UNIT-I

Introduction to Computers
Computer means to calculate something but computer has wider applications
such as for composing programs, for calculations, animation, graphics, health
check, railway reservation, hospitals, and educations Scientific applications as
well as to do many other tasks.
A computer is an electronic device which accept the input data from the user
through the keyboard and sends to CPU for processing the results
Ex: if we want to with draw some money from the ATM first we will give some
information by typing account number, amount to be drawn. This given
information to the ATM is called as an INPUT data
The information can be processed in the ATM is called PROCESSING after done
the process it will displays the results through the monitor called OUTPUT
COMPUTER SYSTEM:
A computer is an electronic device which will take data or instructions from the
user through the keyboard that data received by the CPU And performs the
results. A computer system consisting the following units that are
1 input device
2 central processing unit (CPU)
3 memory unit
4 output device

INPUT DEVICE:Input device is a device which will accept the data from the
keyboard for generate the
Results the input device connected with CPU
EX: KEYBOARD, MOUSE, JOYSTICKS
ARITHEMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT (ALU):
The CPU is the brain of the computer it is made up of different parts. Control unit,
instruction decoder .As well as arithmetic logical unit (ALU) and internal
processor storage units. The CPU actually performs the processing the data as
per
instructions by calculating and selecting an
action through
comparisation .it can performs the arithmetical calculations such as addition,
substraction,multiplication as well as division. And the logical operations are
AND, OR, NOT on the data .A computer can analyze, evaluate, and the match
data with sets of known data that are included in the program
A computer can copy of data from one register to another in the CPU a register is
a small memory space .That is capable of storing a specified number of binary
digits as data .the control and timing control directs the all other parts of the

computer and a complicated instruction decoding circuit determines what

actions should be performed
and the control unit interprets the actions
determined by the decoder and produces the respective control signals
The arithmetic logic unit performs various arithmetic operations such as addition,
multiplication, division as well as subtractions ,All the arithmetic and logical
operations are performed in the CPU uses special storage areas called registers
the size of the registers are the refers to the amount of the information that can
be hold at a time for processing .The CPU processor is power is measured by
counting the n umber of the instructions that can execute within a unit time the
input data is normally stored in a short time storage space ,that data is accessed
by the CPU ,here the CPU can performs the processing the module
MEMORY UNIT:
Memory is the power of storing capacity and the power of the retrieving
capacity, the CPU access the contents from the memory locations there are two
types of memories are available to the CPU one is called primary memory and
the other one is called secondary memory.
Primary memory: primary memory is an in- built memory it contains application
programs and data for processing, a memory module consisting a large of flipflops arranged together with data traffic control circuitry. A flip flop can stores
the binary digits it has two states i.e 0,1 and a flip flop is a smallest memory cell.
It is inter faces to the other parts of the computer system through a set of
address lines, data lines and control lines these are called as address busses
The primary memory device is an expensive it occupy very little physical space
consume very low power
And faster than secondary storage memory these are made with transistors and
very large scale integrated chips these are called the RAM (random access
memory) where any location can be accessed
Directly these are different types
ROM(Read only memory): it is a permanently memory because if the power is
suddenly off and restart the system the existing information was not loss we will
always observed some fixed information it is also called as
Non volatile memory
(We can not loss any data information from the power failures)
PROM:
it can be written by the software programmers we can not changed
EPROM: in this type of memory we can modified the contents many times
EEPROM: in this type of approach we can delete the information by Appling the
ultraviolet rays using the power supply
RAM (Random access memory): it is an dynamic memory, an user can read
and write the information that are used helpful for data processing it is also
called as tempary memory
Ex: we want to adds the information to the document it provide the facilitation
but if not saved the proper information it might be loss when the power is off
hence it is called volatile memory
If we save the information it can preserve
These are two types
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM): it provides the facilitation to the user
for conventional access
Static random access memory (SRAM):it is quite opposite of DRAM it does not
change the storage
SECONDARY MEMORY: if we want to store the information permanently
required secondary memory ,There will be no loss of information even though
power is off (computer stuck)
It is an external storage device to carry the information from one place to
another place

EX:

