,000 ha) in
the Peace River area. Several small diamonds now
have been reported from various locations in glacial till
and other alluvial materials in Alberta, but none yet
from any lzimberlite occurrence. However, the
province is underlain by parts of several archons, so
there is good geologic potential for lzimberlite pipes.
Further, the infrastructure and climate are certainly
more coi1dfxive to efficient exploration than is the
case in the Northwest Territories, and the province
recently enacted legislation that encourages exploration for minerals. As of December 11, 1992, about
28,400,000 acres (11,500,000 ha) had been staked for
diamond exploration in Alberta (again, see figure 16).
From the above discussion, it is clear that North
America, in general, and western Canada, in particular, has good long-term potential as an economic
source of diamonds. Reasons include: (1)it has the
largest craton in the world, including six major
archons; (2)it is underexplored relative to South Africa
and many other cratonic areas of the world; (3)goodquality diamonds, some over 15 ct (Hobbs, 1899;
Bruinn~er,1984) have been found in the glacial
deposits; and (4)the infrastructure and political situation are among the best in the world.

those projected through the ice sheet, in addition to

geophysical data (e.g., aeromagnetic surveys].
Geologically speaking, Antarctica is the last frontier.
Antarctica today is divided into East and West
Antarctica (figure 19)by the Transantarctic Mountains,
which extend about 4,500 km from the Ross Sea to the
Weddell Sea, reaching heights of 4,000 m (Dalziel,
1992).
The larger of the two, East Antarctica, has the
greatest potential for diamonds because geologically
it is a craton. Although more than 99% of its surface
is covered by ice, four archons have been identified.
The present East Antarctic craton formed 1.0-1.3 billion years ago, and became part of an ancient supercontinent that eventually broke up more than 570
My ago. Starting in the Cambrian and until middle
Jurassic time, an interval of about 350 My, Antarctica
formed the core of a second supercontinent known as
Gondwanaland. Over die next 160 My, Gondwanaland

Figure 18. Evidence of the first kimberlite pipe in

the Northwest ~errhorieswas discovered in April
1990 by C.E. Fipke, of Dia Met Minerals, under
Point Lake (in foreground, looking northeast
toward Lac du Sauvage at the top of the photo).
The surface of the kimberlite lies about 50 nl (150
ft.) below the surface of the lake, which is 600 m
across. The white objects on the northeast shore
are trailers. A drilling rig may be seen on the shore
about 100 m to the left of the trailers. From this
position, an angle hole was drilled under the lake
in September 1991, which confirmed the presence
of diamond-bearing l~imberlite.Photo taken in late
July, 1992; courtesy of B. T. Evans, Tyler Resources,
Inc., Calgary, Alberta.

Antarctica. Any discussion of future sources of

diamonds would be incomplete without at least
mention of Antarctica because of its favorable
geology and geologic relationship to other diamond-producing areas.
The continent of Antarctica encompasses about
14,250,000 Ion2(the United States, including Alaska,
covers 9,372,000 lun2),of which about 98% is permanently covered by a continental ice sheet averaging
2,000 m in thickness. Geologic knowledge is based on
limited rock exposures on the edge of the continent, or

Diamond Sources

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

251

EAST

ANTARCTIC

CRATON

Figure 19. On the basis of what little is known

about the geology of this remote region, Antarctica
may have great potential as a source of diamonds.
The East Antarctic craton is probably the second
largest in the world (after North America). Pour
archons, not covered by the ice cap, have been
identified on the east side of the continent.

broke up to form South America, Africa, India,

Australia, and Antarctica (see Tingey, 1991, and
Dalziel, 1992).Thus, all the present diamond-producing regions of the southern hemisphere, as well as
in India, have a common geologic history. Johnson
et al. (1989)list Antarctica as one of several favorable
regions for large, as yet undiscovered, lzimberlite
provinces.
At this time, consideration of Antarctica as a
source of diamonds is academic, if for no other reason
than international agreement forbids any mining.
Further, legislation recently passed in the United
States (Antarctic Protection Act of 1990; 101st
Congress) prohibits U.S. nationals and companies
from engaging in any type of mineral-resource activities in Antarctica ( M o h a , 1991).Nevertheless, the
fact remains that the East Antarctic craton is huge, and
it contains archons. If scientific advances in the next
century match those of the last 100 years, it is conceivable that diamonds could be mined economically, and in an environmentally acceptable manner, by
the end of the 21st century.

CONCLUSIONS
A study of diamond production over the past 120
years shows that although most rough has come from
Africa, this situation is rapidly changing. There is also
a steady geologic shift toward increased production
from primary sources (lzimberliteand lamproite pipes)
at the expense of secondary sources, mainly alluvial
deposits.
The growth of the near-gem market, especially
since 1980, has resulted in rough now being classified as cuttable and industrial. The explosion in diamond production during this period, however, has
had little impact on the availability of good-quality
gems; such cut stones 0.5 ct and larger still constitute only a very small percentage of the diamonds
produced annually. At the same time, with the greater
economic freedom in once-"closed" areas of Eastern
Europe and Asia, major new markets are poised to
develop.
Thus, the need for steady sources of good-quality
diamonds continues. The most significant long-term
deposits are those that occur offshore, such as the
marine deposits off of southern Africa, and those primary deposits with significant reserves of ore.
Although marine deposits have great long-term potential, they are restricted by the technological challenges
of exploration and mining in deep seas. On the other
hand, once the economic value of a primary lumberlite or lamproite deposit has been established, it is
much easier to mine.
The most likely major source for greatly increased
production from primary deposits within the next 10
years is Salzha and elsewhere in the Russian Federation, because the locations of potentially economic
kimberlite pipes are known. Canada is likely to be a
major producer of diamonds 10-25 years from now, but
it is doubtful that significant production could start
before the end of this century, owing to the long time
it takes to evaluate a pipe and then bring it into production. A hundred years from now, the ecological
environment permitting, technological developments
might well provide for mining beneath the ice cap in
Antarctica, probably the last great terrestrial source of
diamonds.

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By Jingfeng Guo, Fuquan Wang, and Gerry Yakoumelos

Sapphires were recently/bund in alluvial deposits and in situ in basaltic rocks

near Wutu, Changle County, in central Shandong Province. Thefact that significant amounts of sapphire have been found in situ at Changle makes it
unique among sapphire deposits in basaltic terrains around the world.
(Sapphires have beenfound in situ elsewhere, but never in such abundance
in basalt.) Changle sapphires occur in a range ofcolors (dark blue, blue, greenish blue, and yellow), but they are predominantly dark blue. Fe, Ga, Ti, Co,
and V are the most abundant trace elements present. 7&egemological properties of Changle sapphires are consistent with those from similar alkalic basalt
environments.

T h e sapphire potential of the People's Republic of

China (PRC)was recognized several years ago, following the discovery of alluvial deposits of this gem
material in several provinces. Previous reports in
English on Chinese sapphires include the survey of the
PRC1s gem resources by Keller and Wang (1986),the
description of the Mingxi deposit in Fujian Province

ABOUT THEAUTHORS
Mr. Guo is a research fellow in the School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, New South Wales 2109, Australia; Dr.
Wang is a research professor in the Geological Museum of
China, Xisi, Beijing 100034, China; and Mr. Yakoumelos is managing director of G&J Gems Pty. Ltd., P.O. Box E181, Sydney,
New South Wales 2000, Australia.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the senior geologists and officials of the Shandong Bureau of Geology and
Mineral Resources, who helped during their visit to the Changle
sapphire field and subsequent discussions, They also thank the
Changle authorities for allowing this visit. Unless otherwise noted, allphotos are by J. Guo and G. Yakoumelos.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 255-260
0 7993 Gemological Institute of America

Notes and New Techniques

by Keller and Keller (19861, and the report on the

Wenchang deposit in Hainan Province (formerly
Hainan Island)by Wang (1988).In all three articles, the
authors speculated that the sapphires obtained from
these alluvial deposits were derived from surrounding
Cenozoic basalts; however, no locality-specific studies were available to corroborate this hypothesis.
More recently, in the late 1980s, local farmers
discovered alluvial sapphires near the township of
Wutu, Changle County (henceforth, Changle), in central Shandong Province. These sapphires are characterized by their large size, dark color, and absence of
fractures (figure 1).Some show distinctive zonation (figure 2).Follow-up geologic surveys were conducted by
the 7th Geological Brigade of the Shandong Bureau
of Geology and Mineral Resources. Subsequently,
large quantities of sapphire were discovered in Tertiary
allzalic basalt lava flows, where they occur in situ as
'megacrysts" (a general term for large crystals, without any implication with respect to origin].Although
the only milling thus far has been by local workers digging in the alluvium, officials at the Shandong Bureau
of Geology and Mineral Resources estimate that more
than 50,000 carats of rough from the Changle deposits

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

255

were exported to Hong Kong, Thailand, Australia,

and the United States in the period 1988-1991.
To date, however, no studies have been published
on the Changle deposits. The object of this report,
which is based 011 information obtained during the
authors' early-1989 visit to Changle and from discussions with senior geologists of the 7th Geological
Brigade, is to briefly describe the Changle deposits
and present information with respect to the geologic
occurrence and origin of the sapphires.

Figure 1. Dark blue sapphires are being recovered

from alluvial deposits in Changle County,
Shandong Province, China. Sapphires have also
been found in situ in the basalt. These two
Changle sapphires each weigh approximately 3 ct.

LOCATION AND ACCESS

Wutu is situated about 8 lzm southeast of the town of
Changle, which is about 150 lzm east of Jinan, the
capital of Shandong Province (figure3).Modern highways and a railway make Changle easily accessible
year-round. Changle is an agricultural region, and foreign visitors can obtain access to the area by contacting the local Changle County government.
The sapphires are found within a roughly 5 lzm
radius of Wutu (seefigure 3).At the time of our 1989
visit, the "mining operation" was represented by sporadic holes in the ground, without any organization.
Mechanized operations by joint ventures between the
government and foreign companies (e.g., Shandong
Leyang Pty. Ltd.)are now under way to explore the sapphire-producing potential of the area more fully.

narrow gully at Xinwang (figure 4). In 1988, geologists from the 7th Geological Brigade discovered sapphires in situ in basaltic rocks at two localities in the
vicinity of Wutu: Fangshan and Qiujiahe (again,see figure 3). From field observations, it appears that the
basalts at Fangshan occur stratigraphicallyson~ewhere
near the top of the Niushan Group or the bottom of
the Yaoshan Group (see table 1). Potassium-argon
geochronologic ages determined for these basalts are
16-1 7 My (lower Miocene; Chen et al., 1985),which
places them geologically in the Niushan Group. The
basalts at Qiujiahe also are within the Niushan Group,
but at a different stratigraphic position. However, the
occurrence of sapphires at these two localities differs:
At Fangshan (figures 5 and 6),the sapphires are concentrated in a layer at least 2 m thick that contains
abundant ultramafic llxenolithsll(foreigninclusions in
an igneous rock) within a massive basalt flow; at
Qiujiahe, the sapphires occur in a layer 0.3-0.6 m
thick within a different basalt flow that does not have
xenoliths.
At the Fangshan locality, there is a positive correlation between the abundance of xenoliths and of
sapphires; that is, the greater the number of xenoliths
(which may reach 30%-40% of the basalt by volume)
present, the greater the number of sapphire megacrysts
found within the basalt. The xenoliths have been
deeply weathered, and the sapphires remain embedFigure 2. Distinctive zoning is seen in some
Changle sapphires like that evident in this 0.70-ct
stone. Photo 0 GIA and Tino Hammid.

GEOLOGY AND OCCURRENCE

The first discovery of sapphire near Wutu was in alluvial sediments filling the topographically long and

Notes and N e w Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 3. This map shows

the location and distribution of Cenozoic basalts in
the Linqu-Changle region,
Shandong Province. The
shaded areas represent the
exposed basaltic rocks.
Local hills are indicated
by solid triangles; circles
represent cities and towns.
The major drainage patterns, through which all~ivial stones might travel,
are also shown. The inset
at the upper left shows the
location of regional faults
which provide channels
for volcanic eruption,
across Shandong Province.

ded in the basaltic matrix (figure 7). Similar occurrences of sapphire in basalt are known from the
Inverell-Glen limes region of New South Wales and the
Anakie-Rubyvale region of Queensland, Australia
(MacNevin, 1972; Stephenson, 1976, 1990), as well
as from other localities, but the abundance of sapphires in the Changle deposits is much greater than it
is in these other localities.
The basalts in Shandong Province, which are part
of the Cenozoic (less than 65 My) Basalt Belt of northeastern China, are extensive. Most basalts in this area
are Miocene in age and range from 9 to 21.5 My; only
minor amounts were extruded during the Pliocene
age. In general, the basalts are alkalic in con~position
(i.e., high in sodium and potassium). The ultramafic
xenoliths characteristic of the Fangshan sapphire
deposits are derived from the Earth's mantle (i.e.,
below the crust and above the core). They are found
throughout the volcanic sequence in varying amounts.
Sapphires, however, occur only in specific situations
and are particularly abundant in basalts with an age
of 16-17 My, as at Fangshan. Two major regional
fault trends, extending northeast and northwest,
respectively, may have played an important role in
controlling volcanic activity in the region (again,see figure 3).

Notes and New Techniques

MINING
The horizon that contains the alluvial sapphires lies
about 4 to 5 m below the surface. To date, most of the
sapphires recovered have been picked by l m d from the

Figure 4. The sapphire-bearing gravels are found in

a largely agricultural area at Xinwang, near Wutu
in Changle County. Only a portion of the long,
narrow gully is visible from this angle.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

TABLE 1. The stratigraphic relationship of units in the

Linqu-Changle-Yishnivolcanic province:
Time scale

Stratigraphic unit

Descriptionb

Basalt lavas (15 m)

Interbedded clay-coal layer
Conglomerate(30 m)
Upper Miocene Shanwang Group Basalt lams (10rn)
Thin coal layer
Basalt lams
Sandy conglomerate(54m)
Clay, shales
Lower Miocene Niushan Group
Partially exposed basaltic lavas
interbeddedwith
pyroclastics (total >I43 rn)
Archean
Taishan Formation Highly deformed amphibolites
and feldspathic gneisses
Pliocene

Yaoshan Group

Sapphires
Yes
No

Yb

No

"Informationfrom the 7th Geological Brigade, Zhu el a/. (1985),

and Wang and Jin (1986)
The thickness of each layer is given where available,

alluvium (again,see figure 4), although the joint ventures mentioned earlier are to bring in heavy equipment, presumably for an open-pit operation. Only
relatively large crystals are recovered by hand picking,
but the daily yield can be significant, as well as quite
variable. There was no processing plant at the time of
our visit, but we understand that such plants will be
part of the mechanized operations planned.

Figure 5.Sapphires have been found in situ in

basalt in this hill at Fangshan. The arrow points
to the in situ digging site near the top of the hill.

Figure 6. At the digging site at Fangshan (see figure

5), sapphires are concentrated in a xenolith-rich
band of unknown thickness (2 n1 is visible) within
the basalt. This was the only in situ operation at
the time of the authors' 1989 visit, and was
exploited solely for mineral specimens of sapphire
in basalt. Mr. Shao Zhixin, a local resident, is
shown looking for such specimens.

At the time of our visit, there was no organized

mining of the in situ deposits, although we know that
a few people have extracted sapphire-basaltspecimens
(again,see figures 6 and 7).A detailed exploration program is presently being carried out by the 7th Geological Brigade to assess the economic potential of the
sapphire deposits in the entire region. The joint ventures were formed in 1991 to bring organized exploration, mining, processing, treatment, cutting, and
distribution to the Changle deposits. As yet, no details
are available of the results of these ventures. Such
operations are under the authority of the Bureau of
Mineral Resources of the Changle County government, which can be contacted for further information.

THE CHANGLE SAPPHIRES

Sapphires recovered from this area range from blue
to greenish blue to yellow, and they are sometimes
strongly zoned (again, see figure 2). Most of the blue
sapphires are dark (again, see figure 11, like those from
the Analzie Field, in Queensland, Australia. In
diaphaneity, they range from transparent to translucent (silky).The rough sapphires are relatively large,
5-20 inm on average, with exceptional crystals up to

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

10 cm along the c-axis. Blue sapphires smaller than 5

mm can be cut in their natural state. However, those
larger than 10 mm are usually too dark and may
require heat treatment before being marketed. None
of the material we have encountered would produce
asterism.
We examined a random sample of more than a
hundred individual sapphire grains, some of which
were extracted directly from the basalts. The crystals
are typically barrel shaped, pseudo-hexagonal, and terminated at both ends (again, see figure 7). Many of
the grains are broken fragments, but most of these
show one or two original crystal faces. Those sapphires that have their natural surfaces preserved show
extensive etch features, the result of interaction with
the basalt magma in which they were carried to the
surface. Typically, they do not exhibit distinct dichroism. Specific gravity was determined by the hydrostatic method to range from about 3.98 to 4.09.
Further studies on these sapphire samples were
carried out at Macquaiie University, Sydney, Australia.
The ininor and trace elements were determined using
energy-dispersive particle-induced X-ray emission
(PIXE]analysis. Fe, Gal Ti, Co, and V were found to be
among the most abundant elements present (table2).
Ti contents of the yellow sapphires were lower than
those of -the blue varieties, resulting in higher Fe/Ti
ratios for the yellow sapphires. We noted that the
deeper the blue color of the sapphires was, the lower
the Fe/Ti ratios were.
Results of quantitative chemical analysis by electron rnicroprobe revealed the following mineral inclu-

Figure 7. A dark blne sapphire rnqyciyst is seen

here embedded in its basalt matrix, as recovered
from Fangshan in Changle County. The yellow
fragments adjacent to the sapphire are weathered
ultrmafic xenoliths.

sions: uranium-and-thorium-richzircon, titaniurn-rich

col~imbite,sodium feldspar, apatite, ilmenite, and
magnesium-iron spinel. This combination is similar
to that found in sapphires from other basaltic areas
such as Hainan Island, China, and the Inverell-Glen
limes, Analzie-Rubyvale, and Lava Plains regions in
eastern Australia. The zircon inclusions are orange-red
in color and can be as large as 1 mm; the columbite

TABLE 2. Minor- and trace-element contents in dark blue, blue, and yellow Changle sapphires:
Element
Ppm

Sample (~olor)~
SD12
(d.blue)

SD14
(d.blue)

SD19
(d.blue)

SD13
(blue)

SD17
(blue)

SD18
(blue)

SD15
(yellow)

SD17
(yellow)

7188
207
330
31
28
9
5
<3
<3
22

7868
190
276
35
15
29
7
<3
<3
29

7245
194
125
33
17
11
6
4
<3
58

7642
222
173
34
19
5
7
<3
<3
44

9046
275
161
35
21
<3
5
4
<3
56

9593
211
190
35
13
<3
11
4
<3
50

7629
249
65
28
19
<3
7
<3
<3
117

8800
250
79
30
21
46
5
<3
<3
111

Fe
Ga
Ti
Co
V
Cr
Mn
cu
Zn
Fern

'Sapphiresamples were analyzed using the proton rnicioprobeat the CSIRO Division 01 Expbration Geoscfence,
North Ryde, NSW, Australia, with the assistance of Dr. W. L. GrilSn.
'd.blue = dark blue. b t e that sample SO17 Is a particolored crystal; separate analyses were done on blue and yellow
sections of this crystal.

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

inclusions are typically black, with metallic luster,

and also range from several hundred microns to 1
mm. Columbite was found to be one of the most
common mineral inclusions in sapphires from basaltic
terrains. U-Pb dating of the zircon inclusions gave
the same age (16 My) as the host Fangshan basalt
(16.3-16.4 My). The implications of these data are
beyond the scope of this report and are the topic of a
separate paper (Guo, in preparation).
CONCLUSION
The occurrence of sapphires in situ in basalts at
Changle confirms the relationship between gem-quality sapphires and basalts, which has been recognized
but not always proved at other, similar sapphire
deposits throughout the world, such as Thailand,
Australia, and elsewhere in China. Sapphires found in
basaltic terrains were clearly brought to the surface by
the rapidly ascending allzalic basaltic magmas along
with other heavy materials ( e g , mantle xenoliths).
However, the genesis of the sapphires at depth remains
a mystery, because the data at hand are inadequate to
determine whether the sapphire crystals formed directly from the basalt magma (i.e.,they are phenocrysts]
or crystallized elsewhere and were merely transported to the surface as xenocrysts (i.e.,crystals that are for-

eign to the rock in which they occur). One way of

approaching this problem is to study the mineral and
fluid inclusions within the sapphires. This type of
study is currently in progress (e.g., Guo et al., 1992;
Guo, in preparation). Preliminary indications are that
sapphires have no direct genetic linkage with their
host basalts; that is, they are not phenocrysts of basalt
magmas, but rather they are the product of complex
magma-mixing processes.
Although gemstone resources in China have been
neglected for years, these newly discovered sapphire
deposits have attracted the attention of the intemational gem community. Preliminary exploration in
the vicinity of the Wutu district alone has revealed that
the sapphire reserve is large, on the order of tons (7th
Geological Brigade, pers. comm., 1992). At present,
the recovery of sapphires from this area is negligible
in comparison to the estimated reserve.
However, it is possible within the near future
that cooperation already established between Chinese
government agencies and foreign gem companies will
make sufficient foreign capital available to bring this
deposit into full-scale production using modem mining methods. Considering the vast area in eastern
China that is covered by similar allzalic basalt rocks,
the long-term prognosis for economic sapphire deposits
is good.

REFERENCES
Chen D., Peng Z., Lanphere M.A., Zartman R.E. (1985)K-Ar ages
and Pb, Sr isotopic characteristics of Cenozoic volcanic rocks
in Shanclong Province, China. Genehemiktry, Vol. 4, pp. 31 1424.
Guo J.F.(in preparation) Sapphires from basaltic terrains. PhD thesis, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
Guo J.F., O'Reilly S.Y., Griffin W.L. (1992) Origin of sapphire in
eastern Australian basalts: inferred from inclusion studies. In
Abstracts of the 1 l t h Australia Geological Convention,
January 20-24, 1992, Ballarat University College, Victoria,
Australia.
Keller AS., Keller P.C. (1986)The sapphires of Mingxi, Fujian
Province, China. Gems el Gemology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 4145.
Keller PC., Wang F. (1986)A survey of the gemstone resources of
China. Gems a ) Gemology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 3-13.
MacNevin A.A. (1972)Sapphires in the New England district, New
South Wales. New South Wales Geological Survey Records,
Vol. 14, pp. 19-35.
Stephenson P.J. (1976)Sapphire and zircon in some basaltic rocks

260

Notes and New Techniques

from Queensland, Australia. A b s t r a c t s of t h e 25th

International Geological Congress, Sydney, Geological Society
of Australia, Vol. 2, pp. 602403.
Stephenson P.J. (1990)The geological context of sapphire occurrences in the Analue region, central Queensland. Abstracts of
the 10th Australian Geological Convention, Hobart,
Geological Society of Australia, pp. 232-233.
Wang F. (1988)The sapphires of Penglai, Hainan Island, China.
Gems a)Gemology, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 155-160.
Wang F.Z., Jin L.Y. (1 986) Petrological and geochemical characteristics of Cenozoic volcanic rocks of Shanwang, Shandong (in
Chinese). In Collection of Mineralogy and Petrology, No. 2,
Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp.43-65.
Zhu M., Hu H., Zhao D., Liu S., HLIX., Ma Z., Jiang W. (19851
Potassium-argon dating of Neogene basalts in Shanwang area,
Shandong Province (in Chinese). In Institute of Geology,
Academics Sinica, Petrological Research, No. 5, Geological
Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 47-59.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

G E M

T R A D E

EDITOR
C. W. Fryer Gem Trade Laboratory, West Coast

LABW :S
DIAMOND
With Etched
Dislocation Channels
Some unusual inclusions in a 2.04-ct
light pink pear-shaped diamond were
illustrated in the Fall 1992 Lab Notes
section (p. 194).Subsequently, we were
shown a 1.28-ct fancy pink diamond,
reportedly from Australia, with similar inclusions: rectangular hollow channels (figure I), some of which "zigzagged" for quite a distance (figure 2).
E m m a n u e l Fritsch, of GIA
Research, informed us that X-ray topographers use the term zigzag disloca-

Figure 1. The surface-reaching

inclusions in this 1.28-ct light
pink diamond are actually rectangular hollow tubes.
Magnified 33x.

Gem Trade Laboratory, West Coast

Karin Hurwit Shane F. McClure

noted an open cleavage that had been

etched in a 0.87-ct f;mcy, yellow
dia,
mond (figure3)that was reportedly from
Argyle.
It is possible that the series of long,
blade-like, nearly parallel inclusions
observed in still another, 0.75-ct diamond could also be evidence of etched
dislocation channels. When the round
brilliant was viewed faccup, these inclusions were reflected in other facets, so
that the whole stone resembled a kaleidoscope (figure 4). Of necessity, many
jewelers have been forced to handle dia-

Figure 2. At 63x magnification,

one can see the extent of the
"zigzagging" in one of the inclusions shown jn figure 1.

tions for features of similar geometry

seen with X-radiography (the phenomenon is not limited to diamond). The
dislocations represent zones of weakness in the crystal structure. Under certain geologic conditions, the dislocations may become etched, in which
case they are called etched dislocation
channels.
The channels that we observed in
the two diamonds mentioned above
would appear to be related to the various etch phenomena noted by Hofer in
his article on pink diamonds from
Australia (Gems o) Gemology, Fall
1985, pp. 147-155). Although Hofer
describes these etch phenomena as t y p
ical of Argyle pink diamonds, we also

Gem Trade Lab Notes

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Gem Trade Laboratory, East Coast
Robert Crowningshield Thomas Moses

Figure 3. This etch feature, typically associated wit11pink diamonds {rom Argylfi, was seen in
a 0.87-ct fancy yellow stone, also
reportedly from that locality.
Magnified 45x.

&

Editor'snote: Jfw initials at the end of each item identify the

con/r;'bul/ngeditor whoprovided that item.
Gems & Gen1u/ogy,Vol.28, No 4, pp. 262- 267
01993 GemologiwlInstitute of America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 4. These long, blade-like

inclusions produce a lzaleidoscopic effect when this 0.75-ct.
diamond is viewed face~zp.
Magnified 16x.
monds with lower clarity grades than
they had been accustomed to handling
in the past. It is interesting that these
inclusions were first observed while
our client was examining stones for evidence of fracture filling, turning what
might have been a chore into an opportunity to discover heretofore unappreciated beauty in the inclusions themGRC
selves.
Colored Diamond Crystal
Set in a "Renaissance Ring"
The increasing popularity of fancy-color diamonds is also often associated
with the Argyle deposit, because of the
many brown and pink diamonds it produces (see, eg., Modern Jeweler, April
1987). Consumer awareness has been
heightened recently by jewelry manufacturers' promotions of finished pieces
that incorporate these colored diamonds.
The ring shown in figure 5 was
sent to the East Coast laboratory for
identification of the stone and, if it
proved to be a diamond, whether the
color was natural or treated. The dark
brown octahedron was, without a
doubt, a diamond. It measured 5.00 x
4.85 m m wide where mounted into the
bezel; the closed-back setting prevented measurement of its height. Using
the microscope and diffused lighting,
we observed pronounced brown graining. This, together with the absence of
sharp absorption bands in the hand

Gem Trade Lab Notes

Figure 5. The ring in which this

dark blown diamond octahedron is set reportedly dates from
the Renaissance period.

spectroscope and the weak yellow

flourescence to long-wave ultraviolet
radiation, confirmed that the color was
natural.
This ring is very similar in style
to a ring from the Renaissance period in
Europe that is featured on page 97 of
Gems a n d Jewels: A Connoisseur's
Guide, by Benjamin Zucker (Thames
and Hudson, New York, 1984).
Although old styles are often reproduced,. empirical evidence such as the
purity and the patina of the gold, along
with the burnished effect on the bezel
that occurs with wear, indicates that
this is an original antique. The intricate workmanship, and the fact that
the ring is very well preserved, suggests
that colored diamonds have been desirable for centuries. Also, the apparent
age of the ring leads us to believe that
the diamond is of Indian origin.
TM

faceted colorless or pale-colored natural

beryl over which a layer of synthetic
emerald has bee,n grown by t h e
hydrothermal method. Although the
synthetic emerald layer is typically very
thin, comprising only a small percentage
of the entire gem, the faceup color is
generally a uniform, medium to medium-dark green. Because this product
was developed by Johann Lechleitner,
it is commonly referred to by gemologists as "Lechleitner synthetic emerald
overgrowth."
We rarely see these synthetic emerald overgrowths in the GIA Gem Trade
Laboratory; when we do, it is generally
as individual, loose stones. It was thus
unusual for the West Coast lab to
receive for examination the white metal pin shown in figure 6. Gemological
testing proved that all four of the large
(up to 11.7 x 9.5 x 7.7 mm) green emeraid cuts are examples of synthetic emerald overgrowth on natural beryl. Typical
features, noted with magnification,
included a "crazed layer," consisting of
many fine, intersecting fractures at the
interface of the synthetic emerald layer and the beryl core. Growth features
on several facets of each specimen

Figure 6. The four green stones

in this pin, which range from
approximately 8.2 x 6.1 x 3.8
m m to 1 1 . 7 ~
9.5 x 7.7mm, are
synthetic emerald overgrowths
on natural beryl.

SYNTHETIC EMERALD
Overgrowth on Faceted Beryls
Used in Jewelry
One of the earlier comn~ercialsynthetic emerald products consists of a pre-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

263

proved that little or no repolishing had

been done after the overgrowth process.
SFM and R. C. Kammerling

formed by CIA Research, revealed the

presence of manganese, which is
believed to be responsible for the gem's
color.
SPM and R. C. Kammerling

Pink Hydrogrossular GARNET

Although we regularly receive for identification a wide variety of transparent,
single-crystal garnets, only infrequently do we examine nontransparent aggregate types (see, e.g., the entry on a
massive grossularite garnet carving in
the Winter 1991 Lab Notes section). It
was thus a pleasant surprise for the
West Coast lab to receive the translucent, orange-pink 8.57-ct pear-shaped
cabochon shown in figure 7.
The stone produced an "aggregate"
reaction in the polariscope and a spot
R.I. reading of 1.69. The specific gravity, determined hydrostatically, was 3.30.
Although the R.1. and S.G. values are
w i t h i n t h e published ranges for
hydrogrossular garnet, they are somewhat lower than what we have encountered in the past and could make this a
difficult identification for some gemologists. X-ray powder diffraction analysis, however, proved that the stone was
hydrogrossular garnet. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF),per-

Black OPAL
In the trade, the term black opal is used
to describe solid (i.e., unassembled)
opals that display their play-of-color
against a dark, essentially opaque baclzground when viewed with overhead
lighting. However, there does not appear
to be a consensus as to what "dark
background" means. Because black opal
is so desirable, there is a tendency to
use the term for materials with baclzgrounds that are dark brown or darlz
gray rather than black. Some traders
use the term even more lo&ely, describing stones with only light gray baclzgrounds as black opal. (For more on opal
description and valuation, refer to Opal
Identification and Value, by Paul B.
Downing [Majestic Press, Tallahassee,
Florida, 19921.1
Regardless of how t h e term is
defined, opals with a truly black baclzground are uncommon, so the West
Coast laboratory appreciated the oppor-

Figure 7. The R.I. and S. G. values of this 8.57-ct hydrogrossular garnet

(20.7 x 7.3 x 6.1 m m ) are at the low end of the range for this gem species.

Figure 8, This 7.37-ct stone (19.8

x 11.8 x 4.7 m m ) is a fine example of opal with a truly black
bcickground.

tunity to examine the 7.37-ct oval cabochon seen in figure 8. Against its black
background, this stone exhibited large,
vivid patches of color, mainly red and
orange, but with some blue, green, and
violet as well. When viewed from some
angles, the opal displayed orange playof-color across more than two-thirds of
its surface.
Because this cabochon contains
two thin seams of dark potch (i.e., coinmon opal), an unwary gemologist might
mistake it for an assembled stone.
Therefore, a note was added to the conclusion on the GIA-GTL report that
this opal is not assembled.
SFM and R. C. Ki~mmerling
Freshwater Natural PEARL
from Alabama
In their classic work, The Book of the
Pearl (Century Co., New York, 19081,
Kunz and Stevenson discuss natural
pearls formed in bivalve molluslzs that
live in freshwater rivers and lakes. In
America, pearls are primarily found in
i~~olluslzs
from the family Unionidm,
which live in t h e Mississippi and
Tennessee Rivers and their tributaries,

Gem Trade Lab Notes

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 9. The Chattahoochee

River in Alabama is the source
of this 12-mm natural pearl.

as well as in the Colorado River. The

West Coast laboratory has just learned
that some natural pearls were found
recently in Alabama, a lesser-known
pearl source.
The attractive p d u s h purple pearl
in figure 9 ;was found in the Chattahoochee River near Dothan, Alabama.
The slightly off-round pearl measured
approxima~ely12 m m in diameter and
weighed about 52 grains (13 ct). The
X-radiograph showed the very dense
structure and thin conchiolin layers
commonly seen in freshwater natural
pearls. Because of the fairly dark tone
and coloration of this pearl, X-ray luminescence was only n~oderatelystrong.
The pearl fluoresced greenish yellow
to long-wave ultraviolet radiation.
Unfortunately, it is not known which
species produced this lovely pearl.
IZH
Synthetic Green QUARTZ
The laboratory periodically receives
amethyst for identification, primarily
to determine whether it is natural or
synthetic. Amethyst, however, is not
the only variety of quartz that is synthesized by the hydrothermal process.
Recently, two separate clients submitted to the West Coast laboratory
faceted specimens of a transparent, dark
green gem material that visually resembled tourmaline (see, e.g., figure 10).In

Gem Trade Lab Notes

both cases, the material had been represented to our clients as a new type of
natural green quartz from Brazil.
Gemological testing revealed properties consistent with quartz, both natural and synthetic. When the stones
were immersed in water and examined
with a polariscope, they proved to be
untwinned, with a "bull's-eye" interference figure. Magnification revealed
parallel green color banding, similar to
that seen in a synthetic green quartz
reference stone of Russian origin (see
the Gem News section, Spring 1992).
We also noted some angular brown color zoning running perpendicular to the
green banding, a feature we have seen in
other colors of hydrothermal synthetic
quartz, but not in the natural counterpart. One specimen also contained numerous tiny white pinpoint inclusions.
EDXRF analysis in GIA Research
detected the presence of silicon, potassium, and iron. This differed only slightly from the chemistry of our reference
sample, which also contained minor
amounts of chromium.
O n the basis of these results, we
identified the specimens from both
clients as synthetic green quartz. The
iron may be responsible for the green
coloration of these stones, as it is in
natural green quartz and in "greened
amethyst" (produced by the heat treatment of some natural amethyst). It is
important to note that, while green

Figure 10. This 12.30-ct synthetic

green quartz had been misrepresented to our client as a new
type of natural quartz from
Brazil.

quartz (sometimes referred to by the

trade name "praseolite") does occur naturally, such material is typically light in
tone. To our knowledge, there are no
reports of natural green quartz with this
darkness of tone.
SFM and R. C. Kamn~erling
SAPPHIRE

Color-Zoned Sapphire
Some of the most interesting sapphires
we encounter are those that exhibit distinct color zoning, such as the stones
reported in the Spring 1986 and Fall

Figure 11. While the faceup color

of this 3.51-ct sapphire is primor-

ily orangy pink with purple overtones, the stone has distinct
orange and pink color zones.

1989 Gem News sections. The West

Coast laboratory recently examined an
unusual sapphire that exhibited distinct
orange and pink zones. In the faceup
position, most of this 3.51-ct stone took
on an orangy pink color with purple
overtones, although distinct areas were
more orange (figure 11).
T h i s s t o n e reminded us of an
exceptional 1,126-ct sapphire crystal
from the Ratnapura area of Sri Lanlia
illustrated in the Spring 1983 Gems o)
Gemology ("Padparadscha: What's in
a Name?," by Robert Crowningshield),
with a follow-up entry in the Spring
1986 Lab Notes column. That crystal
also exhibited color zoning in predominantly pink and orange hues. It is pos-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

265

sible that the stone described here was

cut from a similar crystal.
SFM and R. C.Kammerling
Durability of
Diffusion-Treated Sapphire
An item in the Summer 1992 Lab
Notes section reported unusual wear
of the crown facets on a diffusion-treated blue sapphire. In that item, we surmised that repeated heating of some
diffusion-treated sapphires may have
produced a lower resistance to wear.
However, the appearance of another diffusion-treated stone with badly abraded crown facets suggests that something
more than just heating may be involved.
An approximately 4-ct stone, set in a
ring with side diamonds (figure 12),was
submitted to the East Coast lab for identification. The lack of any evidence of
wear to the setting leads us to believe
that it could not have been worn for a
long time. Yet, "micro-chipping" at the
edge of the table (figure 13)resembles
the damage seen on a heat-treated zircon that has been worn for years. Thus.
we are forced to consider the possibility that the surface layer of at least some
diffusion-treated sapphires is just not
as durable as the surface of an ordinary
heat-treated sapphire.

Figure 12. Abraded table facet

junctions are readily seen on this
approximately 4-c'i diffusiontreated sapphire which has been
set in a r i m with diamonds.

Figure 13. A t 35x magnification,

the full extent of the abrasion
damage to the table facet junctions of the stone shown i n figure 12 is apparent.
We do not know how prevalent
this problem is, given the many thousands of carats of blue diffusion-treated
sapphires that have entered the trade
in recent years. It appears, however,
t h a t s o m e diffusion-treated sapphires are as prone to wear as heat-treated zircons.
GRC
Yellow Sapphire with
Unusual Fluorescence
Reaction to ultraviolet radiation is often
a useful gemological test. One specific
application is to determine if corundum gems have been subjected to heat
treatment. For example, blue heat-treated "geuda" stones from Sri Lanka often
fluoresce a chalky bluish white to greenish yellow to short-wave U.V. radiation. Occasionally, we have also seen
rubies that showed a patchy bluish fluorescence to short-wave U.V. (see, e.g.,
the Summer 1984 Lab Notes section).
Recently, the West Coast lab was
asked to issue an identification report
on an 8.27-ct transparent, light yellow,

266

Gem Trade Lab Notes

oval mixed cut. Gemological testing

proved the stone to be a natural sapphire. Magnification revealed small discoid fractures around the included
crystals, clear evidence that the stone
had been heat treated.
The moderate orange fluorescence
to long-wave U.V. radiation has been
seen before in both heat-treated and
untreated yellow sapphires. However,
we were surprised to see an atypical
overall yellow fluorescence to shortwave U.V. Examination of the stone
with a microscope that had been inodified for use with U.V. radiation sources
revealed the cause of the yellow appearance: Most of the stone fluoresced
orange to short-wave U.V., but some
areas fl~ioresceda chalky bluish white.
These areas corresponded to light blue
color zones that might have developed
during the heat treatment. It appears
that the areas of chalky bluish white
fluorescence combine with the underlying orange fluorescence to produce
an overall yellow appearance to shortwave U.V. radiation.
SFM and R. C. Kammerling
SYNTHETIC STAR SAPPHIRE
of Unusual Color
Synthetic star cor~mdun~s
are produced
by the flame-fusion method in a great
variety of colors. One of the most prevalent colors mimics the appearance of
ruby. In our experience, synthetic star
stones tend to be sen~itranslucentto
almost opaque, because of the high concentration of acicular synthetic rutile
inclusions responsible for the asterism.
These synthetic rutile needles not only
lower the transparency of the synthetic stones, but they also contribute a
strong purple appearance that is due to
scattering of light. It is because of this
effect of rutile on the overall color
appearance [of natural as well as synthetic stones) that the laboratory allows
more leeway in making the distinction
between ruby and purple sapphire in
star stones.
On rare occasions, we see synthetic
star rubies that contain lower concentrations of the needle-like inclusions.
Such stones invariably have a more natural appearance. They not only exhibGEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 14. The combination of a

high degree of transparency and
a reddish purple body color
makes this 7.08-ctsynthetic stai
sapphire unusual.
it slightly less distinct stars, but they
also are semitransparent with a less
purple, myre, red body color. Even more
unusual, inour experience, is the 7.08ct synthetic star sapphire shown in figLire 14, which was recently examined in
the West Coast laboratory. Although
this stone exhibited the high degree of
transparency associated with lower concentrations of rutile, the dark reddish
purple body color resulted in it being
identified as a synthetic star sapphire
rather than a synthetic star ruby.
SFM and R. C. IZainn~erling

In our experience, both tanzanite

and the newer transparent green zoisite
tend to have quite uniform color distribution throughout the stone. Staff
gemologists in the West Coast lab were
therefore surprised to receive for identification the 2.52-ct emerald cut illustrated in figure 15. This zoisite is very
unusual in that it is distinctly bicolored, displaying violetish blue in one
half and yellowish green in the other.
Standard gemological testing confirmed that t h e stone was zoisite.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and
EDXRF chemical analysis were performed in GIA Research to explore the
difference in color between the two
zones. A qualitative EDXRF analysis
showed that both the violetish blue and
yellowish green sectors contain, besides
zoisite's normal components, traces of
strontium, vanadium, and possibly
chromium. However, the blue sector
was found to have significantly more
vanadium than the green sector, but
none of the titanium that was present
as an additional impurity in the green
sector. No iron was found in the crystal, in either color sector. In their article, Barot and Boehin also noted the
presence of strontium and the absence
of iron in both the green and the blue

samples, although no ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra were provided.

They identified Cr as the primary chromogen responsible for the green color,
versus the established chromogen V in
the blue material. Their blue and green
samples all contained comparable
amounts of Ti.
Unpolarized absorption spectra,
taken in the same orientation in both
the blue and green zones, show identical features, with the exception of an
additional absorption in the green zone
that has a "two-humped" broad band
with apparent maxima at about 445
and 466 nm. A band at about 444 nm
has in the past been tentatively attributed by Faye and Nickel (Canadian
Mineralogist, Vol. 10, No. 5, 1971, pp.
812-821) to ~ i "in zoisite. However,
this interpretation poses some problems that remain unresolved. For example, this absorption may be related to
titanium in a more indirect manner,
s u c h as a charge transfer with some
other ion; there are n o previously
known absorptions around 466 n m .
Therefore, the color difference between
the two zones of this zoisite is not clearly understood at this time.
R. C. Kammerling
and Emmanuel Fritsch

Figure 15. This 2.52-ct zoisite (10.3 x 5.5 x 4.6 m m ) is unusual in that it
is distinctly bicolored. The green portion is actually greener in the stone
than it appears in this photograph.

Unusual Bicolor ZOISITE

The blue to violet variety of zoisite
known as tanzanite, which is produced
primarily in the Merelani Hills of
Tanzania, first entered the gem market
in the 1960s. Much more recently-in
1991-commercial quantities of a transparent green zoisite were also discovered i n t h e M e r e l a n i H i l l s ( s e e
"Gem-Quality Green Zoisite," by N.
R. Barot and W. Boehin, in the Spring
1992 Gems e>)Gemology).

PHOTO CREDITS
Vincent Cracco took the pictures in ligures 1-3. Nicholas
DeIRe supplied Ihepholos in ligures 1,5, 12,and 13 Thephotographs used lor figures6-11, 14 and 15 were taken by
Shane F. McClure.

Gem Trade Lab Notes

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

267

DIAMONDS
Indicators of additional diamond pipes i n Australia.
Centenary International Mining Ltd. of Australia has
announced the discovery of a
diamondiferous pipe
zone at Gircilla,north of Lake MacLeod in Western Australia.
The joint-venture lease area is about 1,600 k m (1,000 mi.]
southwest of Argyle. Preliminary exploration revealed the
presence of chrome spinels that, theoretically, could only
come from a primary deposit similar to the Argyle pipe.
Follow-up work will include detailed sampling of previously detected magnetic anomalies, as well as aeromagnetic, ground magnetic, and stream sediment sampling of
the remainder of the lease area. (Diamond International,
July/August 1992, pp. 33,35)
"Presidential" diamond cavity. Anthony de Goutikre, a
gemologist and jeweler from Victoria, British Columbia,
brought to the editors' attention a 0.33-ct round-bnihant-cut
diamond with an exceptionally deep surface-reaching cavity. The cavity was open at the pavilion and, when viewed
down its length, showed distinct tiigons on its inner surfaces
as well as a square cross-sectional outline. When viewed
through the stone's crown, the cavity proved to be exceptionally deep (with an approximately four-to-one lengthto-width ratio).Also evident was the remarkable resemblance
of the cavity to a statue of the 16th president of the United
States, Abraham Lincoln (figure 1).The exact cause of the
cavity is not known. Similar features, however, have been
described previously as "etched dislocation channels" (see
Gem Trade Lab Notes, this issue].
An update on diamond research. In early September 1992,
one of the editors (EF)attended the "Diamond 1992" conference in Heidelberg, Gern~any.He prepared the following
report on recent progress made in diamond research.
Most research activity in the low-pressure growth of
synthetic diamond (essentially chemical vapor depositionor CVDsyntheti diamond] appears to be concentrating on
refining current processes to achieve higher growth rates
or fit specific applications. T o demonstrate progress made
in the growth of large (for this technique) gem-quality crystals by microwave CVD, Prof. Andresz Badzian of Pennsylvania State University exhibited a 2-mm-high pyramidal
single crystal of synthetic diamond that, to the unaided
eye, appeared to be transparent and colorless.

Gem News

Figure 1. Viewed through the crown, this cavity in

a diamond resembles a statue of 19th-century U.S.
president Abraham Lincoln standing on a
pedestal. Photomicrograph by Anthony de
Goutiere; magnified 18x.

As a result of research on high-temperature, high-pressure synthesis of diamond, Dr. Hisao Kanda, of the National
Institute of Research on Inorganic Material in Japan, has
produced yellow synthetic diamonds that contain A nitrogen aggregates (type IaA diamond)by treating type Ib yellow
synthetic diamonds at high pressure. All of the synthetic yellow diamonds reported previously contained only dispersed
(type Ib) nitrogen. The presence of nitrogen aggregates may
dramatically affect the gemological properties of the stones

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

and would have important implications should they ever be

made comn~erciallyavailable.
Dr. Alexander P. Yelisseyev, of t h e Institute of
Mineralogy and Petrography in Novosibirsk, Russia, showed
typical cubo-octahedral yellow gem-quality synthetic diamonds grown in Novosibirslz. These diamonds were grown
at high pressures and temperatures in what is called a splitsphere apparatus, a technique that, Dr. Yelisseyev maintains, is less expensive than the classic belt method used by
all other producers of high-pressure synthetic diamonds. It
is interesting to note that some of these diamonds had been
heat treated at high pressure, which resulted in a lighter,
greener color. According to Dr. Yelisseyev, this green color
is caused by nickel-related color centers formed during the
treatment. The nickel impurity comes from the molten
metal flux in which the synthetic diamond is grown.
The Drulzlzer International booth in the industrial
exhibit area featured a display of hundreds of large (0.5 to 8
ct) De Beers synthetic yellow diamond crystals. According
to a Drukker representative, De Beers Industrial Diamond
Division sells thin slabs (about 1 m m ) of such synthetic
diamonds for use as heat dissipaters. However, some slabs
had fairly large surface areas (about 1 cnl on an edge).
During an enlightening lecture on the geologic origins
of diamonds, Dr. Jeff Harris, of Glasgow University in
Scotland, reported that recent inclusion research has proved
that some diamonds may form at much greater depths than
previously thought. Most diamonds are now believed to
have formed at depths between 180 and 450 lzm, but some
rare crystals might have grown at a depth of about 670 km.
More exploration in Tanzania. The Tanzanian government
has signed a number of exploration agreements with private firms. One such agreement, between the Tanzanian
Ministry of Energy and Minerals and the firm Reunion
Mining, is for diamond exploration in the Lake Victoria
region. There is also reportedly some interest in prospecting
for gems in the Tabora region. (Mining Journal, July 31,
1992, p. 72)
Zimbabwe diamond find. Australia-based A u r i d i a n ~
Consolidated reports that three months of test work at its
pilot processing plant in Zimbabwe has yielded 5,000 ct of
diamonds, including one 17-ct cutting-quality stone. The ore
from which these stones were processed was recovered
from the firm's River Ranch concession, located near the
Limpopo River hi the south of the country. Plans call for the
plant to begin processing 200,000 m3 of ore per year. (Mining
Journal, October 2, 1992, p. 233)

b
COLORED STONES
Agate and amethyst from Uruguay. Although Brazil is well
lznown as a source of many varieties of quartz, neighboring
Uruguay also has large, commercial deposits of, specifically, agate and amethyst. These are found in the northernmost
department of Artigas. According to the August 14, 1992,

Gem News

Country Supplement to Mining Journal (p. 7), annual production is approximately 150 tons of agate and 80 tons of
amethyst, with a significant amount of the latter being
shipped to Germany.
Amber from the Dominican Republic and the Baltic region.
At the June 1992 Vicenzaoro trade fair in Vicenza, Italy,
two of the editors (EF and RCK) noted the large amount of
fine-quality amber on display. One dealer, Dr. Salvatore
Greco, devoted a significant portion of his display area exclusively to rare blue amber from the Dominican Republic.
Strong luminescence to visible light is said to produce the
blue appearance of this material.
Sarunas Davainis~representingthe firms Galeria No.
44, Gdansk, Poland, and Amber Ltd., Vilnius, Lithuaniaprovided an update on the amber industry in the Baltic
region. He estimated that this region-specifically, Lithuania,
Russia, and Poland-produces approximately 10 metric
tons annually. Thc different types of deposits require different
mining methods. In Russia and Lithuania, the amber-containing strata lie beneath 2 5 4 0 m of overburden. Explosives
used in the recovery process damage the amber, producing
a yield in finished goods of only 7% to 10% by weight. In
Poland, however, the amber is closer to the surface, under
roughly 12 In of overburden. Here, miners use the "floating"
method: They inject saline solutions into the soils, thereby
drawing the amber toward the surface. Near the city of
Gdanslz, Poland, some-usually top quality-amber is still
found along the coast. Mr. Davainis indicated that h e is
exploring the possibility of "pumping" amber directly from
the seabed. In a first experiment in the summer of 1991,
he recovered some 160 kg of amber from the submerged
former shoreline.
Unusual aragonite. Pectolite from the Dominican Republic
is a visually distinctive material; it typically has a greenish
blue body color and displays finely fibrous spheroidal aggregates in cabochons and polished slabs (for more information,
see Woodruff and Fritsch, "Blue Pectolite from t h e
Dominican Republic," Gems s) Gemology, Winter 1989, pp.
216-225). Until recently, the editors knew of only one material that might be confused with pectolite, an artificial
glass marketed under t h e names: "lmori Stone" and
'Victoria Stone."
At the February 1992 Tucson Show, the editors saw
for the first time another gem material with a striking
resemblance to some Dominican pectolite (figure 2).
Marketed under the trade name "Victoritel' (after Victor
Herrera, a friend of the mine owner, according to Eugene
Mueller of The Gem Shop, Cedarburg, Wisconsin), this
material comes from a copper-mining area approximately
3,000 to 4,000 in above sea level in the Department of
Moquegua of southern Peru. Recovery is primarily from
small seams, although the material mined to date ranges
from a few grams to over 1 kg.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Whiter 1992

269

Figure 2. This 9.36-ct tablet (22.51 x 11.06 x 4.10

mm) is an impure form of aragonite from Peru.
Photo by Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

We subsequently obtained t h r e e specimens of

"Victorite," including a large unpolished piece donated by
Mr. Mueller. Detailed testing on the 9.36-ct oval tablet
shown in figure 2 revealed the following properties: colorvariegated greenish blue and white; diaphaneity-semitranslucent; spot R.1.-1.52 to 1.66, w i t h a strong
'birefringence blink" indicating high birefringence (approximately 0.140). The material was inert to both long- and
short-wave U.V. radiation, although two large fractures
luminesced a weak, dull brownish orange. T h e tablet
appeared green through the Chelsea color filter, showed no
distinct absorption features when examined with a deskmodel prism spectroscope, and had a specific gravity of
2.75, as determined by hydrostatic weighing. Magnification
revealed a coarse microcrystalline structure.
Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF)analysis, performed by GIA Research, revealed the presence of calcium, copper, and strontium. X-ray powder diffraction
analysis, carried out by Gus Calderon of the GIA Gem Trade
Laboratory, produced a match with a standard pattern for
aragonite. Although the S.G. is lower than that reported in
the Literature for aragonite (2.94+),the presence of impurities
and/or cavities could account for the discrepancy.
O n the basis of this information, the "Victorite" was
identified as an impure form of aragonite. The blue coloration of this material (like blue pectolite) may also be
due to copper. Although this aragonite may resemble pectolite, the much stronger birefringence of aragonite will
easily separate the two. Note, too, that aragonite is not as
durable as pectolite.
Color-change burbankite-related mineral from Mont St.
Hilaire, Quebec. As reported in the Spring 1992 Gem News
section, an unusual color-change gem, stated to be burbankite, was discovered in 1991 not far from Montreal at the
Poudrette quarry, Mont St. Hilaire, province of Quebec,

Gem News

Canada. Some good-sizegem-quality crystals were found, and

faceted stones as large as 6.62 ct have been cut. Burbankite
[(Na,Ca)3(Sr,Ba,Ce)3[C03)5]
is a hexagonal carbonate.
Recently, the editors examined a 3.18-ct cut-corner
rectangular modified brilliant faceted from this material,
which was loaned to GIA bv Art Grant of Martville, New
York. This stone exhibited a'color change from very slightly greenish yellow in fluorescent Lighting to slightly yellowish orange in incandescent illun~ination(figure 3).
Gemological properties were determined by Gus Calderon
and Shane McClure of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory (GIAGTL). Refractive indices of 1.630 ancl 1.632 yielded a birefringence of only 0.002, which is exceptionally low for a
carbonate and also quite different from the published values
for burbankite of 1.615 and 1.627. The stone showed no
significant pleoclwoism, ancl the optic figure was pseudouniaxial. The specific gravity, determined by averaging three
hydrostatic measuren~ents,was 3.53 [as compared to 3.50
for burbanlzite). Microscopic examination revealed several
narrow parallel growth tubes across the width of the stone.
This stone proved inert to both long- and short-wave U.V.
radiation, and showed no reaction (i.e., appeared green)
through the Chelsea color filter. A handheld-type prism
spectroscope revealed total absorption up to about 420 nin,
with several sharp bands characteristic of a rare-earth spectrum; the strongest features were at approximately 452,
5 14 [strong doublet), 522, and 575 nin (several strong lines
coalesced together).
EDXRF analysis performed by GIA Research identified strontium and calcium as major elements, with minor
sodium, potassium, lanthanum, and cerium. Neodymium
was also detected in trace amounts. This represented a
departure from typical burbanlzite chemistry. In particular,
no barium was detected, although lanthanum, neodymium, and potassium were also found in the specimens used
for the original description of burbankite (Pecora rind Ken,
American Mineralogist, Vol. 38, 1952, pp. 1 1 69-1 183).
Subsequent X-ray diffraction and microprobe analyses on
reportedly identical material [but not on this specimen) at
the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa, Ontario, identificd their material as remondite-(Ce),a new mineral relateel to burbanlzite (and first described by Cesbron, Gilles,
Pelisson, and Saugues in 1988, with the crystal structure
determined by Ginderow, 1989; see American Mineralogist,
Vol. 75, No. 3 4 , 1990, p. 433). O n the basis of this information and what we gathered, we believe the cut stone we
examined is also reinondite-(Ce).
To understand the color-change behavior seen in this
gem, we recorded its ultraviolet-visible transn~issionspectrum. This revealed sharp lines at approximately 444,488,
510, 522, and 578 nm, plus others at 626, 678, 740, 800,
and 874 nm, as well as a series of broader absorption bands
in the near infrared. We attributed the cutoff toward the
ultraviolet to absorption by cerium [ce4+)and the sharp
bands to neodymium ( ~ d ~ Our
' ) . own research has shown
that ~ d produces
^
a moderate bluish purple to reddish

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 3. This 3.18-ct stone is believeu 1.0 be remondite-(Ce),a new rare- ear^^^ carbonate related to burbankite. It
exhibits a color change from slightly greenish yellow in daylight (left) to yellowish orange in incandescent light
(right).Photo 0 GIA and Tino Hammid.

purple or purplish pink color change in YAG and cubic zirconia. Therefore, we believe that the color change in this
sample is clue to ~ d ~ the
' ; colors seen are different from
those observed in YAG and cubic zirconia because of the
influence o'f the c e 4 . absorption. Mr. Grant informed us
that not all specimens of this material that he has cut exhibit color change. We speculate that those that do not have little or no neodymium.
Duinortierite-iii-quartzbeads. The vast majority of the gem
materials fashioned into beads are polished to produce a
vitreous luster. Occasionally, however, we see beads on
which the surface has intentionally been left rough to give
a dull finish. At the Vicenzaoro trade fair this past June,
two of the editors (EF and RCK) noticed some interesting
beads at the booth of Gaetano Bazzi from Faenza, Italy.
These large beads-roughly 18 m m in diameter~exhibited
a violetish blue body color with mottled blaclz veining (figure 4). The material had been represented to Mr. Bazzi as
dumortierite from South Africa.
T w o beads were donated to GIA for research. Subsequent testing revealed a vague spot R.I. of 1.55 and an
S.G. of 2.95. The beads were inert to long-wave U.V. radiation, but the violetish blue areas luminesced a moderate,
chalky whitish blue to short-wave U.V. (with the black
areas remaining inert).Using a gemological microscope, we
noted angular patches of a semitransparent, colorless mineral (probably quartz) interspersed with the violetish blue
material. X-ray powder diffraction analysis produced a pattern matching a standard for dumortierite in quartz, that is,
a superimposition of the patterns for both minerals.

sources of turquoise. In neighboring Israel, adjacent to the

Sinai Peninsula, another semitranslucent to opaque, blueto-green gem is found. Known in the trade as "Eilat stone,"
this mixture of chrysocolla and malachite, like turquoise, is
colored by copper. It was thus with interest that in Cairo this
past year, one of the editors (RCK)saw some unusual, mottled cabochons with major areas of greenish blue, similar to
"Eilat stone." According to the vendor, small quantities of
the material show up sporadically in the marketplace, having been collected by Bedouin tribespeople.
Two representative cabochons (a 7.05-ct pear shape
and a 3.29-ct oval) were purchased and subsequently examined in detail. Both are semitranslucent and have a variegated, mottled appearance, with greenish blue and very dark
green areas, the latter so dark in tone as to appear blaclz in

Figure 4. These two rough-surfaced beads, approximately 18 m m in diameter, are dumortierite in

quartz. Photo by Robert Weldon.

Feldspar-and-amphibole gem from Egypt. T h e Sinai

Peninsula of Egypt is well known as one of the earliest

Gem News

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

271

overhead illumination (see, e.g., figure 5).The greenish blue

areas are highly fractured and veined; the dark green areas
contain irregular inclusions with a metallic luster. We also
noted small inclusions of a more saturated greenish blue wlor and lower diaphaneity, as well as areas of brownish red
(limonitic?)staining.
Spot refractive-index determinations gave readings of
1.54. The stones appeared green through the Chelsea color
filter. The more translucent areas fluoresced a faint yellowish green to long-wave U.V. radiation, but the stones
were conlpletely inert to short-wave U.V. Hydrostatic weighing produced specific-gravity values of 2.67 for the 7.05-ct
pear-shaped cabochon and 2.74 for the 3.29-ct oval.
As the above data were inconclusive, X-ray powder diffraction analysis was performed on both the greenish blue
and dark green areas. On the basis of the patterns produced,
we determined that the greenish blue areas are a feldspar,
whereas the dark green areas are an amphibole, although we
could not determine the specific species. Therefore, we
identified these stones as rocks consisting of feldspar and
amphibole with possibly other, undetermined mineral components. EDXRF analysis revealed the presence of Al, Si, K,
Ca, Ba, Mn, Fe, and C L ~We
. believe that the blue coloration
is most likely due to the copper impurities.

Figure 5. Believed to be froni the Sinai Peninsula of

Egypt, this 7.05-ct cabochon consists primarily of
greenish blue feldspar and an amphibole mineral.
Photo b y Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

Figure 6. Okinawa is the reported source of this

rare strand of 37 "golden" cultured South Sea
pearls (11.2-14.1 m m in diameter), which are also
notable for their high luster and absence of bleniishes. Photo courtesy of Rene Hodel.

Update on golden cultured pearls. At the September 1992

Hong Kong Jewehy and Watch Fair, Rene Hodel of the firm
Schoeffel in Hong Kong exhibited three strands of fine, rare
"golden" cultured South Sea pearls, which ranged up to 18
m m in diameter (see, e.g., figure 6).Mr. Hodel reported that
cultured South Sea pearls of this hue are actually accidents
of the culturing process, representing a very small percentage of the harvest from the yellow- and white-lip oysters.
According to Mr. Hodel, those with a "pure, dark gold" color are most valuable; any greenishness is considered detrimental.
The cultured pearls in these necklaces reportedly came
from Okinawa, Japan. In the past, Burma (now Myanmar)
was the principal source of golden cultured pearls. Today,

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 7. Small-scale mining operations continue i n

the Elahera gem field of Sri
Lanka. This shallow circular pit is located along a
tributary of the Mahaweli
Ganga River. Photo by
Shane F. McClure.

Indonesiah pearl farms produce most of the golden cultured

pearls in the marketplace, usually in sizes less than 15 m m
in diameter. Top-quality larger (up to 18-19 m m ) golden
cultured pearls primarily come from Australia.
Sri Lanka: Current mining in Elahera. In August 1992, CIAGTL's Shane McClure visited mining sites in Sri Lanka
through the assistance of gem dealer M.H.S.M. Mahisukeen.
One area visited was Elahera, in the center of this island
nation (the subject of a Summer 1986 Gems o)Gemology
article by Gunawardene and Rupasinghe).
At the time of the visit, local inhabitants indicated
that no large-scale mining had taken place for roughly four
years. Individual miners, however, continue to operate in the
area illegally and produce small quantities of sapphire, garnet, and various collector gems from the alluvial deposits.
These operations are typically small pits dug into the banks
of tributaries of the Mahaweli Ganga River (figure 7).
Sri Lanka: Update on gem production. Cordon Bleck of
Radiance International, San Diego, California, has provided
another update on gems and gem mining in Sri Lanka. He
reports that a variety of factors have produced a general
decline in gem production there. In the Okkampitiya area,
one reason is the threat of terrorism by members of the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam. Also, this southeastern
area of the country has been suffering through a drought
so bad that drinking water has had to be trucked into some
communities, so there has not been sufficient water to
wash the gem gravels.

Gem News

Good natural-color blue and yellow Sri Lankan sapphires are less plentiful than in previous years, although
pink to purple sapphires appear to be slightly more available
than in the past. Yellow sapphires of all qualities are reportedly being purchased in large quantities for heat or diffusion
treatment. Mr. Bleck also noted the appearance on the market of a higher percentage of yellow sapphires that are unstable to daylight. Typically, sapphires turned yellow by exposure to X-rays fade to their original pale yellow or colorless
state after a few hours in direct sunlight. Consequently, it
is common practice for many buyers to expose yellow sapphires to daylight for one or two clays prior to completing the
purchase. According to Mr. Bleck, however, subjecting a
sapphire to repeated irradiation and fading cycles may produce a color that will not discernibly fade for as long as 10
days in sunlight.
Similarly, some light pink sapphires are reportedly irradiated to produce a pinkish orange, "padparadscl~a~~
color.
Because the yellow component of the color is unstable, the
stones fade back to light pink after one to six hours' exposure to daylight. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that
buyers expose "padparadscha" sapphires to direct sunlight
for several hours to check color stability.
Some rare and unusual stones surfaced during the past
year. One small pit in the Okkampitiya area has produced
a surprising number of chatoyant Izornerupines. Near
Oklzampitiya, in the small town of Passura, several chatoyant rutiles have been found. This material is very unusual (see also the entry in the Summer 1986 Gem Trade Lab
Notes section, p. 111).Some of the almost two dozen cabo-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

chons the editors examined (which ranged up to 3.5 ct]

showed a very intense, sharp eye. Rutile from Karawita,
near Ratnapura, has been faceted into small stones, in
weights up to slightly over 1 ct. Most showed a very dark
brown-red body color when illuminated with a strong light
source, and were found (by EDXRF analysis in GIA Research)
to contain impurities of iron, chromiun~,ancl niobium. One
stone, however, a 1.08-ct oval shape, appeared dark violetish blue in the same lighting; it contained traces of niobium only, and displayed very strong electrical conductivity
when tested with a gemological concluctometer. Such conductivity behavior has been documented in blue synthetic
rutile as due to a reduction of ~ i to
^ ~i~~ (see, e.g., K.
Nassau's Gems Made by Man, Chilton Book Co., Radnor,
PA, 1980, p. 217). This reduction could have occurred in
nature due to natural radiation, as many radioactive gemstones and other minerals are found in the same general
area of Sri Lanka.
Mr. Bleck also showed us a remarkably large (114 ct; 38
x 28 x 12 mm), slightly waterworn twinned crystal of yellow chrysoberyl (figure 8). According to the State Gem
Corporation, it is the largest chrysoberyl recovered from
Sri Lanka in recent years.
A brownish yellow-green 3.71-ct oval chrysoberyl
revealed some unusual properties. Most notable were the
indices of refraction-1.763 and 1.777-which are significantly higher than the expected values of approxin~ately
1.746 and 1.755.However, the stone's X-ray diffraction pattern matched G u t s standard pattern for chrysoberyl. Energydispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis identified traces of
titanium and gallium, as well as a very intense signal for iron.
This high iron concentration is probably the cause of the
unusually high R.I.

Figure 8. This 114-ct twinned chrysoberyl crystal is

reportedly the largest recovered in Sri Lanka in
recent years. Photo by Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

Gem News

Large taaft'eitc. At the September 1992 Hong Kong Jewelry

and Watch Fair, one of the editors (EF)saw an exceptionally large taaffeite. The 33.33-ct oval mixed cut displayed
numerous eye-visible includecl crystals that, from their morphology, were possibly apatite. Like many taaffeites that
we have examined, tills gem displayed a slight color change,
appearing purple under fluorescent lighting and a more reddish purple under incandescent illumination.
New joint venture in Vietnam. A new joint-venture company, Vietnam Gems Technology Co. Ltd. (GemTec), has
been formed to process and trade in rubies ancl other gems
mined in Vietnam. The firm, formed between Australian
businessman Raymond Eaton (chairman of the Bangkokbased Export Development Trading Corp.)and the Electronic
and Optical Instruments Corp., a subsidiary of the National
Center for Scientific Research, will buy, fashion, and market the rubies. To this end, a factory and trading house with
a staff of 120, plus a small geinological laboratory, are to be
set up in Hanoi.

Update on Vietnam gems. In November 1992, Gems o)

Gemology editor Alice S. Keller and one of the Gem News
editors (RCK)visited a number of gem localities in Vietnam.
The trip was arranged through Savitech, a joint-venture
between FINGEMS (a Swiss firm) and the State Bank of
Vietnam, to prepare an update to ~ a n et
e a1.k "Rubies and
Fancy Sapphires from Vietnam" (Gems o)Gemology, Fall
1991, pp. 136-155) with one of the coauthors of that article,
Saverio Repetto. Following are some of the highlights of
the new information they gathered.
Mining for rubies and pink sapphires has been reactivated and accelerated at the original Vietnamese source,
Luc Yen, in Yen Bai Province. The largest operation, a joint
venture between state-owned Vinagemco and the Thai firm
B. H. Mining, is a heavily mechanized open-pit mine, with
four electricity-powered water cannons and a six-jigsluice.
Geologist Nguyen Duc Khai, senior expert with the Council
of Ministers in Hanoi, explained that the joint venture has
a 12-year lease to work the area, and plans to work five
open-pit mines total, one after the other. The Vietnamese
army is also involved in mining in the Luc Yen area. We saw
only one "independent" (illicit)mining operation, but were
told that most of the illegal operations in this area are conducted at night.
Mining has also accelerated greatly at Quy Chau and
neighboring Quy Hop, in Nghe An Province. Four companies-three controlled by the provincial government and
one by the national Ministry of Heavy Minerals (in conjunction with Thai investors)ar authorized to mine in the
Quy Chau area. To date, all of the mining has been open pit,
into the gem-bearing gravels. The operations range from
some that are highly mechanized, using bulldozers, water
cannons, and diesel-powered jigs (to separate the gems), to
many that are simple hand digging, with miners using shovels to remove the overburden and baskets to wash the grav-

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Figure 9. At Ba Dan, in
Binh Thuan Province, hundreds of predominantly
shallow pits have been
d~zgto reach the sapphirebearing gravels. Photo by
Robert C.Kammerljng.

els. We saw significantly more independent mining in the

Quy Chau area than in Luc Yen, although both areas had a
strong police presence. Prof. Dr. Phan Tmong Tlu, chairman
of the ~ i e t n a r nMineralogical Association, reported that a
"good" 54'-ct ruby had recently been found at Quy Chau.
Most of the stones we saw at Quy Chau were small and
highly fractured, with the characteristic blue zones in the
pink to red material. We also saw significant amounts of
what appeared to be flame-fusion synthetic rubies in both
Luc Yen and Quy Chau, primarily in the provincial capitals
of Yen Bai and Vinh and at some of the mining areas in
Quy Chau.
Although fine blue sapphires have been known to come
from the marble-related deoosits in the Luc Yen area, most
of the blue sapphires currently mined in Vietnam originate
from allialic basalts in the south of the country, in Lam
Dong, Dong Nai, and Binh Thuan Provinces. We visited
two localities in Binh Thuan Province: Da Ban and Ma
Lain. Both were crude open-pit operations, where the miners dug into the alluvium (often less than a meter) to reach
the gem gravels, which were then washed in nearby artificial ponds. At Ba Dan, hundreds of predon~inantlyshallow
pits appeared to have literally chewed up an area at least
hundreds of meters long (figure 9). Reportedly, there had
been as many as 3,000 people working this deposit in recent
n~onths,but the number was greatly reduced by govemment efforts to control the area and eventually systematize
the mining. We saw more activity at Ma Lain, where we
were told that approximately 400 people were still working
the region, with an average yield of 100 stones per day. Most
of these pits, too, were shallow, but we saw some as deep as
3 in. For the most part, the sapphires we observed from both
localities were very dark blue to bluish green; most of the
potentially gem-quality rough crystals were small, less than

Gem News

3 ct. Mr. Nguyen Xuan An, general director of Vinagemco,

indicated that lighter blue sapphires had been found at Lien
Dam, near Di Linh, in neighboring Lam Dong Province.
Green zoisite from Pakistan. Recently, the editors examined
two remarkably well-formed transparent crystals of green
zoisite provided by Larry C. Winn of AJS Enterprises in
Wheat Ridge, Colorado. Of great interest was the fact that
the crystals (100.5 and 9.6 ct; figure 10], reportedly came
from Skardu, Pakistan. At approximately the same time,
we were also given two crystal fragments of green zoisite by
Pierre Bariand, curator of the Sorbonne mineral collection
in Paris, France. These, too, reportedly came from central
Asia, although the exact source (Afghanistan or Pakistan) is
not known. EDXRF and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
showed that all four specimens, although not identical in
appearance, had very similar spectra, which suggests a common origin.
When gemologically compared to the green zoisite
recently described from Merelani Hills, Tanzania (Barot
and Boehm, Gems s) Gemology, Spring 1992), these new
green zoisites have a slightly higher refractive index at
1.700-1.706. In addition, they show relatively strong absorption lines in the hand spectroscope, at 433 and 460 nm, and
distinct pleocl~oismin bluish green, brownish orange, and
yellow.
The two crystals obtained from Mr. Winn are slightly
tapered prisms. The color seen through the two flatter prism
faces is a medium dark slightly greenish blue, whereas that
seen through the other two prism faces is a slightly orangy
brown. In addition to the constituents of zoisite detected (calcium, aluminum, and silicon), EDXRF analysis revealed
traces of titanium; small amounts of vanadium, chromium, and strontium; and a comparatively large amount of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

275

appears to be very similar to that observed in crystals of

R.
mixed epidote and clinozoisite from Cilgit, Pakistan (C.
Rossman, pers. coinin., 1992).
To our knowledge, green zoisite from Pakistan has not
been reported previously.
ENHANCEMENTS
Filled diamonds marketed under new name. In the more
than five years since the fracture filling of dianlonds to
enhance apparent clarity was first introduced in the trade,
there has been considerable debate concerningproper nomenclature to describe diamonds that have been treated in this
fashion. One of the newest twists to this issue of disclosure was just brought to our attention by a jeweler in
Western Australia, who sent us a flier being used to promote
such treated stones in Perth. According to this flier, "a diamond of a clarity of say I'iqu6 1 or 2 can be enhanced to
become a Genesis II Diamond [editors' emphasis] of at least
S l [sic]or VS clarity." Referring to such treated diamonds
by this name, without also clearly indicating that they are
treated stones, could easily result in confusion in the marketplace.

Figure 10. These two green zoisite crystals (100.5

and 9.6 ct) are reportedly from Pakistan, a new
source for this material. Courtesy of AJS
Enterprises; photo by Shane F. McClure.

iron. This is a significant difference from Tanzanian green

zoisite, which has essentially no, or negligible, iron.
Ultraviolet-visible spectra taken in the orangy brown
direction showed two intense, sharp bands at about 390
and 452 nrn,with accessory peaks at 359 and 427 nm.These
are typical of ~ e in~octahedral
'
coordination. In conjunction
with a general increase of the absorption from the red toward
the ultraviolet, they produce the orangy brown color seen in
that direction. We also noted a weak, broad band with an
apparent maximum at about 590 nm, very similar in shape
and position to that responsible for the blue color of tanzanite; this has been correlated to vanadium (present only
as a trace element in these specimens).In the near-infrared
portion of the spectrum, we observed a broad band centered
at about 1150 nm. Spectra taken in the "green" direction
showed the same sharp bands at about 390 and 452 nin; in
this direction, however, they were accompanied by a complex broad band causing absorption between approximately 600 and 850 nin, and the band at about 1150 nnl was
not present. These sharp and broad absorption features are
also typical of ~ e ~The
* . pleochroism of these specimens

Gem News

Fracture filling of rough diamonds reported. Diamond

Intelligence Briefs [September24, 1992, p. 926)has warned
that rough diamonds apparently are being clarity enhanced
and then shipped to one or more African nations for marketing. These efforts appear to be aimed at defrauding subsequent purchasers of the stones.
As pointed out in ICA Laboratory Alert No. 52 and in
a follow-upentry in the Fall 1992 Gem Trade Lab Notes section of Gems es) Gemology, this enhancement cannot withstand the heat generated in cutting and polishing. Such
deceptive treatment of rough would therefore certainly be
discovered on the cutting wheel. Those who buy rough diamonds outside established channels are advised to check
their stones carefully for evidence of fracture filling, such as
the flash effect, trapped bubbles, or flow structure seen with
magnification (see, e.g., Koivula et al., "The characteristics
and identification of filled diamonds," Gems d Gemology,
Summer 1989, pp. 68-83).
More on irradiated "black" diamonds. The Summer 1992
Lab Notes section included an entry on a green irradiated diamond with a color so dark that the stone appeared black to
the unaided eye. In the trade, such stones are often described
as black.
At the Vicenzaoro trade fair in Vicenza, Italy, this past
June, one of the editors (EF)was shown several such "black"
diamonds by Eddy Vleeschdrager a cutter from Antwerp.
Although Mr. Vleeschdrager indicated that these stones
were not radioactive, he confirmed that similarly treated
stones that were radioactive had recently been seen in
Antwerp and Germany. According to Mr. Vleeschdrager,
radioactivity was no longer present in the stones seen in
Gern~anyafter they were subjected to prolonged boiling in

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

acid. This would indicate that the radioactivity was related

to metallic polishing residues that had collected in the
numerous surface-reaching fractures in these low-clarity
stones. Irradiation in a nuclear reactor apparently produced
radionuclides in these polishing residues. Acid boiling the
stones [toremove the residues] before they are submitted for
irradiation would appear to solve this problem in the future.
Interesting treated ornamental sandstone. On a recent trip
to Asia, Ms. Eddie Decsi, of GIA Education, visited a factory
in the town of Hualien, on the east coast of Taiwan. Huahen
is a center for fashioning ornamental gem materials, especially marble, which is mined locally. In addition to marble,
Ms. Decsi saw an attractive ornamental sandstone that was
being fashioned into objects such as small teapots. Whereas
some of the objects were marketed in their natural, light to
medium brown color, others were treated to produce darker tones. The editors found it interesting that the "dye"
used on these teapots was tea: The fashioned items were
boiled in tea until the desired depth of color was obtained.
Ms. Decsi purchased one of these "dyed" teapots and
provided it to the editors for examination (figure 11).
Although no dye appeared on an acetone-dipped cotton
swab when it was rubbed on an inconspicuous part of the
carving, silpilar testing with dilute (2%)nitric acid produced a teU-tale discoloration on the swab.

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Update on crystal growth. In August 1992, one of the editors [EF]attended the tenth International Conference on
Crystal Growth in San Diego, California. Presented at this
conference were advances in crystal-growth techniques as
well as descriptions of new synthetic materials,
Most of the crystal-growth research of potential relevance to the gem industry is being conducted in the fields
of laser and optical materials. Very few such materials are
still grown using a classic flux technique or hydrothermal
method (a major exception to the latter is hydrothermal
synthetic quartz). Instead, most such crystals are being
grown by pulling techniques, such as the Czochralski
method, which is already well established for the production
of such materials as synthetic corundum and yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG),as well as other so-called synthetic
'garnets."
In the past, such methods required that the material
melt congruently, that is, that the composition of the crystal formed by freezing must be identical to that of the melt.
As this technique reached its maturity, new pulhng techniques were developed that are now commonly used. In
one such method, the composition of the melt is constantly
adjusted by the addition of raw materials during growth.
This has led to the production, for example, of fluoride crystals over 100 kg, a size that would be impossible with the
classic Czochralski pulling method. Another technique,

Gem News

Figure 11. Tea was used to color enhance this

sandstone teapot (14.7 x 9.2 x 6.8 cm).Photo by
Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

called top-seeded solution growth, combines flux and pulling

methods. A seed starts to grow in a solution (typically
referred to in gemology as a flux], and then is slowly pulled
up during growth. The thermal geometry of this arrangement
will allow for controlled nucleation and ensure the growth
of a single, larger crystal than would be possible with either
method alone.
New types of crystals being developed are yttrium silicates [Y2Si05, see entry below) and yttrium vanadates
(YVO4),as well as various types of apatite for laser applications. Colorful, rare-earth aluminates with perovskite structures, such as LaA103, are also being grown for use as
already has
superconductor substrates. Neodymium [asNP)
been reported to cause a pinlz-purple color change in inaterials such as YAG (Gem News, Spring 1992, p. 66)and cubic
zirconia. Now, neodymium is being incorporated into a
variety of color-change synthetic apatites, including fluorapatite and silicate-oxyapatites. A neodymium-doped fluorapatite grown by Dr. Bruce Chai, of the University of
Central Florida Center for Research in Electro Ootics and
Lasers, exhibited a distinct color change, from blue in fluorescent lighting to violet in daylight and purple in incandescent illumination. EDXRF analysis by GIA Research
revealed strontium as a constituent in the crystal.
Union Carbide, a well-known synthetics manufacturer, has shown interest in producing various crystals by the
Czochralski method for the gem industry. Dr. Milan Kokta,
from the firm's Washougal, Washington, facility, showed the
editor a variety of corundum crystals doped with iron-titanium or cobalt (blue)and titanium (pink),as well as complex synthetic garnets with a beautiful green color. These
crystals are grown specifically for the jewelry industry:
Several nuances of blue color in synthetic corundum have
been produced in response to market demands.
Attractive "gem construct." The term assembled stone is
used in the trade to describe gems that have two or more

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

277

Figure 12. This 16.31-ct gem construct (22.26 x

10.65 x 7.32 mm) is composed of sections of rhodolite garnet, colorless topaz, and iolite. Photo by
Maha Smith-DeMaggio.

components. Two pieces of material joined by a colorless

cement are comn~onlyreferred to as doublets, whereas the
term triplet is used to describe assemblages of three materials (or two sections joined by a colored cement, such as synthetic spinel triplets].
For the most part, assembled stones are produced either
to imitate other gems or, as in the case of opal doublets
and triplets, to use thin sections of a gem material that
alone would lack sufficient durability for jewelry. In both cases, it is desirable that the assembled nature of the piece not
be apparent. There is, however, another type of assembled
stone that is less commonly seen in the trade, one that is
constructed to accentuate the unique visual features of the
components. One producer, Sid Berman, refers to these
assembled stones as "gem constructs."
An attractive 16.31-ct "gem construct" was donated
to CIA from the Josephine L. Scripps gem and mineral collection. The stone, which arrived in a container marked
"Rhodiolopaz," has distinct dark purplish red, colorless,
and dark violet sections of approximately equal size [figure
12).Gemological testing indicated that the name was not
inappropriate, as the components were identified as rhodolite garnet, iolite, and colorless topaz.

Synthetics preset in findings by "automation." Also at the

Vicenza trade show, we visited the booth of Bifra, a Vicenzabased firm that markets synthetic gem materials preset in
various types of gold findings.The firm's Mr. David indicated
that the findings with prong-set stones can be produced
using virtually any stone shape and that the bezel-set stones
include rounds, ovals, squares, and marquises.
Mr. David reported that the setting process is fully
automated, with the findings machined from small blocks
of gold rather than from gold tubes. About 3,000 pieces are
produced per day. We were told that the product is particularly popular in Japan, which has high labor costs: Rather
than set the stones individually, the jewelry manufacturer
simply solders the gem-set finding onto the piece of jewelry being produced.
Large hydrothermal synthetic ruby. One of the most striking synthetic gem materials displayed at the International
Conference on Crystal Growth (see summary entry above)
was a 386-g (1,930-ct)hydrothermally grown synthetic ruby
crystal (figure 13).This and smaller crystals, all exhibited by
Dr. Roch Monchamp of Goleta, California, were grown
about 1966, when synthetic ruby was the foremost laser
material and the subject of much research. This large crystal, possibly the largest hydrothennal synthetic ruby ever produced, represents a failed attempt to synthesize a one-pound
(2,268 ct) ruby.
According to Dr. Monchamp, the crystal was grownwith the necessary ruby constituents in a concentrated
potassium-carbonate solution in a silver-lined vessel, at a
pressure of 20,000 psi and a temperature of 540CVeils of
fluid inclusions throughout the crystal are quite apparent to
the unaided eye and form a roughly hexagonal honeycoinb-

Figure 13. The hydrothermal method was used to

synthesize this extremely large (1,930 ct; 95.30 x
55.05 x 19.78 mm) ruby crystal in the mid-1960s.
Courtesy of Dr. Roch Monchamp; photo by Shane
F. McClure.

Extremely small synthetic nielee. hi June 1992, at a trade

show in Vicenza, Italy, two of the editors (EF and RCK)
spoke with Mario Tiedeinann, marketing director of
Durafourg, a major producer and manufacturer of rneltgrown synthetic gem materials that is based in Lausanne,
Switzerland. Mr. Tiedemann noted that his firm produces
large quantities of flame-fusion synthetic corundum and
synthetic spinel each month, as well as very large quantities of cubic zirconia. Of particular interest is the small size
of some of the stones fashioned in their cutting facilities. We
were shown faceted CZs that weighed approximately 0.002
ct each, that is, almost 500 stones per carat.

Gem News

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

like structure. Dr. Monchamp indicated that these veils

and the corresponding structure (which the editors have
seen in other pink-to-red synthetic corundum crystals produced around the same time) are typical of the rapid growth
conditions. Although smaller crystals were grown with fewer such inclusions, these crystals tended to develop color
banding due to uneven chromium distribution.
This large synthetic ruby crystal was subsequently
loaned to GIA for characterization. The gemological properties were generally typical of synthetic ruby: R.1.1.760-1.768; birefringence0.008 red appearance through
the Chelsea color filter; and an absorption spectrum typical
of ruby, both natural and synthetic. When exposed to longwave U.V. radiation, the crystal luminesced a very strong
orangy red; the reaction to short-wave U.V. was a moderate
purplish pink with a whitish surface luminescence. It was
interesting to note that the fluid-filled cavities luminesced
a moderate greenish yellow to long-wave U.V. and a weak
greenish yellow to short-wave U.V.
Chemical analysis by EDXRF found (inaddition to al~iminum and cl~romium)impurities of iron, potassium, titanium, copper, and traces of chlorine, calcium, and arsenic.
Quantitative measurements revealed approximately 0.04
wt.% Cr203 and roughly 0.01 wt.% each of TiOs and FeO.
Assembled,imitation watermelon tourmaline. Recent Gem
News entries have described a number of novel tourmaline imitations, including a glass imitation of indicolite
(Summer 19921, a glass composite resembling watermelon
tourmaline (Fall 1992),and a tourmaline-glass assemblage
(also Fall 1992).
Bill Lason of Pala International, Fallbrook, California,
has since brought to our attention the most complex tourm a h e imitation we have seen to date. The large (667.74 ct;
65.3 x 42.2 x 37.7 cm] "crystal" section superficially resembled the watermelon variety (figure 14).
Detailed examination, however, revealed that the specimen was actually a complex assemblage. The outermost
layer consisted primarily of a veneer of long, narrow slices
of a gem material-two of which were dark blue, while the
others were dark yellowish green. All of the slices appeared
finely striated parallel to the length of the " c r y ~ t a l . ~ '
Although the striations made refractometer testing very
difficult, a spot R.I. reading taken on one yellowish green section produced a value of 1.63 and a weak "birefringence
blink." Examination with a desk-model prism spectroscope
revealed a very weak absorption line at 460 n m ,
Magnification showed that these outermost sections contain
fluid inclusions and internal fractures running parallel to
their length.
The next layer, which was semitranslucent, appeared
to be an assemblage of very small mineral fragments (including, perhaps, colorless quartz and mica?]held together by a

Gem News

Figure 14. This 667.74-ct imitation watermelon

tourmaline "crystal" specimen is actually a complex assembly of several materials. Photo by Maha
Smith-DeMaggio.

transparent, colorless cementing agent that contains nurnerous gas bubbles. The large transparent core of the specimen at first appeared to be pink. However, illumination
with a fiber-optic light pipe revealed that it was actually
colorless with a dark pink surface coating. The colored coating was clearly visible in areas near either end of the specimen, where the ground-inatter-and-cement layer failed to
completely cover the core. Polariscope testing showed this
innermost section to be doubly refractive, and microscopic examination revealed what appeared to be fluid inclusions. X-ray powder diffraction analysis conclusively
identified the core as quartz.
On the basis of these tests, we determined that the
specimen was actually a complex assemblage that consisted of, from core to periphery: a large section of rock crystal
quartz, a coating of dark pink coloring agent, and a layer of
mineral fragments in cement-all housed within slices of
tourma 1'me.

Acknowledgments: The editors thank Shane McClure,

Gustave Calderon, Karin Hurwit, Patricia Maddison, Cheryl
Wenizell, Sam Muhlmeister, and Yon Liu for assistance in
examining items reported in this section.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

REVIEW BOARD
Jo Ellen Cole
GIA, Santa Monica
Emmanuel Fritsch
G I , Santa Monica
Patricia A. S. Gray
Venice, California
Karin N. Huiwit
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica
Robert C, Kammerling
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica

Loretta B. Loeb
Visalia, California
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica
Elise B. Misiorowski
GIA, Santa Monica
Jana E. Miyahira
GIA, Santa Monica
Alicia G, Powers
I ,Santa Monica

COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
T a s t e crystals. A. R. Karnpf, MineralogicalRecord, Vol. 22,
No. 5,1991, pp. 343-347.
This in-depth study clarifies long-standing errors in the
original description of taaffeite crystal morphology. Several
taaffeite (pronounced "tarfite") crystals were analyzed and
crystallon~etricallymeasured by contact and reflected-light
goniometry. Idealized orthographic projections (two-dimensional graphic representations)of a crystal from Sri Lanka and
another from China show crystal form and indices for the
crystal faces. Taaffeite crystals are generally pyramidal or

This section is designed to provide as complete a record as practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles are
selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of the section editor and her reviewers, and space limitations may require that we
include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest interest
to our readership.
Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.

The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials at the

end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by their full
names, Opinions expressed in an abstract belong to the abstracter
and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology or GIA.
0 7993 Gemoloqical Institute of America

Gemological Abstracts

Gary A. Roskin
European Gemol@al Laboratory, Inc
10s Angeles, California
Lisa E, Schoening
G A Santa Monica
James E. Shigley
GM, Santa Monica
Christopher P. Smith
Gubelin Gemmological Laboratory
lucerne, Switzerland

Karen B. Stark
GIA, Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
10s Angeles, California
Rose Tozer
GIA, Santa Monica
William R. Videto
GM, Santa Monica
Robert Weldon
10s Angeles. California

bipyranlidal and are often truncated by basal pedia (crystal

forms with only a single face). Although cleavage has not
been previously reported for taaffeite, planar features on
three of the Sri Lanlzan crystals studied indicate a (00011
cleavage that tends to degenerate to conchoidal fractures. The
bipyranlidal crystals from China may be twinned by reflection on [OOOl].Two diagrams, two tables, and six color phoLBL
tographs accompany the text.

DIAMONDS
Cheap cut diamonds from Yakutia (in Russian). S. Agafonov, Izvestiya, July 29, 1992, p. 5.
Yakutia, formerly the province of Yakutsk and now an
autonomous republic known in the Yakut dialect as Salha,
is the major diamond-producing region in the Russian
Federation. This report, from the Moscow edition of the
Izvestiya newspaper, disclosed that a Japanese company
called Arda has signed a joint-venture agreement with the
republic of Sakha to purchase cut diamonds. In the first
phase, already under way, Sakha will provide Arda with
50,000 to 100,000 ct annually.
The article also notes that only the Diamond Fund of
the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Diamond Fund)
can block the joint venture and, according to Agafonov,
Sakha effectively controls the Diamond Fund. Moreover,
Salzha reportedly exercised "diamond autonomy" from the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

fund at an amount of 20% of total extraction by March of

this year, which indicates that the Sakha-Arda joint venture
will likely proceed as planned.
fumes Murker and Shane DeBeer
Court sides with miners at Crater of Diamonds. R. Shor,
Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,Vol. 163, No. 10, October
1992, pp. 68-69.
In spite of opposition from environmentalists, Continental
Diamonds of Canada, a consortium representing four mining companies, has won the right to take samples of the
diamond-bearing pipe in Arkansas's Crater of Diamonds
State Park. The tests were extended to determine the full size
of the diamond-bearing pipe. Test drilling in 1940 indicated that the diamond-bearing material went as deep as 250
ft. (about 80 m), but new tests have shown the diamond
deposits to be as deep as 600 ft. and to cover a wider area than
previously believed. Once these recent results have been
evaluated, the parties involved will decide whether to proceed to phase 2, testing to determine if there is an economic
supply of gem-quality dian~onds,which could take an additional year. Richard Davies, executive director of the
Arkansas Parks and Recreation Commission, says the Crater
of Diamonds is unique among diamond localities because
it is comp$&ed of a "hybrid" of kimberlite and lamproite
minerals. (Africanand Russian diamond pipes occur in kimberlite, whereas Australia's Argyle deposit occurs in lamproite.) The author concludes with a short discussion on
the potential for a viable diamond mine in the Lac de Gras
region of the Northern Territories of Canada.
KBS
Famous diamonds of the world XLVI: Some notable diamonds in 1990. 1. Balfour, Indiaqua Annual 1991,
Vol. 55, pp. 251-254.
Ian Balfour highlights notable diamonds of 1990, especially those offered at auction in 1990, including several fancycolored stones and a number of large ones.
Balfour begins with a 20.62-ct lozenge-shaped fancy pink
diamond that was auctioned by Sotheby's in February 1990
at St. Moritz. Unfortunately, he does not give a sale price.
Another diamond, the Moon of Baroda, sold at Christie's
in New York two months later for US$297,000, more than
double its pre-sale estimate of $120,000. Mr. Balfour questions the credibility of a "peculiar" story in Christie's sale
catalog about the 24-ct, light yellow pear shape and gives his
version of the recent history of this exotic diamond.
The Agra, a 32.24-ct fancy light pink diamond, sold at
Christie's June 1990 auction in London. Mr. Balfour briefly
outlines the history of this infamous stone, offering new
information that did not appear in his book, Famous
Diamonds. It was purchased by the CIBA Corporation in
Hong Kong for 4,070,000
Not offered at auction, but an "important newcomer," is the Guinea Star. In 1990, the William Goldberg Corp.

Gemological Abstracts

in New York unveiled the 89.01-ct shield-shaped gem [illustrated on the cover of the Spring 1991 issue of Gems esJ
Gemology]and its two satellite stones. All three were fashioned from a rough stone that weighed 255.61 ct.
lzili L. Cook

The lure of diamonds. J. Contreras, Newsweek, November

9, 1992, pp. 34-35.
Contreras reports on the widespread illegal mining, trading, and selling of diamonds in northern Angola's Lunda
Norte Province. The diamonds are recovered from gravels
in open pits by local garimpeiros (independent miners) along
the Cuango River near Cafunfo. These diamonds are then
taken to Luanda, Angola's capital, and smuggled to Belgiumwhere De Beers could spend an estimated $300 million in
1992 to buy them so they do not flood the market.
In May 1991, the Angolan government signed a peace
treaty with the UNITA guerrillas, ending 16 years of civil
war. Until the signing, dian~ondmining in Lunda Norte
had been strictly regulated. It was illegal to dig for diamonds
on land belonging to Endiama, the state-owned corporation
holding title to the Cuango River basin. Once the ceasefire was in place, i-llegal prospectors took over the basin.
The value of stones smuggled out of the region this year is
expected to surpass that of Angola's official diamond exports
of $200 million.
De Beers is concerned that these black-market diamonds could affect the already soft diamond market, in
which they control 80% of the rough. In addition to demanding that the Angolan government "crack down" on illegal
trafficking, they gave the government $200,000 to help
finance a "dragnet" operation that was carried out in June.
However, because there was no follow-up, the trafficking
resunled, reportedly dominated by French-speakingZaireans.
RT
Prospects for new applications of diamond. B. L. Jones,
Industrial Diamond Review, Vol. 52, No. 551, April
1992, pp. 175-1 79.
It is well known that diamond has numerous highly desirable physical properties, such as high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion coefficient, low coefficient of
friction, high hardness, high transparency in the visible and
infrared portion of the spectrum, high refractive index, and
chemical and radiation inertness. Because of the uniqueness of natural diamonds and the high cost of large high-temperature, high-pressure synthetic diamonds, the industrial
applications of diamond so far have been largely limited to
abrasive grits and cutting tools.
Recent developments in low-pressure diamond synthesis have led to products that duplicate several remarkable
properties of natural diamond. For example, type Ib synthetic diamond absorbs more light as its temperature increas-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

281

es. This, along with its chemical and radiation inertness,

makes it useful as a thennal probe in adverse environments.
Synthetic diamond crystals can also be used as radiation
detectors. Because diamond is made of carbon atoms, its
response to radiation is roughly equivalent to that of human
tissue. Because of its unique electronic properties, it offers
considerable sensitivity, range, and linearity. Other applications can be found in cutting tools, pressure sensors, optical windows, luminescent display devices, micromachine
elements, and high-density, high-power electronic devices.
Although only a few of these applications are of direct interest to the jeweler-gemologist, the fact that they stimulate
greater interest in the methods of dian~ondmanufacture
could have a significant impact on the gem industry at
large.
EF

An X-ray study of some Argyle diamonds. S. Clackson and

M. Moore, Industrial Diamond Review, Vol. 52,
No. 551, April 1992, pp. 192-194.

The Argyle mine in Western Australia produces one-third

of the world's output of natural diamond (although only a
small portion is gem quality). A "run of mine," or unsorted batch, of 158 millimeter-size diamond crystals from this
locality were studied. Most of the crystals were irregularly
shaped or octahedral, with a small percentage of macles,
dodecahedra, and tetrahedra. Gray and brown were the dominant colors, with a small number of pinks. Black inclusions were present in over 70% of the stones, and hexagonal
pits were common on the crystal surfaces. Synchrotron
Laue photography was used to characterize the crystalline
quality of all the samples. Nearly all had a mosaic structure;
that is, the crystal was composed of many misoriented constituent crystallites. The degree of mosaicity and the proportion of stones exhibiting these features is higher for
Argyle diamonds than for specimens from three of the major
South African mines. This physical in~perfectionmay
explain the high wear resistance of Argyle diamonds in
industrial applications and the difficulty encountered in
polishing them.
EF

GEM LOCALITIES
L'aigue-marine au Brksil: 2. Les gites primaires (Aquamarine
in Brazil: 2. Primary deposits). J.-P. Casscdanne and
J.-N. Alves, Revue d e Gemmologie a.f.g., No. 111,
June 1992, pp. 11-14.
According to the authors, aquamarine is probably the colored gem material that has contributed most to the fame of
Brazil as a gem-producing country. In Brazil, all primary
deposits of beryl (excluding emerald) are pegmatites.
Although beryl is common in Brazilian pegmatites, gemquality aquamarine is not.
Most aquamarine pegmatites are found in the Oriental

282

Gemological Abstracts

pegmatite province, which incorporates parts of the states

of Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Espirito Santo, although a few
are from the Nordeste and Borborenia fields in other parts
of the country. They are all granitoid pegmatites, and are usually found in granitic batholiths or inselbergs.
In the authors' experience, Brazilian aquamarine pegm a t i t e ~can be roughly divided into three classes: simple,
intermediate, and complex. The "simple" type is common
in the Nordeste fields and contains beryl "eyes" (an "eye"
is a gemmy nodule in an otherwise nongem crystal). The
"intermediate" and "complex" types have an increasingly
complex mineralogy and history and are most common in
the Oriental fields. The authors give many examples to
illustrate the various categories and the properties of the
pegmatites described. They identify the Brazilian aquamarine deposits as primarily of the zoned to (slightly) complex type, a n d from moderate t o shallow in depth
(emplacement ranging from 1.5 to 5 km).
Although crystallization of a pegmatite is a complex
process, the most important part is the separation of the
aqueous fluids, rich in rare and volatile elen~ents,from the
magma when temperatures cool to 650'-750C At about
550Cthe magma crystallizes completely and geodes start
to form. Aquamarine crystals generally grow at this stage.

EF

L'aigue-marine au Bresil: 2. Les gites primaires [suite]

(Aquamarine in Brazil: 2. Primary deposits [continuation]). J.-P. Cassedanne and J.-N. Alves, Revue
d e Gemmologie 0.f.g.. No. 112, September 1992,
pp. 7-1 1.
In this second article, Cassedanne and Alves describe the
prospecting, mining, and geochemistry of Brazilian aquamarine pegmatites, based on extensive personal experience
and bibliographic research.
There is little true prospecting for aquamarine deposits
in Brazil; they are usually found by chance. Nevertheless, the
authors propose a number of prospecting guides based on,
for example, the type of pegmatite and the accessory minerals in it. However, these guides can only assess the probability that aquamarine is present, not the quality of the
material or its economic potential.
Mining in Brazil is still rudimentary and erratic.
Although some operations are mechanized, most are very
inefficient. Sorting is always done by hand. The authors
estimate that only 30%of the aquamarines mined in
Brazil are from primary-pegmatitic-environments.
Of the various types of pegmatites defined by different authors, aquamarine pegmatites correspond best to A.
E. Fersman's type 4, with "fluorite, beryl and amazonite,
smoky quartz and some albite, traces of lepidolite and no
gem tourmalines." The formation temperature is about
550CThere is sometimes a local or regional zonation of
aquamarine pegmatites. The associated granites range in

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

age from 510 My in the Arayai region to 650 My in the

Conselheiro Pena region.
EF

The cornflower-blue sapphires of Kashmir. Extract from

a talk given by Dean S. M. Field before the Canadian
Gemmological Association, Toronto, April 1991,
Canadian Gemnologist, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1992, p. 55-58.
This informative paper describes the history of the Kashmir
sapphire mines and their effect on the gem and jewelry
industries.
The first Kashmir sapphires were discovered accidentally in 1881 by local villagers sifting through nibble deposited by an earthquake-generated landslide. Completely
unaware of the potential worth of their find, at first the villagers played with the bright blue crystals or traded them for
an equal amount of "much-treasured" borax or salt!
Later, after depleting the original supply, villagers and
nomads traced the sapphire to an altered pegmatite 50-100
m above the valley floor. Although the host rock proved
friable, so much so that crystals could be removed by hand
or with only crude tools, mining was an exhausting chore
in the thin air at almost 14,000 ft. (4,267 m).
Eventually, the Maharaja of Kashmir learned that the
blue stories were sapphires more beautiful than any in his
collection/and he seized the mines. "No doubt he consoled
the workers with a few bags of salt," comments Field. The
"old mines," as they were called, were soon worked out, as
were a few nearby deposits. By 1981, there was virtually
no commercial sapphire production in Kashmir.
Field intersperses history of the mines with descriptions of sapphires in general and of the cornflower-blue
stones in particular, including the OIDunne sapphire.
Currently owned and exhibited by the Canadian Museum
of Nature in Ottawa, it is cited as an example of a Kashmir
stone thought to be from the original mine. This approximately 17-ct rounded cushion-shaped cabochon, which
once belonged to a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, was
donated to the Sinithsonian Institution in 1973 by Mrs.
Eugene O'Dunne. It was subsequently traded to the W.
Pinch collection, which the Canadian museum acquired
between 1987 and 1990.
/EC

A report of a recent visit to the diamond deposits in Uaoning

Province, People's Republic of China (in Japanese).I.
Sunagawa, Journal of the Geminologiccil Society of
japan, Vol. 15, No. 1-4, 1990, pp. 3 7 4 5 .
Author I. Sunagawa describes his visits to several areas in
the northeast China province of Liaoning, where diamondbearing kiinberlite pipes have been found. The eight-day
excursion was organized by the International Mineralogical
Association as part of its 15th general meeting, held in JuneJuly 1990. The author discusses the geology and mineralo-

Gemological Abstracts

gy of these diamondiferous pipes, only a few of the more than

100 liin~berlitepipes found in northeast Chin;) since 1974.
Many contain enough diamonds to make mining economically feasible. A pipe in Jingangshi was being actively mined
at the time of the visit; mining and processing are described.
Masao Miki

INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Investigation for the discrimination between elephant tusks
and mammoth tusks by ICP emission spectrometry
and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (in Japanese).S.
Sato, N. Horiuchi, M. Yamazaki, and Y.Nishida,
fournal of the Gemmologicd Society of Japan, Vol. 16,
NO. 1-2, 1991, pp. 35-43.
Ecological concerns have resulted in a ban on the use of
elephant tusks and created a need for a substitute. One
response has been the appearance on the market of mammoth, or "fossili~ed,~~
ivory. Elephant ivory and mammoth
ivory are very similar in structure. Because both exhibit
engine-turning, the feature used to separate ivory from its
siin~~lants,
it was necessary to find a more sophisticated
technique to separate these two ivories.
By examining 12 elephant and 16 mammoth tusks,
the authors found that they could distinguish between
the two types by using inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES)to determine weight
ratios of strontium (Sr]to calciun~(Ca).Although the two
materials are similar in composition, the Sr to Ca weight
ratio in mammoth tusks is 0.4-1.1 ( x 1 0 ) as compared to
0.8-4.0 1 x 1 0 " ~
in) elephant tusks.
he authors also discuss a simpler method to differentiate the two ivories: by measuring the peak-intensity
ratio of Sr to Ca by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS).
They then describe the relationships between the weight
ratios obtained by ICP-AES and the peak-intensity ratios
obtained by XRFS.
M m o Mild

Essais de datation et determination de l'origine des emeraudes par la methode rubidium-strontium (Emerald
age and origin determination using the rubidiumstrontium method). Ph. Vidal, R. Lasnier, and J.-P.
Poirot, Revue de Geinmologie (2.f.g.. No. 110, March
1992, pp. 70-71.
This article reports on the application of a classic age-dating technique to key problems in emerald identificationthe separation of natural from synthetic stones, and the
confirmation of geographic origin. The method, called isotopic geochronology, determines the age of a mineral based
on analysis of traces ofrubidium (Rb)and strontium (Sr).
Although this technique is destructive, because it requires
a few hundredths of a carat of the material in question, it
could still be useful on rough emerald or to test large lots of
faceted stones, where a small part could be sacrificed with-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

283

out jeopardizing the value of the whole. The authors describe

details of the technique and provide results for 20 gems (17
natural and three synthetic).
Some of the accompanying minerals show that emeralds can be divided into three different groups. Precambrian
emeralds (Brazil, Zambia, Madagascar) are extraordinarily
enriched with radiogenic strontium; estimated ages range
from roughly 500 to 2,500 My. Mesozoic and Cenozoic
emeralds (Colombia, Pakistan, Afghanistan] show little
enrichment in radiogenic strontium. Because of uncertainties introduced in the measurement by these small concentration values, the ages of these stones cannot be reliably
determined. Synthetic emeralds show very low concentrations of both strontium and rubidium, and geochemical
characteristics that are very different from natural emeraids. In one Zambian emerald, Rb and Sr were actually in the
emerald lattice, and not in its inclusions.
EF
Guided light. K. Nassau, Lapidary Journal, Vol. 46, No. 6,
September 1992, pp. 61-66.
Guided Light is light directed and controlled by means such
as lenses, mirrors, or reflections. Light guiding also occurs
in a faceted gemstone. In this article, Dr. Nassau clearly
and thoroughly explains the concept of "total internal reflection" and its practical applications. In addition, he offers a
technical note to help interested readers understand the
mathematical relationship between Snell's law of refraction and the critical angle.
Dr. Nassau also describes how the above principles
have been used in the development of fiber-optic technology. One jeweler-specific application discussed is a patented fiber-optic illumination system for jewelry display cases.
The primary advantage of this system is the ability to direct
high-intensity illumination on nlultiple objects without
significantly increasing temperature in the jewelry case.
Gustave P. Calderon

Laser tomographic observations of heat-treated sapphire

from Sri Lanka (in Japanese).J. Shida, Journal of the
Gemmological Society of Japan, Vol. 15, No. 1-4,
1.990, pp. 22-27.
Heat treatment of sapphire to enhance body color is a widely known process. However, there have been a number of
reports concerning cracks observed in heat-treated stones during the final plating of finished jewelry. Laser tomography
reveals distinctive patterns in heat-treated corundum from
Sri Lanka. Common characteristics include an unnatural
scattering pattern of inclusions, high-relief fluorescence patterns, and a spiky or triangular pattern caused by structural stress. Scattering and fluorescence patterns were also
observed in naturally colored stones, but the heat-treated
stones exhibited greater transformation in crystal structure,
with high-relief patterns typical. Shifting and movement

284

Gemological Abstracts

of the inclusions as a result of heat treatment also contributes to the structural transitions. Differences in pressure and temperature of treatment will result in a variety of
structural arrangements in the crystal systems, but in virtually every case the uneven stresses in the crystal systems
will create some structural weakness in the stones.
TakashiHir(1g-(I

JEWELRY HISTORY
Beads that speak. E. Blauer, Lapidary joiunal, Vol. 46, No. 7,
October 1992, pp. 20-27.
Blauer outlines and details the cultural significance of the
bead jewelry worn by the Maasai and Samburu tribes of
East Africa. The colors of the beads, the pattern arrangement, and the particular style of a piece may indicate the
wearer's tribe and clan, as well as his or her age, marital
status, wealth, and position within the clan. Some beads,
however, are worn purely for the purpose of ornamentation.
The glass beads, made in Czechoslovakia, are brought
to East Africa by Indian traders, and then are purchased by
the tribespeoplc with money earned through the sale of
their livestocl<.The choice of colors in a piece depends not
only on what beads are available and what is considered
fashionable, but also on which colors should sit next to one
another, which reflects the cultural belief that certain colors are strong or weak. Thc Maasai and Sainb~~ru
tribes also
makc jewelry for tourists, but it is not representative of
that worn by the tribespeople. In tourist jewelry, little regard
is given to how colors are conlbined or patterned.
The author also details the types of bead jewelry worn
by the different age groups and their significance. The article is illustrated with nine color photographs.
This issue of Lapidary Journal is referred to as the
"Bead Annual" and contains eight other bead-oriented artiRT
cles plus a list of bead suppliers.
Heritage happenings: Jewelry takes its place in American
museums. J. Zapata, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,
Vol. 163, No. 11, November 1992, pp. 60-63.
The lack of good jewelry collections on display in American
museums has long been a source of disappointment to those
interested in antique and period jewelry in the United States.
Recently, however, more museum curators in this country are viewing jewelry with the same regard that they
have for other decorative arts. More and more jewels are
being acquired to expand existing museum collections or
build new ones.
American museums that arc following this trend
include the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Walters Art
Gallery, Cooper-Hewitt, Toledo Museum of Art, Newark
Museum, and American Museum of Natural History. The
author outlines the types of jewelry in these collections
and provides the names of some of the curators. It is hoped

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

that these museums reflect a growing trend, and that we will

be seeing more public jewelry collections in the future. Five
color photos accompany the text.
EBM

T h e heritage jewelry market: Uncharted territory.

S. Harkness and J. G. McCleery, with R. Shor,
W. G. Shuster, S. Spencer, M. Thompson, and
R. Weldon, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 163,
No. 8, August 1992, pp. 92-109.
Responding to the growing market for antique, period, and
estate jewelry, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone ()CK) made an
in-depth survey of this segment of the trade. Included among
the 2,500-plus participants were antique dealers, collectors,
pawnshop owners, and jewelry retailers. All were questioned about the volun~eand nature of their sales. Results
of the study show that, despite the recession, most of those
polled thought that business was good to excellent and
should continue strong through 1995. Many other fascinating facts are also covered, including dollar volume (by type
of dealer) and how auction houses and appraisers are faring.
The boom in this market apparently can be attributed
to a more educated and interested clientele, the fact that heritage jewelry is exempt from the federal luxury tax, and the
use of pawnshops as a "banking alternative" in these tough
economic times. One "specific demographic group" that
seems to be seeking heritage jewelry is the professional
woman between the ages of 25 and 45, who wants a piece
of history or of wearable art.
Despite the overall glowing report, a few caveats are
mentioned, including the shortage of quality merchandise,
the detection of stolen goods, and the greater number of
fine reproductions on the market. Accuracy of evaluation and
appraisal of heritage jewelry are two other points to consider
before jumping into this business, fCK advises. Superficial
product knowledge could prove disastrous, and an education
in art history, jewelry design, gemology, metal identification,
as well as appraising, is recommended.
A helpful bibliography and a list of organizations servicing the heritage jewelry industry are included. Statistical
charts and bar graphs are interspersed with photos of period jewelry to illustrate this very thorough presentation.
EBM
Late antique jewellery: Pierced work and hollow beaded
wire. J. M. Ogden and S. Schmidt, Jewellery Studies,
Vol. 4, 1990, pp. 5-12.
This article reports on a scholarly study of two techniques
of jewelry manufacturing that were prevalent during the
late Roman and early Byzantine periods (about 300-600
A.D.):(1)a fine type of pierced work that creates a lacy lattice effect, and (2)hollow beaded wire work used as decorative edging. The authors speculate that the techniques
were developed to give clients the maximum "show" for a

Gemological Abstracts

relatively small iimount of gold, which was more expensive than labor at that time. They cite the "Maximum Price
Edict of Diocletian" of 301 A.D., which set what a goldsmith could charge per ounce of gold worked: 50 denarii
for "normal work" and 80 denarii for "subtle work." The
pierced work and beading would probably fall under the
"subtle" category.
Using a microscope, the authors examined several
examples of pierced work and/or hollow beading from the
period, and then performed various experiments to replicate the authentic examples. Their findings are given in
detail, and the article is well illustrated with both drawings and photographs.
The authors conclude that there were two types of
pierced work. In the sin~plervariety, common during the
third and fourth centuries, a small chisel was used to produce open designs. The finer examples of pierced work,
generally from a later date, were made by punching holes in
a thin sheet of gold that was fixed over pitch, resin, or wax,
and then "opening" the holes using a triangular graving tool.
Although pierced work has been studied for some time,
this is the first formal examination of hollow beaded wire.
Various methods for achieving the effects seen in jewelry
from this period are discussed. Experiments showed that
the gold had to be'of high purity, at least 221~.A tube would
be formed from a thin sheet of gold and then crimped and
rolled between two grooved plates, producing one bead at a
time on the tube. Evidence of charcoal in several examples
suggests that the tube was formed around a thin wooden
twig before it was beaded. The wood not only supported
the tube while it was being beaded, but also kept the tube
from being deformed if it was bent into a circle. The process
of soldering the beaded tube to a jewel would turn the wood
to charcoal.
The article concludes with a discussion of terininology, followed by 34 footnotes for the text.
EBM

Nostalgias y recuerdos de 10s tesoros de 10s galeones Santa

Margarita, Nuestra Senora de Atocha, Nuestra Senora
d e la Concepci6n y Virgen d e las Maravillas
(Remembrances of the treasures from the galleons
Santa Margarita, Nuestra Senora de Atocha, Nuestra
Seiiora de la Concepci6n and Virgen de las Maravillas).
R. Munoa, Boleiin del Institute Gemol6gico Espafiol,
Vol. 34, June 1991, pp. 19-25
Years ago, Mr. Munoa began a meticulous study of silver and
gold, especially the role these metals have played in Spanish
history. His research has concentrated on how these metals and other goods, such as gems, were transported from the
"New World" to Spain in the 1500s and early 1600s. His initial research contributed to the 1984 publication (with
Alejandro Femhndez and Jorge Rabasco) of La Enciclopedia
d e l a P l a t a Espaiiola y Virreinal A m e r i c a n a (The
Encyclopedia of Spanish a n d American Viceregal Silver).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

285

To underscore the importance of these metals, Munoa

points out that treasures from the "New World" financed
entire armies, the Spanish Crown, and an architectural
boom, as well as further travels and discoveries. Transporting
these treasures to Spain, Munoa notes, was complex and
dangerous. Boats leaving the West Indies and other Caribbean
areas were often attacked by pirates or sunk during storms.
Treasures recovered from the galleons Nuestra Senora de la
Concepcih, Virgen de las Maravillas, and Nuestra Senora
de Atocha are the primary focus of this broad article. He
describes his often-nostalgic efforts to reconstruct their
provenance and ultimate destinations. Mr. Munoa has conducted research through Christie's auction house, treasure
hunter Me1 Fisher, the Maritime Heritage Society, and various other sources.
The article includes 18 color photographs and figures
showing some of the treasures found and the metal markings used to help determine their provenance.
RW

The origins of engraved pictorial scrimshaw. S. M. Frank,

Antiques,Vol. 142, No. 4, October 1992, pp. 510-521.
Scrimshaw, which reached the height of its popularity in the
nud-19th century, is the artistic engraving of ivory and bone
from sperm whales and other ocean mammals. The advent
of spenn whale hunting in the Pacific Ocean provided sailors
with an abundance of both free time and marine ivory. As
a result, engraved pictorial scrimshaw came into its own as
an artistic medium. Scrimshaw could be freehand original
scenes or portraits, but was usually traced or copied from
published illustrations. Because scrimshaw was primarily
intended to be souvenirs or gifts, sailors concentrated on
the mainstream rather than the risque. Naval battles, dornestic vignettes, and whaling scenes were among the most
popular subjects.
"Scrimshawing" was best done when the marine ivory
or bone was still fresh and saturated with natural oils. If a
whale tooth, for example, had dried and become brittle, the
whalers would soak it in brine to soften it. Natural ridges
and imperfections in shape would be scraped off, and the root
end of the tooth sawed flat to provide a suitable base. The
surface would be further smoothed by sharkslun or pumice
and then burnished with a cloth. To copy a drawing, the
sailor would lay the original over the ivory and prick through
it with a sailmaker's needle. The pattern of dots left by this
process would be connected by engraving and filled with a
coloring agent.
While scattered examples of professional scrimshaw
exist, for most of the artists it was simply a way to alleviate the boredom of long voyages to and from distant whaling grounds. When the whaling industry began its decline
in the late 19th century, pictorial scrimshaw declined with
it. This fascinating article is richly illustrated and contains
numerous detailed notes.
AGP

286

Gemological Abstracts

A treasury of American crafts. D. M. Bolz, Smithsonian,

Vol. 23, No. 7, October 1992, pp. 30,32.
An exhibit at the National Museum of American Art's
Kenwick Gallery, "American Crafts: T h e Nation's
Collection," celebrated the gallery's 20th anniversary and
showcased its permanent collection, which includes jewelry
by Mary Lee Hu and Earl Pardon as well as 128 other works.
Not just jewelry was exhibited; Tiffany Favrile glass, ceramics, fabric hangings, wood sculpture, and stoneware were also
displayed. Open from September 25 to January 10, 1993,
the show traced the evolution of American crafts in the
20th century. Pieces selected for the permanent collection
are chosen on the basis of aesthetic qualities, historic importance, style, and technical skill involved. It is comforting to
know that, in today's mass marketplace of assembly-line artwork, respect is still being fostered for the unique.
IEC
Victorian Scottish jewelry: Highlander style with a British
twist. V. Swift, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,Vol. 163,
No. 11, November 1992, pp. 55-59.
One of the most popular types of jewelry during the Victorian
era was Scottish pebble jewelry. Inspired by a renewed
passion for all things Scottish (known as the Scottish or
Celtic Revival), these jewels were made in traditional
Scottish motifs and incorporated varieties of quartz from the
Scottish Cairngorm Mountains. Agates were arranged in
colorful patterns to imitate the tartan plaids of the Scottish
clans. Citrine, known as cairngorm, was used as central or
accent stones.
This article covers the history surrounding the resurgence of interest in Scottish heritage jewelry, and provides
names for and reasons behind different elements of a traditional Scottish Highland costume. Discussed are the badge
or clan pin, which showed the crest of the wearer surrounded by a belt and buckle; the "dirk," a small sword
sometimes accompanied by its scabbard; the "claymore," a
great sword with a basket hilt; the "targe" or shield brooch,
which sometimes incorporated the cross of St. Andrew,
Scotland's patron saint; and the ubiquitous Scottish thistle.
The article is an interesting look at the evolution of this
type of jewelry during the 19th century. For those interested in pursuing the subject further, a bibliography is provided. Three color photos illustrate the text, two of which
show examples of the jewels being discussed,
EBM

The winter queen in exile. D. Scarisbrick, Country Life,

March 19, 1992, pp. 70-71.
Using historical references and portraits as sources, the
author describes the impressive collection of jewels that
belonged to Elizabeth, the Princess Royal of Great Britain
(1596-1662) and later Queen of Bohemia.

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Elizabeth's father, James I of England, believed that a

grand display of wealth demonstrated the power of royalty.
A portrait of Elizabeth at age seven shows her already bedizened with ruby and diamond jewels on her clothing, a
pearl and ruby necklace, a diamond earring, and ruby-anddiamond hair ornaments. Scarisbrick also describes suites
of jewelry from other portraits, and she itemizes jewels and
gifts that Elizabeth received at her wedding to Prince
Frederick in 1613. Elizabeth's jewels were to stand her in
good stead, as the fortunes of this once-privileged couple
changed for the worse. Much of her collection had to be
sold or pawned to maintain their household after a Catholic
rebellion usurped them as the Protestant monarchs of
Bohemia. Elizabeth and Frederick were dubbed the Winter
King and Queen because their reign lasted no longer than one
winter's snow.
Scarisbrick is sympathetic toward this gracious queen,
who never lost her dignity or generosity despite her straitened circumstances. Brief but tantalizing, this two-page
article leaves you wanting to know more about one of history's great ladies and her collection of jewelry. Two of the
several portraits mentioned accompany the article, along
with two sketches of jewels and one photo of an enameled
watch that Elizabeth had given to a loyal friend.
EBM

JEWELRYDETAILING
Here today, here tomorrow: How to survive. L. B. Kahn,
Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 163, No. 11,
November 1992, p. 94.
This article is a reminder not to discount prices when times
are tough. Discounting not only sends mixed messages to
the custorncr, it also damages a store's profit margin and pricing credibility. Especially in larger metropolitan areas, where
so many jewelry stores are similar, the art of survival in
the business world is knowing the ins and outs of marketing. Retailers must focus on selling a product and creating
an image that differentiates their stores from others. An
important consideration is merchandise selection. If the
competition is constantly undercutting a store's prices, that
store and its competitors probably have the same merchandise. Therefore, the customer's decision to buy is made
on the basis of price alone. The retailer should set his or her
business apart from the competition by offering a unique
selection of merchandise based on its salability for the specific marketplace. Other suggestions include controlling
inventory turnover, and maintaining a good, up-to-date customer list.
KBS

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Synthesis and characteristics of diamond using nonmetallic catalysis (in Japanese).H. Kanda and M. Akaishi,
Jou~nal
of the Gemological Society of Japan,Vol. 16,
NO. 1-2, 1991, pp. 3-13.
Diamond synthesis by metallic catalysis has been widely
known since General Electric's first success with the process.

Gemological Abstracts

However, natural diamonds presumably do not form by

metallic catalysis. The authors report on their identification
of several noninetalhc substances that are ideal for diamond
synthesis, such as carbonate, hydroxide, sulfate, phosphate,
and borate. Compared to metallic catalysis synthesis (5GPa
at 1300'-1500C) nonmetallic synthesis requires higher
temperature and pressure settings (5.5-8 GPa at 1800'2100C)In addition, the growth rate with nonmetallic synthesis (a few micrometers [110~cubicdirectionto 50
n~icrometers111l~octahedraldirectionin 30 hours) was
inucli slower than that of mefcilhc synthesis (3inm/day). The
different growth rates in the 11 101 and [ I l l ]directions produced by nonmetallic synthesis contribute to the forination of octahedral crystals. Typical features of these crystal
faces are: triangular, hexagonal, and roundish growth patterns
on the (1001 faces; and trigonal and quadrangular pyramid
marks on the (111) faces. To obtain accurate spectral readings, the researchers cooled the synthesized diamonds with
liquid nitrogen before cathodoluminescence spectroscopy.
Careful examination revealed four spectral patterns common
in diamonds: N3 center, H3 center, 575-nm peak, and 430nin band. Although diamonds grown naturally, by metallic synthesis, and by nonmetakc synthesis all share some
spectral features, their spectral distribution patterns differ.
With the cathodoluminescence spectroscope, dian~onds
formed by different methods can be separated easily from
one another.
Takashi Hiraga

TREATMENTS
An interesting 'oiled' emerald. J. I. Koivula and R. C.
Kammerling, Soulh African Gemmologist, Vol. 6,
No. 2, 1992, pp. 6-10.
Examination of an emerald crystal that the owner thought
might have been assembled is the topic of this short article
with three illustrations. The owner had submitted the crystal, which was simply mounted in a pendant, to the GIA
Gem Trade Laboratory in Santa Monica, California, for
identification.
The rough crystal was apparently glued into its 18k
gold cap with a transparent epoxy-like substance. Refractive
indices, read from several rough but flat faces, were 1.57-1.58.
Suspicion originally was raised by the numerous spherical
to semi-spherical bubbles throughout the entire crystal that
were visible to the unaided eye. These bubbles were found
to be enclosed in fluid-filled cavities that ran parallel to the
c-axis of the stone. Microscopic examination also revealed
several small three-phase fluid inclusions, which are typically associated with Colombian emeralds. An oily-smelhng
fluid sweated out of the cavities after the crystal was exposed
for a short time to the low heat of the microscope's darkfield
illumination system. This sweating fluid caused some bubbles to move and others to expand.
On the basis of the viscosity of the fluid, it was concluded that this fluid was probably oil rather than a more solid filler such as Opticon.
/Ec

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

287

Oxidation treatment of the sapphires from Shandong

Province, China. C. Wang, Y. Yang, and G. Li, Journal
of Ccmmology, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1992, pp. 195-197.
Blue sapphires from China arc frequently too dark to be
salable. This article describes a method for lightening such
stones by electrolysis in a bath of molten chemical salts at
940CThe equipment and procedures for this treatment are
described, and visible absorption spectra are given for a natural stone, an clectrolysis-treated stone, and a traditionally

LETTERS
Continued from p. 221

simply accept these names for what they are, and not try
to create some pedigree in an effort to justify them?
Now let's look at feldspar nomenclature. The plagioclase feldspars consist of a complctc solid-solution series
with end members that are pure NaAlSiO or CaAlSiO.
The sodic end member is albite, the calcite end member
is anortl~ite,the intermediate species with increasing calcium content are oligoclnse, andesine, labradorite, and
bytownite. Thcse are all defined as plagioclcise, not as
distinct mineral soecies.
In spite of IMA acceptance of these names (which
were old before the IMA was born), they arc a convenience,
a contrivance, and arbitrary. It would be far more accurate
to refer to the plagioclase' feldspars by their cilbitelanorthite ratios. But the contrivance is a n old one, so it
stands-and makes conversational if not scientific sense.
Sunstone describes a plagioclase feldspar that often
exhibits an optical phenomenon caused by platy inclusions of various compositions. S~insioneis not synonymous with oligoclase (remember, oligoclase is a contrivcince). In the spirit of letting market forces drive
industry-specific terminology, 1 recommend that S L Z I I stone be applied to aventurescent plagioclase feldspars of
variable albitelanorthite ratios in which the aventurcscence is caused by, but not limited to, platelets of hematite or native copper.
The heliolite issue referred to by both Dr. Gubelin
and Mr. Liddicoat was raised first in Dr. Frederick H.
Poughls January 1989 Lapidary Journal "Mineral Notes"
column, in which Dr. Pough renewed his quixotic pursuit of the name heliolite to describe the transparent facetable phase of Oregon labradorite. In his 1983 Journal of
Gemniology article, "Heliolite, a Transparent Facetable
Phase of Calcic Labradorite," Dr. Pough credits the creation of the name to a Mrs. Rogers,
widow of one of the
,
original claimmts at the Plush (southern Oregon) deposit.
There is no mention in that article of the obscure French
references that Dr. Pough uses as defense and justification for heliolite in his 1989 "Mineral Notes" discussion,
in which-by contrast-there is n o mention of Mrs.
Rogers. And, contrary to Dr. Pough's Lapidary Jo~lrnal

288

Gemological Abstracts

hcat-treated stone. It is noted that the stones treated by

electrolysis lost approximately 8% of their weight to the
molten salts bath.
Results arc described as improved clarity and "a pure
blue color." The gray hue that often occurs in high-Fe-content sapphires after traditional heat treatment was not
observed. Unfortunately, the article does not include photographs of treated stones, or information on their possible
identifying characteristics.
Meredith Mercer

claim that the term was "presented" and "approved" at

an IMA meeting in Orleans, France, an official of the
IMA's Commission o n N e w Minerals and Mineral
Names advised m e that "heliolite has no standing as a
mineral name. According to the records, a proposal to
validate the name has never been submitted to this commission." He added that Dr. Poueh's name does not
appear among the list of authors in the abstracts volume
of the 1980 IMA meeting in Orleans. Given Dr. Poughls
contradictory information, I am curious that such reputable scientists as Dr. Gubelin and Mr. Liddicoat would
support such a term.
I suggest that such a varietal name has no true mineralogical value, no value to the gem trade, and will only
add confusion to an already-confusing nomenclature. I
would dearly love to be able to define Oregon sunstone
as a new, distinct, variety of feldspar. Alas, this is not the
case. As unusual as this mineral and location are. the
chemical and physical observations require the conclusion that this material is a high-calcium plagioclase
feldspar, period.
The auestion remains, What do we call this material? First, l m u s t point out that any formal changes will be
met with a great deal of resistance by those pesky market
forces. Moreover, any nomenclature that attempts to differentiate Oregon sunstone strictly by a single physical
characteristic will not be accepted or forn~allyadopted by
the scientific community.
If we can all agree that, by definition, sunstone is
aventurescent feldspar,
. , there is no reason to search for
another name to apply to the transparent Oregon material: Careful examination reveals that there are always
copper lamellae present.
My "entry fee" into this quagmire is that there is no
living person who has mined as many sunstones as I
have: 2.5 million carats and counting. With my partner
and co-mine-owner Larry Gray, we have taken sunstone
from an undervalued, obscure gem material to a place of
industry prominence and respect. Regardless of its scientific propriety, Oregon sunstone is the name that is, and
will continue to be, applied by my partner and myself to
the entire range of production from the Ponderosa mine.
CHRISTOPHER L. JOHNSTON, B.S.
Boise, Idaho

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Index to Volume 28
NUMBERS 1-4

1992

SUBJECT INDEX

This index gives the first author (in parentheses) and first page of the article in which the indexed subject
occurs. For Gem News (GN),Gem Trade Lab Notes [GTLN),and Letters [Let)sections, inclusive pages are
given for the subject item. The reader is referred to the author index for the full title and the coauthors, where
appropriate, of the articles cited. The pages covered by each issue are as follows: Spring (1-781, Summer
(79-1481, Fall (149-218), Winter (219-296).

Agate, see Chalcedony, Chalcedony simulant

Albite
from Mont St. Hdaire, Canada [GN)
Su92:134
see also Feldspar
Alexandrite
cavity filling in (GTLN)F92:192
from Tanzania [Dirlaml Su9280ff
see also ~ t u y s o b e r ~' ~
Alexandrite affect, see Color change
Alexandrite; synthetic
Czochrafski-grown, called
"Allexite" (GN)F92:207
and filling of ruby (GN)
F92:206-207
"Nicholas created"
Czochralslu-pulled, from 1.0.
Crystals [GN)
.
. Sp92:63
.
Algeria
mansfieldite from IGNI
. ,
F92:20 1-202
Allexite, see Alexandrite, synthetic
Almandine-spessartine, see Garnet
Arnazonite
from Brazil [GN)Sp92:58
Amber
from the Baltic [GN]W92:269
damaged by alcohol cleaning [Let)
Su92:140
from the Dominican Republic
(GN)W92:269
with insect "inclusion" [GN)
F92: 199-200
from Russia (GN)F92:200
Amethyst
from Laos (GN)Su92: 132-133
from Tajikistan (GN)
Su92 134-135
from Tanzania (Dirlam)Su92:80ff
from Uruguay (GN)W92:269
see also Quartz
Amethyst simulant
glass mixed in parcel with natural
amethyst [GTLN)Su92:125-126
Amethyst,
synthetic; see Quartz, synthetic
Amphibole

Annual Index

in rock with feldspar, resembling

"Eilat stone" [GN)W92:271-272
Angola
diamond sources and production
(Levinson)W92:234ff
Antarctica
as a potential diamond source
(Levinson]W92234ff
Apatite
greenish blue, from Madagascar
(GN)Sp92:59
synthetic laser products [GN)
W92:277
Aquamarine
from Mozambique, Nigeria, and
Zambia (GN)Sp92:59
see also Beryl
Aragonite
from Peru, marketed as "Victorite"
(GN)W92:269-270
Arizona, see United States
Assembled stones
glass, synthetic opal, and laminated triplet to simulate crystal
opal (GN)F92207-208
green-and-red glass doublet to
simulate watermelon tourmaline [GN)F92:207
rhodolite garnet, iolite, and colorless topaz construct sold as
"Rhodiolopaz" (GN)
W92:277-278
As terism
in synthetic sapphire [GTLN)
W92:266-267
Australia
Biron pink and bicolored synthetic
beryl from (GN)Sp9263-64
diamond deposits in western
region of [GN)W92:268
etched dislocation channels in diamonds from [GTLN)W92:262
ironstone from [GN)F92:201
nonconductive gray-to-blue &amonds from Argyle [Fritsch)
Sp92:35ff
ruby from (GN)Sp92:61
Axinite
from Russia [GN)Sp92:59

Azurite-malaclute
barium sulfate as simulant (GN)
Sp92:66

B
Baltic region
amber from [GN)W92:269
Barium sulfate
to simulate azurite-malachite,
coral, malachite, black "onyx,"
'
sugilite, and turquoise (GN)
Sp92:66
Beryl
dyed beads with coated drill holes
(GN)Su92:136
"golden" cat's-eye [GN)
Su92: 131-132
from Laos (GN)Su92: 132-133
with Lechleitner synthetic enneraid overgrowth (GTLN)
W92:263-264
from Russia (GN)Sp92:59
treated to imitate charoite or sugilite (GN)Su92: 135
see also Aquamarine, Emerald
Beryl simul.int, see Emerald sin~ulant
Beryl, synthetic
Biron pink and bicolored [GN)
Sp92:63-64
hyclrothermal, from Russia (GN)
Sp92:63-64
see also Emerald, synthetic
Book reviews
Ancestral Jewels [Scarisbrick)
Sp92:71
Basic W a x Modeling: An
Adventure i n Creativity
(Tsuyuki)Sp92:70-71
Cameos Old and New (Miller)
Sp92:70
Corundum [Hughes)F92:210
The Encyclopedia of Gemstones
and Minerals [Holden)Sp92:71
Properties and Applications of
Diamond (Wilks and Wilks)
F92:2 10
Brazil
amazonite from (GN]Sp92:58
cat's-eye emerald from Santa

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

289

Terezmha de Goias (GN)

Sp92:60
opal from-cat's-eye (GTLN)
F92: 194-195; hydrophane (GN)
Sp92:63
tourmaline from Paraiba (GN)
Sp92:62, F92:204
Burbankite
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada
[GN)Sp92:62, 5192: 134
remondite-[Ce)with color change,
from Canada (GN)
W92-270-271
Burma, see Myanmar

Calcareous concretion
27 mm, with flame-like structure
[GTLN)Sp92:52
Calcite, see Marble
Canada
color-change remondite-(Ce)from
(GN)W92:270-271
diamond from-[GN) Sn92: 129;
sources and production (Levinson)
W92:234ff
rare minerals from Mont St. Hilaire,
Canada (GN)Sp92:62,
5192:134
Capacitive decay, see Gold
Care of gem materials
amber damaged by alcohol (Lct)
Su92: 140
fracture filling in diamond damaged by ultrasonic cleaning
(GTLN)F92:193
Cathodoluminescence
of Sumitomo gem-quality synthetic diamond (Shigley)
Su92: 116ff
Cat's-eye, see Chatoyancy
Cavity filling, see Filling, fracture or cavity
Ceylon, see Sri Lanka
Chalcedony
blue, from Montana (GN)F92:200
fire agate [GN)Sp92:58
greenish blue (chrysocolla-colored), from Mexico (GN)
Sp92:59-60
from Uruguay (GN)W92:269
see also Quartz
Chalcedony simulant
barium sulfate [GN)Sp92:66
Change-of-color phenomenon, see Color
change
Charoite
simulant (GN)Su92: 135
Chatoyancy
in emerald from Brazil [GN)
Sp92:60
in glass (GN)Sp92:64-65
in "golden" beryl (GN)
Su92: 131-132
in komenrpine from Sri Lanka
(GN)W92:273-274
in opal from Brazil [GTLN)
F92: 194-1 95
in synthctic sapphire (GTLN)
W92-266-267

290

Annual Index

in zircon (GTLN)F92: 197

Chemical composition
of gold alloys (Mercer)W92:222ff
of grossular gamet from Tanzania
(Nassau)F92: 188ff
of hydrothermal synthetic ruby
(GN)W92:278
of peridot-from New Mexico
(Fnhrbach)Sp92:16ff; pallasitic
(Sinkankas)Sp92:43ff
of rernondite-(Ce)as distinguished
from burbankite (GN)
W92:270-271
of sapphire from China (Guo)
W92:255ff
of treatment in black Mabe pearl
(GTLN)Su92:126-127, [GTLN)
F92: 195-196
of zoisite-bicolored (GTLN)
W92:267; blue and green (Barot)
Sp92:4ff; green, from Pakistan
[GN)W92:275-276
Chemical reactivity, scc Gold
China, People's Republic of
blue spinel from (GN)Sp92:61-62
peridot from (GN)Sp92:60
sapphire from Shanclong Province
in (Guo)W92:255ff
synthetic socialite, irradiated (GN)
Su92:139
Chrysoberyl
114-ct yellow crystal from Sri
Lanka (GN)W92:274
see also Alexandrite
Chrysoberyl, synthetic; see Alexandritc,
synthetic
Chrysocolla
in "Eilat stone" from Israel (GN)
W92:271-272
Chrysolite, see Peridot
Citrine, see Quartz
Cleaning of gems and jewelry, see Care of
gem materials
Coating
with acrylic aerosol spray to
improve surface appearance
(GN)Su92: 135
and filling of ruby (GN)
F92:206-207
see also Treatment
Color, cause of
hydrogen in nonconductive
gray-to-blue diamonds (Fritsch)
Sp92:35ff
orange-pink in hydrogrossular
(GTLN)W92:264
in peridot from New Mexico
(Fuhrbach)Sp92:16ff
in zoisite (Barot)Sp92:4ff
see also Irradiation
Color change
alexandrite (GTLN)F92:192
garnet and sapphire from Tanzania
(Dirlam)S~192:80ff
remondite-(Ce)from Canada (GN)
W92-270-27 1
Color stability
fade testing of yellow sapphire,
yellow to brown topaz, and
green spodumene (Let)F92: 150

of radiation-induced padparadscha
color in sapphire (GN)
W92:273-274
of radiation-induced yellow-green
color in grossular (Nassau)
F92:188ff
see also Durability
Color zoning
in cubic zirconia (GN)Su92138
in hydrothermal synthctic ruby
(GN)W92:278
in ruby from Vietnam [GN)
W92:274-275
in sapphire (GTLN)W92:265-266
in Sumitomo gcm-quality synthetic diamond (Shigley)Su92:116ff
Coral simulant
barium sulfate [GN)Sp92:66
Corundum
dyeing and quench-crackling to
simulate ruby (Schmetzcr)
Su92: 112ff; (GTLN)
F92:196-197
and spinel and sapphirinc crystal
(GN)F92:200-201
see also Ruby, Sapphire
Corundum, synthctic
see Ruby, synthetic; Sapphire,
synthetic
Cryolite
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada (GN)
Sp92:62, Su92: 134
Cubic zirconia
bicolored [GN)5192:138
Brcwstcr-mglc refractorneter used
to measure R.I. of (GN)
Su92: 138
new colors of [GN)Sp92:64
unusually small melee [GN)
W92:278
Cuts and cutting, sec Diamond, cuts and
cutting of; Faceting
Czcchoslovakia
moldavite from [GN)Sp92:60-61

D
De Beers
and diamond sources and production [Levinson)W92:234ff
marketing agreement with Sakha
[GN)S~r92:
129-130
and Tanzania (Dirlain)Su92:80ff;
[GN)Su92:130-131
Density, see Specific gravity
Diamond
aggregate of two rounded dodecahedrir [GTLN)Sp92:52
from Canada (GN)Su92:129;
(Levinson)W92:234ff
current and future sources and
production (Levinson)
W92:234ff
damage-to fracture filling during
rccutting and cleaning (GTLN)
F92:193; by firc [GTLN)
Sp92:53
depth of formation (GN)W92:269
mining-at Longlands, South
Africa (GN)5192: 130
from Myanmar (GN)F92:198-199

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

prospecting in Western Australia

(GN)W92:268
from the Russian Federation
[Levinson]W92:234ff
from Sakha [Yakutia],to be marketed through CSO (GNJ
Su92: 129-130
from Tanzania [Dirlan~]
Su92:80ffj
[GN]Su92:130-131
types and their properties [Fritsch]
Sp92:35ff
from Ukraine [GN]Su92 129
from Uzbekistan (GN]Su92:129
from Zaire [GN)Su92:131
from Zimbabwe [GN]W92:269
Diamond, colored
black-[GTLN) Sp92:53; laboratory-irradiated [GTLN]
Su92:124-1 25; (GN)
W92:276-277
brown crystal, in "Renaissance
ring" [GTLN)W92:263
chameleon, 22.28 ct [GTLN]
Su92:124
dark gray with brown octahedral
cloud [GTLN]Sp92:53
filling damaged in (GTLN)
Su92: 123, F92: 193; (GN)
W92:276
fracture-filled-marketed as
"Geq.esis D" [GN)W92:276;
pink, with dark blue flash
[GTLN]F92: 192-193
gray-to-blue, nonconductive
(Fritsclj) Sp92:35ff
green surface on 7.56-ct octahedral
crystal [GTLN]Sp92:53-54
"opalescent" white, from Panna
mine, India [GN]Sp92:58
radioactivity in, measured by gamma-ray spectroscopy
(Ashba~~gh)
Su92104ff
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
automated [GN]Su92:129
in Myanmar [GN)F92:198-199
Diamond, inclusions in
brown octahedral cloud in dark
gray [GTLN]Sp92:53
deep cavity resembling etched dislocation channels (GN)
W92268
etch features-dislocation channels in pink and yellow (GTLN)
W92:262-263; planes in yellow
(GTLN)W92:262-263;
ribbon-like in pink (GTLN)
F92: 193
graining-brown [GTLN]
W92:263; white [GN)Sp92:58
hollow hexagonal columns (not
etch pits] in (Let]Sp92:73
radiation stains on types la and Db
(Fritsch]Sp92:35ff
Diamond simulant, see Cubic zirconia
Diamond, synthetic
chemical vapor deposition [CVD]
[GN)W92:268
green and yellow [GN]
W92:268-269
Sumitomo gem-quality, update on

Annual Index

[ShigIey)Su92:116ff
Diffusion treatment
illuminated immersion cell to
detect (GN]Sp92:67
of sapphire [GN)Sp92:62-63;
(GTLN]Su92:127-128; (GN]
F92:204-205; (GTLN)W92:266
sec also Treatment
Diopside
62.66-ct green, from Tanzania (GN)
F92:201
Djevahirdjian, V.
in n~enioriam[GN)F92:209
Dominican Republic
amber from (GNI W92269
Doublets, see Assembled stones
Dravite, see Tourmaline
Durability
of bleached and polymcr-impregnated jadeite [Fritsch]F92176ff
of fracture filling in diamond
[GTLN)Su92:123, F92:193;
(GN]W92:276
of heat- and/or diffusion-treated
sapphire (GTLN)S~192:127-128,
W92:266
see also Color stability; Care of
gem materials
Dyeing
of beryl beads [GN)Su92:136
of corundum to simulate ruby
(Schmetzcr] Su92:112ffj [GTLN]
F92: 196-1 97
of Mabe pearl [GTLN]
S L I 126-127,
~~:
F92: 195-196
of quartz to simulate emerald
[GN]F92:205-206
of sandstone with tea [GN]
W92:277
see also specific gem materials;
Treatment

E
East Africa
grossular garnet from [Nassau]
F92: 188ff
see also Kenya; Tanzania
Editorials
"The Gems & Gemology Most
Valuablc Article Award"
[Keller]Sp92:1-2
' 1992 'Perfect' Challengers"
[Keller)F92:15 l
"Thank You, Donors" (Keller]
Su92:79
"What Did You Say the Name
Was?" (Liddicoat]W92:219
Emt
garnet from [GN]Su92132
"Eilat stone"
chrysocolla-tind-n~alachite
rock
from Israel [GN]W92:271-272
simulant of feldspar and amphibole (GN]W92:271-272
Emerald
cat's-eye, from Brazil [GN]
Sp92:60
fracture-filling of, with green liquid (GN)F92:205
with misleading spic~~le-like

inclusion [GTLN]Sp92:54-55
from Tanzania [Dirlain)Su92:80ff
see also Beryl
Emerald simulant
beryl crystal filled with green fluid
(GN]Su92137-138
dyed, epoxy-filled, and
quench-crackled quartz [GN)
F92205-206
yttrium alurninuni garnet (GTLN]
Su92: 125
Emerald, synthetic
hydrothermal, with spicule-like
inclusion [GTLN)Sp92:54-55
Lechleitner hydrothermal overgrowth on faceted beryl
[GTLN]W92263-264
Enhancement, see Coating; Diffusion
treatment; Dyeing; Filling; Heat treatment; Irradiation; Treatment
Erratum
Crevoshay spelling corrected (Let)
Su92:140
in gamma-ray spectrum of
radioactive diamond (Let)
F92: 150
Ethiopia
pcridot from [GN]Sp9260

Faceting
"fantasy" cuts (GN]Sp92:60
of pallasitic peridot (Sinkankas]
Sp92:43ff
sec also Diamond, cuts and cutting of
Fade testing, see Color stability
Fakes, see Mineral fakes
Feldspar
nomenclature of sunstone,
labradorite, and heliolite [Lct]
F92: 149, W92:220-22 1
in rock with amphibole, resembling "Eilat stone" (GN]
W92:271-272
Filling, fracture or cavity
of alexandrite (GTLN]F92:192
and coating of ruby [GN)
F92:206-207
of diamond-damage to, during
cutting and cleaning (GTLN]
F92:193; damaged by heat
[GTLN)Su92:123; marketed as
"Genesis II Dian~ond"[CN]
W92:276; flash effects in
[GTLN)F92:192; rough (GN]
W92:276
of emerald [GN)F92:205
lot with green liquid for emerald
treatment [GN)F92:205
use of Opticon (Let)Sp92:73
quench-crackling and oiling of
flame-fusion synthetic ruby in
ThaiLmd (GN]F92:208-209
Fire agate, see Chalcedony
Fire assay, see Gold
Fluorescence, ultraviolet
of bleached and polymer-impregnated jadeite (Fritsch]F92:176ff
in chameleon diamond [GTLN]

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

291

Su92:124
in dyed assembled blister pearl
[GTLN)Su92:127
in dyed black Mabe cultured pearl
(GTLN) F92: 195-196
in dyed corundum beads
[Schmetzer)Su92:1 12; [GTLN)
F92:196-197
in heat-treated yellow sapphire
(GTLN)W92266
in hydrothermal synthetic ruby
[GN)W92:278
in nonconductive gray-to-blue diamonds (Fritsch)Sp9235ff
in opal and synthetic opal (GTLN)
Sp92:55-56
to separate glass and amethyst
(GTLN)Su92:126
in Sumitomo gem-quality synthetic diamond (Shigley)
Su92:116ff
Fourier transform infrared spectromcter (FIlR), see Spectroscopy,
infrared

Garnet
almandine-spessartine from Egypt
[GN)Su92:132
hydrogrossular with orange-pink
color [GTLN)W92:264
nomenclature of nialaya/malaia,
umbalite, and tsavorite (Let)
F92: 149
from Sri Lanka (GN)W92:273
from Tajikistan (GN)
Su92: 134-135
from Tanzania [Dirlam)Su92:SOff
see also Grossular
Gems eJ Gemology
"Challenge" Sp92:68-69, F92: 151
see also Editorials
"Gemulet," see Opal siinulant
"Genesis II Diamond," see Filling, fracture
or cavity
Geneva ruby, see Ruby, synthetic
Glass
cat's-eye (GN)Sp92:64-65
doublet of red and green [GN)
F92:207
green, marketed as Mt. St. Helens
rock (GN)F92:207
imitations of "healing crystals,"
turquoise, and amethyst [GTLN)
Su92:125-1 26
simulant of indicolite crystal (GN)
Su92:138-139
see also Assembled stones
Gold
testing methods and standards
(Mercer)W92:222ff
Graining, see Diamond, inclusions
Grossular [grossularite)
green [tsavoritel-nomenclature
(Let)F92: 149; from Tanzania
(Dirlam)Su92:80ff, (Let)
F92:150; with tanzanite [Barot)
Sp92:4ff
radiation-induced unstable yel-

292

Annual Index

low-green color (Nassau)

F92: 188ff
see also Garnet
Hackmani te
from Mont St. Hilairc, Canada [GN)
Su92: 134
Hawk's-eye, see Pietersite
Hallmarking
of gold jewelry (Mercer)W92:222ff
Heat treatment
of green tanzanite/zoisite (Barot)
Sp92:4ff
of sapphire-from Tanzania
(Dirlain)Su92:80ff; yellow
[GTLN)W92:266
see also Diffusion treatment
Heliolite, see Feldspar
History
of gem mining in Mogok [Kane)
F92: 152ff
of gem mining in Tanzania
(Dirlam)Su92:80ff
of gem-quality pallasitic peridot
(Sinkankas)Sp92:43ff
of heliolite for sunsione (Let]
W92:220-221
Hydrogrossular, see Garnet

I
Iclocrase [vesuvianite]
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada (GN)
Su92:134
Inclusions
in alexandrite [GTLN)F92: 192
bubble in moldavite (GN)Sp92:60
copper in tourmaline from Paraiba,
Brazil (GN)F92:204-205
engraved insect in amber [GN)
F92: 199-200
in hydrothermal synthetic ruby
(GN]W92:278-279
fluid inclusions in Mexican opal
(Spencer)Sp92:28ff
in "Geneva rubies" (GTLN!
Su92: 127
in peridot-from New Mexico
[Fuhrbach)Sp92:16ff; pallasitic
[Sinkankas)Sp92:43ff
spicules in natural and synthetic
emerald [GTLN)Sp92:54-55
in Sumitomo gem-quality synthetic diamond (Shigley)Su92:l16ff
in YAG simulating emerald
(GTLN)Su92: 125
in zoisite (Barot)Sp92:4ff
see also specific host gem material
India
diamond from Panna mine (GN)
Sp92:58
Indicolite, see Tourmaline simulant
Infrared spectrometer, see Spectroscopy,
infrared
Insects
beetles as jewelry (GN)Su92: 131
Instruments
Brewster-angle refractometer [GN)
Su92: 138

gold testing (Mercer)W92222ff

immersion cell-illuminated [GNI
. ,
Sp92:67; used to separate ruby
[GN)Su92: 139
particle-induced X-ray emission
(PEE)analysis of sapphire from
China [Guo]W92:255ff
quartz-wedge simulator, to determine optic sign (GN)Su92: 139
thermal reaction tester-(Fritsch)
F92:176ffj to detect fracture filling in alexandrite [GTLN)
F92: 192
see also Microscopy;
Spectrophotometry and spectroscopy; Spectroscopy, infrared
Irradiation
of diamond, to produce-black
(GN)W92:276-277; dark green
(GTLN)Su92: 124-1 25
of pink sapphire, to produce pinkish orange [padparadscha)[GN)
W92:273
of topaz, to produce green (GN)
Sp92:63
see also Radioactivity
Ironstone
from Australia (GN)F92:2O 1

J
Jade, see Jadeite
Jade simulant
pinite (GTLN)Sp9256-57
Jadeite
bleached and polymer-impregnated [Fritsch)F92: 176ff
repair detected by short-wave U.V.
(GTLN) F92: 193-194
33-metric-ton boulder from
Myanmar [Burma](GN)
Su92: 132-133
Jewelry
baroque pearl in owl (GTLN)
F92: 195-1 96
gold testing and underlarating of
(Mercer)W92:222ff
meteorites in (GN)Su92: 133
period, with Verneuil synthetic
"Gencva rubies" [GTLN)
Su92:127
pierceless earrings with magnets
(GN)Sp9264

K
Kenya
irradiated grossular garnet from
(Nassau)F92: 188ff
Knischka, see Ruby, synthetic
Kornerupine
cat's-eye, from Sri Lanka (GN)
W92:273-274
Kunzite, see Spodumene

L
Labradorite, see Feldspar
Laos
sapphire, beryl, and amethyst from
(GN)Su92:132-133

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

Lapidary, see Diamonds, cuts and cutting

of; Faceting
Lapis lazuli
from Tajikistan [GN)5192:134135
Upis lazuli sirnulant
ceramic (GTLN)Sp92:55
Lechleitner
synthetic emerald overgrowth on beryl
(GTLN)W92:263
Luminescence, see Fluorescence; X-ray
fluorescence; Phosphorescence

Mabe, see Pearls, cultured

Madagascar
apatite from [GN)$9259
multicolored sapphire from (GN)
F92-203-204
pink tourmaline from [GN)
Sp92:62
Malachite sirnulant
barium sulfate (GN)Sp92:66
Malaya [malaia], see Garnet
Mansfieldite
896-cl, from Algeria [GN)F92:201-202
Marble
from Tajikistan [GN)Su92:134135
Mass spectrometry
of fluid inclusions in Mexican opal
(Spencer)Sp92:28ff
Meteorites
in jewelry (GN]Su92:133
moldavite.from Czechoslovakia
(GN)Sp9260-6 1
pallasites with gem-quality peridot
(Sinkankas)Sp92:43ff
Mexico
chalcedony from (GN)Sp92:59-60
opal from Querktaro (Spencer)
Sp92:28ff
pearls from Baja California (GN)
Su92: 126, F92:202
Mica
pinite as jade simulant [GTLN]
Sp92:56-57
Microscopy
of bleached and polymer-impregnated jadeite [Fritsch)F92:176ff
of dyed natural corundum simulating ruby (Schmetzer)Su92:1 12ff
Microthermometry
in fluid-inclusion study of Mexican
opal (Spencer)Sp92:28ff
Mineral fakes
assembled "emerald" specimen
(GN)Su92:137-138
assembled tourmaline specimens
(GN)F92:209, W92:267
glass simulant of indicolite tourmaline crystal (GN)
St192-138-139
synthetic ruby sim~ilantof
Vietnamese ruby crystal (GN)
S~i92:139
Mining
of diamond-in South Africa (GN)
Su92:130; in Tanzania (GN)

Annual Index

Su92: 130-13 1; worldwide

(Levinson] W92:234ff
of ruby and sapphire-in Mogok
[Kane)F92: 152ff; in Vietnam
[GN)W92:274-275
of sapphire in Shandong Province,
China (Guo)W92:255ff
of sapphire and garnet, in Elahera,
Sri Lanka W92:273
in Tanzania [Dirlan~)
Su92:SOff
of tanzanite in Tanzania (Barot)
Sp92:4ff
'Mojave blue," see Chalcedony
Moldavite
from Czechoslovakia [GN)Sp92:60-61
Mozambique
aquamarine from (GN]Sp92:59
Myanmar [Burma]
diamond from [GN)F92-198-199
jadeite boulder from (GN]
Su92: 132-133
peridot from [Kane]F92152ff
ruby and sapphire mining in the
Mogok Stone Tract of [Kane)
F92: 152ff

N
Namibia
ruby from (GN)Sp92:61
tourmaline from [GN]Sp92-62
Natrolitc
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada [GN)
Su92: 134
Nigeria
aquamarine from (GN)Sp92:59
tourmaline from (GN]Sp92:62
Nomenclature and classification
of black opal (GTLN)W92:264
gemology's approach to (Liddicoat)
W92:219
of malaya/malaia, umbalite, tsavorite, green tanzanite, sunstone, labradorite, and heliolite
(Let)F92:149, W92:220-221
of zoisite vs. tanzanite (Let)
Su92: 140
Nuclear Regulatory Commission [NRC]
release limits for radioactive gemstones [Ashbaugh) Su92:104ff

0
Oiling
of turquoise (GN)Su92137
see also Filling, fracture or cavity
Olivine, see Peridot
Opal
black [GTLN)W92:264
at's-eye, from Brazil (GTLN)
F92: 194-195
enhanced hydrophane, from Brazil
(GN]Sp92:63
matrix, silver-nitrate treated (GN)
S~192:136-137
with natural cellular structure
[GTLN]Sp92:55-56
from Queretaro, Mexico~fluid
inclusion study of (Spencer)
Sp92:28ff

sugar-treated, coated "concrete"

[GN)Su92:136
and synthetic opal [GTLN]
Sp92:55-56
Opal simulant
"Ge~nulet~"
glass with synthetic
opal fragments (GN)Sp92:65
glass, synthetic opal, and laminated triplet [GN)F92:207-208
Opticon
caution against excess heat in treatment (Let)Sp92:73
Orthoclase, see Feldspar
"Osmena pearl" see Pearl simulant

Padparadscha, see Sapphire

Pakistan
glass sirnulant of indicolite tourmaline crystal [GN]
Su92: 138-139
glass sirnulant of indicolite tourmaline crystal (GN]
Su92: 138-139
ruby from (GN)Sp92:61
zoisite from (GN]W92:275
Paraiba, see Brazil; Tourmaline
Pearl
from Alabama IGTLNI
~92-264265
from Baja Californiablack(GTLN]Su92:126; blister
pearl in Pinctuda mazatlanica
(GN)F92:202
hollow cores in baroque and blister (GTLN)F92: 195
from Spanish colonial shipwreck
(GN)F92:202
Pearl, cultured
42mm, from Thailand [GN)
F92:202
golden South Seas, from Okinawa,
Japan [GN]W92:272-273
Mabe-assembled and dyed
(GTLN]Su92:126-127; black,
from French Polynesia [GN]
Su92133-134; treated black
[GTLN)F92: 195-1 96
natural-color Polynesian black,
without bead nucleus [GTLN)
Sp92:56-57
from Venezuela (GN)F92:203
Pearl simulant
'Osmefia pearl" Mabe sirnulant fashioned from nautilus shell [GN)
Su92:133-134
Pectolite
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada
(GN]Sp92:62
separation from aragonite [GN)
W92:269-270
People's Republic of China, see China,
People's Republic of
Peridot
from China and Ethiopia (GN]
Sp92:60
from Kilbourne Hole, New Mexico
[Fuhrbach]Sp92:16ff; [Let)

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

293

F92: 150
from Myann~ar[Kane)F92:152ff
from pallasitic meteorites
(Sinkanlcas)Sp92:43ff
from San Carlos, Arizona [GN)
Sp92:60
Peru
aragonite from [GN)W92:269-270
Phosphorescence
in chameleon diamond (GTLN]
Su92: 124
reddish orange, im nonconductive
gray-to-blue diamonds (Fritsch]
Sp9235ff
Pietersite
brecciated form of hawk's-cye, from
South Africa (GN)Sp92:6 1
Finite, see Mica
"Pink Ice," see Cubic zirconia
Plastic, see individual gem simulants;
Treatment
Pyrope-almandine, sec Garnet
Pyrope-spessartine, see Garnet

Quartz
with dumorticrite [GN]W92:271
dyed green, epoxy-filled, and
quench-crackled to simulate
emerald (CN)F92:205-206
see also Amethyst
Quartz, cryptocrystalline, see Chalcedony
Quartz, synthetic
hydrothermal-green (GTLN)
W92:265; ycllow, yellowish brown,
green, blue, and purple, from Russia
(GN)Sp9265-66
Quartz wedge, see Instruments

R
Radioactivity
in cat's-eye zircon (GTLN]
F92:197
in laboratory-irradiated green diamond (GTLN]Su92: 124-125
measured by gamma-ray spectroscopy [Ashbaugh]Su92:104ff
"Rhodiolopaz," see Assembled stones
Ruby
from Australia (GN)Sp92:61
with "glassy" coating and filling
(GN)F92:206-207
mining in the Mogok Stone Tract,
Myanmar [Kane)F92: 152ff
from Namibia (GN]Sp92:61
from Pakistan (GN]Sp92:61
from Tajikistan [GN)
Su92:134-135
from Tanzania-(Dirlam]
Su9280ff; 0.20-ct. faceted, from
Longido[GN]F92:203
from Vietnam (GN)Sp92:61,
W92:274-275
in zoisite, from Longido, Tanzania
(Barot]Sp92:4ff; (GN)Sp9261;
(Dirlam)Su92:80ff
see also Corundum
Ruby sin~ulant
dyed corundum (Schmetzer)

294

Annual Index

Su92: 1l2ff; (GTLN)F92: 196-197

Ruby, synthetic
flame-fusion, sold as Vietnamese
ruby (GN)W92:274-275
fracture-filled, quench-crackled,
and oiled, in Thailand [GN]
F92:208-209
"Geneva," early Veineuil in period
jewelry (GTLN)Su92: 127-128
hydrothermal crystal, 1,930 ct
(GN)W92:278-279
inclusions in hydrothermal (GN)
W92:278-279
lb~ischlcaflux-grown [GN]
Sp92:66
Verneuil simulating Vietnamese
ruby [GN]Su92: 139, F92:209
Russia (Russian Federation, C.I.S.)
amber from (GN)F92:200
axinite and beryl from [GN)
Sp92:59
diamond sources and production
[Levinson)W92:234ff
synthetic quartz from (GN)
Sp92:65
Rutile
from Sri Lanka (GN)W92:273-274

s
Sakha (Yakutia]
to market diamonds through CSO
(GN]Su92:129-130
San Carlos peridot, see Peridot
Sandstone
;is ornamental material dyed with tea
[GN)W92:277
Sapphire
blue spinel from Vietnam as simulant [GN]Su92:138
from China [Cuo)W92:255ff
color-zoned orange and pink
[GTLN]W92:265-266
diffusion-treateddurabilitof
(GTLN)Su92:127-128,
W92:266; in natural-color
parcels from Thailand [GN)
F92:204-205; production of
(GN)Sp92:62-63, (GTLN]
Su92:127-128
dyeing of pale material to simulate
ruby [Schmetzer)Su92:112ff;
(GTLN)F92: 196-197
fade testing to determine color sta(Let)
bility of yellow sapphire
-.
~ 9 2 - 1 5 .0
irradiation of oink to oinkish
orange (padparadscha]color
(GN)W92:265-266
from Loas (GN)Su92: 133
mining-in Myanmar (Kane)
F92:152ffj in Sri Lanka (GN)
W92:273-274
multicolored crystals from
Madagascar (GN)F92:203-204
pink, from Pakistan (GN)Sp92:61
from Tanzania (Dirlam]Su92:SOff
from Vietnam (GN)Sp92:61,
W92:274-275
yellow, heat-treated with unusual
fluorescence (GTLN)W92:266

see also Corundum

Sapphire, inclusions in
from China, zircon and columbite
(Guo)W92:255ff
from Madagascar {GN)
F92:203-204
Sapphire, synthetic
Czochralslu-grown-blue and
green from Union Carbide (GN)
Sp92:66; blue and pink (GN]
W92:277
curved striae in [GTLN]Su92:128
flame-fusion, titanium-doped
pink [GN)Sp92:66
star, with dark reddish purple color [GTLN] W92:266-267
synthetic rutile needles in (GTLN)
W92:266-267
Sapphirine
and spinel and corundum in crystal
(GN]F92:200-201
Scapolite
from Tanzania (Dirlam]Su92:80ff
Serandite
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada (GN]
Sp92:62; [GN)Su92:134
Shortite
from Mont St. Hilairc, Canada [GN]
Sp9262; (GN)Su92134
Sodalite, synthetic
irradiated, from China (GN)Su92: 139
see also Haclcmanite
South Africa
diamond mining at Longlands
(GN)Su92:130
diamond sources and production
[Levinson) W92:234ff
pietersitc from (GN]Sp92:61
Specific gravity
of bleached and polymer-impregnated jadcite (Fritsch)F92:176ff
of gold alloys in jewelry (Mercer)
W92222ff
Spectra
of dycd-corundum ruby simulant
(Schmetzer)Su92: l12ff, (GTLN]
F92: 196-197
of green zoisite from Pakistan
(GN)W92: 275-267
of irradiated ycllow-green grossular @met from East Africa
(Nassau)F92: 188ff
of natural green diamond (GTLN]
Sp92:53-54
of nonconductive gray-to-blue
diamonds (Fritsch)Sp92:35ff
of peridot from Kilboume Hole,
New Mexico (Fnhrbach]
Sp92:16ff
of remondite-(Ce)and burbankite
(GN)W92:270-271
of Sumitorno gem-quality synthetic diamond [Shigley)
Su92: 116ff
of yttrium silicate simulating tanzanite (GN]W92277
Spectrophotometry and spectroscopy
atomic absorption (AA]and directly coupled plasma (DCP),to
measure gold content [Mercer)

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

W92:222ff
gamma-ray, to measure radioactivity in gems (Ashbaugh)
Su92:104ff, [Let] F92:150
see also Mass spectrometry; X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy
[EDXRF)
Spectroscopy, infrared
of bleached and polymer-impregnated jadeite (Fritsch)F92:176ff
of nonconductive gray-to-blue
diamonds [Fritsch)Sp92:35ff
of Sumitomo gem-quality synthetic diamond (Shigley]Su92:116ff
Sphalerite
green, from Pennsylvania [GN]
F92:204
from Mont St. Hilaire, Canada
[GNI Su92: 134
Spinel
blue-from China [GN)
Sp92:61-62; froni Vietnam
[GN)9192138
chrome-type, as diamond indicator
in Western Australia [GN)
W92-268
and sapphirine and corundum
crystal (GN)F92:201
from Tajikistan [GN)
Su92:134-135
from Tnqz.qia (Dirlam)Su92:80ff
Spinel, synthetic
grown frorh natural spinel? [Let)
Sp9272-73
Spodumene ,
fade testing to determine color stability
of green spodumene [Let)F92: 150
Sri Lanka
cat's-cye lcornen~pinefrom [GN)
W92-273--274
irradiated green topaz from [GN)
Sp92:63
sapphire and garnet mining in
Elahera [GN)W92:273
yellow chrysoberyl crystal from
[GN)W92:274
Stability, see Color stability
Sugilite siniulant
barium sulfate [GN)Sp92:66
treated massive beryl-and-quartz rock
[GN)Su92: 135
Sumiton~o,see Diamond, synthetic
Sunstone, see Feldspar
Synthetic
diamond growth methods [GN)
W92:268-296
top-seeded growth combines flux
and pulling methods (GN)
W92:277
see also specific gem materials

T
Taaffeite
3 3 . 3 3 oval
~ [GN)W92:274
Tajikistan
marble, pink spinel, amethyst, garnet,
ruby, and lapis lazuli from Pamir
Mountains [GN)Su92: 134-135

Annual Index

Tanzania
bicolorecl zoisite from [GTLN]
W92-267
diamond mining in (Dirlam)
Su9280ff; [GN)Su92: 130-131,
W92:269
gems from [Dirlam) Su92:80ff
green diopside from Merelani Hills
[GN)F92:20 l
green tanzanite from [Barot]
Sp92:4ff
irradiated grossular garnet from
[Nassau)F92: 188ff
ruby from Longido (GN]F92:203
ruby in zoisite froni [GNI Sp92:61
tsavorite from (Let)F92: 149, 150
Tanzanite
green, froni Tanzania [Barot]
Sp92:4ff
nomenclature for green [Let]
S L I 140;
~ ~ :F92: 149, W92:220
froni Tanzania [Dirlam]Su9280ff
see also Zoisite
Thailand
cultured pearl from (GN)F92:202-203
Thin films, see Diamond, synthetic
Topaz
fade testing to determine color stability of yellow-to-brown topaz
(Let)F92: 150
irradiated green [GN)Sp92:63
radioactivity in, measured by gamma-ray spectroscopy
[Ashbaugh)Su92: 104ff
Touchstone testing
of gold alloys in jewelry [Mercer)
W92'222ff
Tonrrnaline
from Parafba, Brazil (GN)Sp92:62,
F92:204
pink, from Madagascar and
Nigeria [GN]Sp92:62
red, from Namibia [GN)Sp92:62
from Tanzania [Dirlam)Su92:80ff
Tourmaline simulant
bicolored simulant of glass and
tourmaline [GN)F92:209
indicolite crystal sirnulant of glass
[GN]S ~ 9 2138-139
:
watermelon simulant-of red and
green glass [GN]F92:207; of
quartz and tourmaline [GN)
W92:279
Treatment
bleached and polymer-irnpregnated jadeite [Fritsch)F92: 176ff
of chrysocolla-colored chalcedony
[GN)Sp92:59-<50
of opal (GN)Sp92:63,
Su92:136-137
see also Coating; Diffusion treatment; Dyeing; Filling; Heat
treatment; Irradiation; Oiling
Triplet, see Assembled stones
Tsavorite, see Grossular garnet
Tucson Gem and Mineral Show
highlights of [GN)Sp92:5847
Turquoise
oiling of (GN]Su92:137
Turquoise sirnulant

barium sulfate [GN)Sp9266

glass in period jewelry [GTLN)
Su92: 125-126

u
Ukraine
diamond pipes located [GN)S~192:129
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, see
Spectra; Spectroscopy
United States
pearl from Alabama [GTLN)
W92:264-265
peridot-from Arizona [GN)
Sp92:6Oj from New Mexico
[Ful-irbach)Sp92:16ff, [Let)
F92: 150
sphalerite from Pennsylvania [GN)
F92:204
Uruguay
agate and amethyst from [GN)
W92:269
Uzbekistan
diamond from [GN)Su92:129

Venezuela
pearl culturing in (GN)F92:203
yesuvianite, see Idocrase
"Victorite," see Aragonite
Vietnam
joint ventures with Australian
firm [GN]W92:274
ruby and sapphire from (GN)
Sp92:61, W92:274-275
spinel sold as sapphire [GN)
S~192:138
synthetic ruby sold as natural crystals [GN)Su92:139

X-radiography
of fracture-filled diamond [GTLN)
Su92:123
of freshwater pearl from Alabama
(GTLN)W92:264-265
X-ray fluorescence
of freshwater pearl from Alabama
[GTLN) W92:264-265
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
[EDXRFI
of gold alloys in jewelry (Mercer)
W92:222
X-ray powder diffraction
of aragonite [GN)W92:270
of feldspar-and-amphibole rock
(GNI W92:272
of quartz with dumortierite [GN)
W92:271
used to identify pinitc simulating
jade (GTLN)Sp92:56-57

Y
Yeliuda treatment, see Filling
Yttrium aluminum garnet [YAG]
colored, faceted (GN)Sp92:66-67
as emerald simulant (GTLN)
si192: 125

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992

295

laser products sold for cutting

[GN)W92277

Zaire
lower diamond oroduction in 1991
(GN)~ ~ 91321 :
Zambia
aquamarine from (GN)Sp92:59
Zimbabwe
diamond from [GN)W92:269
irradiated grossular garnet from
(Nassau)F92: 188ff

Zircon
chatoyancy of 125.47-ct grayish green
cabochon (GTLN)F92: 197
from Tanzania (Dirlam)Su9280ff
Zoisite
bicolored violetish blue and yellowish green, from Tanzania
(GTLN)W92:267
green-from East Africa [GN]
Sp92:62; from Pakistan (GN)
W92:275-276; from Tanzania
(Barot)Sp924ff, (Dirlam)
Su92:80ff
nomenclature for green (Let)

Su92:140, F92: 149, W92:220

ruby in, from Tanzania (Barot)
Sp92:4ffj (GN)Sp92:61
from Tanzania (Dirlanl)Su92:80ff
see also Tanzanite
Zoning, see Color zoning

Indexes prepared by Dona Dirlam

AUTHOR INDEX

Tins index lists, in alphabetical order, the names of authors of all articles that appeared in the four issues of
Volume 28 of G e m s o)Gemology, together with the inclusive page numbers and the specific issue (in parentheses). Full citation is provided under the first authors only, with reference made from joint authors.

A
Ashbaugh ID C.E.: Gamma-ray spectroscopy to measure radioactivity
in gemstones, 104-1 11 (Summer)

B
Barot N.R., Boehm E.W.: Gem-quality
green zoisite, 4- 15 (Spring)
Bassett A.M., see Dirlam D.M.
Becker G., see Sinkankas J.
Boehm E.W., see Barot N.R.

D
Dirlam D.M., Misiorowski E.B., Tozer R.,
Stark K.B., Bassett A.M.:
Gem wealth of Tanzania,
80-1 02 (Summer)

Jegge E.P., see Schmetzer K.

K
Kammerhng R.C., see Kane R.E.
Kane R.E., Kammerling R.C.: Status of
ruby and sapphire mining in
the Mogok Stone Tract,
152-174 (Fall)
Keller A.S.:
The Gems a)Gemology
most valuable article award,
1-2 (Spring)
1992 "perfect" challengers, 151 (Fall)
Thank you, donors, 79 (Summer)
Kirkley M.B., see Levinson A.A.
Koivula J.I., see Spencer R.J., Sinkankas J.

F
Fritsch E., Scarratt K.: Natural-color nonconductive gray-to-bluediamonds, 35-42 (Spring)
Fritsch E., Wu S.-T.T., Moses T., McClure
S.F., Moon M.:
Identification of bleached and
polymer-impregnated jadeite,
176-187 (Fall)
Fritsch E., see also Shigley J.E.
Fuhrbach J.R.: Kilboume Hole peridot,
16-27 [Spring]

G
Guo J., Wang F., Yakoumelos G.:
Sapphires from Changle in
Shandong Province, China,
255-260 (Winter)
Gurney J.J.,see Levinson A.A.

M
McClure S.F., see Fritsch E.
Mercer M.E.: Methods for determining the
gold content of jewelry
metals, 222-233 (Winter)
Misiorowski E.B., see Dirlam D.M.
Moon M., see Fritsch, E., Shigley J.E.
Moses T , see Fritsch E.

Hanni H.A., see Schrnetzer K.

296

L
Levinson A.A., Gurney J.J., Kirkley M.B.:
Diamond sources and production: Past, present, and
future, 234-254 (Winter)
Levinson A.A., see also Spencer R.J.
Liddicoat R.T.: What did you say the
name was?,219 (Winter)

Annual Index

Nassau K., Rossman G.R., Wood D.L.:

Unstable radiation-induced
yellow-greencolor in grossular
garnet, 188-191 [Fall)

R
Reinitz I., see Shigley J.E.
Rossman G.R., see Nassau K.

s
Scarratt K., see Fritsch E.
Schmetzer K., Hanni H.A., Jegge E.P.,
Schupp F.-J.:Dyed naturd corundum as a ruby imitation,
112-1 15 (Summer)
Schupp F.-J.,see Schmetzer K.
Shigley J.E., Fritsch E., Reinitz I., Moon
M.: An update on
Sumitomo gem-quality synthetic diamonds, 116-122
(Summer)
Sinkankas J., Koivula J.I., Becker G.:
Peridot as an interplanetary gemstone, 43-5 1 (Spring)
Spencer R.J., Levinson A.A., Koivula J.I.:
Opal from Querktaro, Mexico:
Fluid inclusion study, 28-34 (Spring]
Stark K.B., see Dirlam D.M.

T
Tozer R., see Dirlam D.M.

w
Wang F., see Guo J.
Wood D.L., see Nassau K.
Wu S.-T.T., see Fritsch E.

Y
Yakoumelos G., see Guo J.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Winter 1992