HARD

DISC

FLUFFY

DISC,

PENDRIVE,

VCD,

DVD

extra

OUTPUT DEVICE
output device is a device which will useful to display the results through
the
monitor
Ex: monitor
CREATING AND RUNNING THE PROGRAMS:
Once an effective algorithm has been designed we can implement it in the form
of a computer program, an algorithm will help us to design the program simply
creating the computer program consisting the following steps These are..
Definition the of the problem, Design, Coding, Testing, Documentation,
Implementation, and Maintenance
Define the problem of ,this must be include the needed output, the
available input
In second step is to design the problem solution
The third step in developing a program is to Code the Program. it must
contains the languages of syntax (or) rules
The fourth step involved the Test the Program to make sure that it will run
correctly.
Fifth step involves the Documentation of the Program, it consisting the
user instructions and program logics extra
The last step is developing The Program Is Implementation, once the
program is complete it needs to be installed on a computer and made to
work properly
Even after the completion of a program it Need To Be Maintained and
evaluated for possible changes
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
Most programming languages are provides the editors for performs the different
operations such editors offers a complete environment for writing, developing,
modifying, deploying ,testing and debugging the programs such software is
referred to as an integrated development environment or (IDE)
An ide is typically dedicated with a specific programming language in
most
IDEs are allows the menu commands to executes the programs. The process of
editing, compiling, linking and executing is essentially the same for developing
programs in any environment.
Simple programming environments are specially designed for C and C++
programming on windows
Another popular IDE is Microsoft visual basic programming and visual studio
2005/visual C++ 2005 expresses edition support
UNIX and LINEX are the most common editors
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
A language is n nothing but a system of communication one to another person s
like Telugu, Hindi, English extra...
Similarly the computer also has languages to provide the communication
between the user and computer hardware.

The human languages having grammar rules .the languages are used for
express our ideas thoughts and emotions
Similarly in order to express our ideas to the computer, the computer languages
are used these are also having the grammar rules called instructions
, an
instructions is a statement that perform a particular task. A programming
language is a language that is made up of a collection of instructions write in
order
That is called is programming language. The computer languages are mainly
divided in two types they are used for the developing the communication
between the user and the computer hardware these are
As follows
Low level language
high level language
The low level languages are also divided into two types
1. Machine language
2. Assembly language
The computer languages are simple and smaller than the other languages
LOW level language:
The language which is directly understand by the machine that type of
languages are called as lower level languages
Machine language:
The fundamental method of representing information to the computer is
an electric pulse ,that which is having two states namely called as low
state and high state ,these two states can be associated with binary
numbers 0 or 1

The machine can always understand the binary digits consequence as

that also called as binary language. Since the computer hardware works
with binary states only.
The machine language as a specific binary code for each instruction
In the machine language each instruction has two formats they are
I.
OPCODE
II.
OPERAND
The OPCODE represent the operation of code and the operand represents the
location of an instruction (or) the address of an instruction within the memory
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE:
Machine language is a language, that computer can understand and follows it is
also made-up of ones and zeros so it is quite difficult to understand for us the
assembly language is developed for overcome the difficulties of the machine
language , in this approach the instructions are composed in the form of the

symbolic code this symbolic code is called as mnemonic code instead of ones
and zeros, this is an easy to understand and for the read
The assembly languages instructions are also contains two formats they are as
follows
I.
Symbolic opcode
II.
Symbolic address
For examples symbolic opcodes are as follows
ADDAdditions
SUBSubtractions
LOADLoad
STOREStore
There is a one to one correspondence with in assembly language and
machine language, the assembly language does not understand directly
by the machine so that the computer cannot executed directly. In order
to understand the assembly language a translator is required to convert
the assembly language into machine language so that the translator is an
assembler
Advantages of assembly language:
There is no need of remembering of all binary OPCODES and address of
memory location
Program correction and modification is very easy
Less time is required for writing a program than the machine language
It is an very easier than the machine language
LIMITATIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
The execution time of assembly language is very high than the machine
language
T he assembly language is an machine dependent, that is designed for
specific computer programming has to be re-written for a different
machine
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE
The low-level languages are machine dependent these are very difficult to
understand for us. But the high level languages are machine independent
languages these are very easy to understand the human beings. The
languages which is directly does not understand by the machine, then that
type of languages are called as HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
These are very easy for composing of programs, modification and
maintaining .the programs are portable from one to another
Like assembly language the programs are written in high level language
the conversion from high-level language to machine language the
translators are required they are called as an compilers and interpreters
These are the software programs used for convert the high level language
to low level language
A compiler can converts the entire program at time where as the
interpreter converts the each instruction of a program at a time
consequence as that interpreter is smaller than the compiler
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Readability: programs written in these languages are more readable

than those written in assembly and machine language
Portability: high level programming languages can be run on different
machines with little or no exchange
Easy debugging: errors can be easily detected and removed
Ease in the development of software: since these commands of these
programming languages are closer to the English language software
developed with easy
High level languages are also called as third generation languages
Software Development Method A soft ware development process is a
structure imposed on the process of development of a software product. A
software development phase is also called as water fall model. it consisting
the five phases, each phase describes the approach to a specific set of tasks

these

activities

are

as

follows

Requirement: it specifies the scoping requirements, it is also software

requirement specification of a document that list outs the user needs it
defines the scope and limitations of the within the organization
Design: it specifies the hardware and software system architecture; it refers
to an abstract of that system representation also called as analysis design
Software design: it represents the software system functions in a form that
can be transformed in to one or more executable programs.
Coding and documentation: this activity reduces a design to code and may
be the most obvious part of the software engineering job, but it is not
necessarily the largest portion of the task
Testing: testing of the software code especially where code written by two
different engineers must work together it is generally responsible of the
software engineer
Maintenance: it deals the developments of software as well as maintenance;
it is every software having lots of questions and problems which leads to the
next phase of the software
Program learning techniques are two types

Algorithm: as per Nicklaus wirth states

an algorithm is a step by step
procedure representation
It is a part of the plan for computer program it is an effective procedure for
solving the problem
It can be stated using sequence, decision and repetition
The program are the combinations of the algorithms and data al most every
algorithm contains data usually the data having variables
Ex: Area Of Triangle
EX: 2 Additions Of Two
Variables
1. STEP 1: START
2. STEP 2: INPUT A, B, H
3. STEP 3: INPUT ENTER THE B, H VALUES
VALUES
4. STEP 4: A=0.5*B*H;

STEP 1 : START
STEP 2 : INPUT A,B,C;
STEP 3 : INPUT ENTER A,B
STEP 4 :C=A+B

5. STEP 5: PRINT A
6. STEP 6: STOP

STEP 5 : PRINT C
STEP 6 : STOP

An algorithm having number of steps and steps involving decision making

and some steps involve
Repetition therefore the algorithm having sequence, decision and repetition
Ex: if the kettle does not contain, fill the kettle
1. plug the kettle into the power point, switch on
2. if the tea pot is not empty, then empty the teapot
3. place tea leaves in the tea pot
4. if the water in the kettle is not boiling then go to step 5
5. switch of the kettle
6. pour water from the kettle into the teapot
FLOWCHART: it is an step by step diagrammatic representation and it provides
the appropriate steps to be followed in order to arrive at the solution to a
problem.
It comprises a standard set of shaped boxes that are interconnected by a flow
lines these are indicate the direction of the the flow of control between the
boxes
Flow charts facilitates the communication between the programmers and
business persons
STANDARDS FOR FLOWCHARTS:
The following standard consisting the flowcharts
a flow chart must be drawn on white, unlined 8 x 11 paper
Flow chart starts on the top of the page and flow down on to the right
Only standard flowchart symbols are allowed
Draw arrows between the symbols
Basic symbols of flowcharts

Moving of an arrows
ADVANTAGES OF FLOWCHARTS
Communication: flowcharts are a better way for communicating the logic of a
system to all concerned

Effective Analysis: using this problem can be analyzed more effectively

Proper Documentation: program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation needed for various purposes
Efficient Coding: flow charts act as a guide or blue print during the system
analysis
Proper Debugging: its helps in the debugging process
Efficient Program Maintenance: the maintain of an operating of program
become an easy
LIMITATIONS OF FLOWCHARTS:
Complex, logic: sometimes the programs logics are complicated in such a
case a flow chart becomes complex.
Alternations and modifications: if alternation require the flowchart may need
to be redrawn completely
Reproduction: since the flowchart symbols cannot be typed in, the
reproduction of a flowchart becomes a problem
The essential of what has to be done can easily be lost in the technical details
Examples of flowcharts: