2

The Key Principles

of Economics
Chapter Summary
This chapter covers five key principles of economics, the simple, self-evident truths that most people
readily accept. If you understand these principles, you are ready to read the rest of the book, which will
show you how to do your own economic analysis. The five key principles are:
Principle of Opportunity Cost: The opportunity cost of something is what you sacrifice to get it.
The Marginal Principle: Increase the level of an activity as long as its marginal benefit exceeds
its marginal cost. Choose the level at which the marginal benefit equals the marginal cost.
Principle of Voluntary Exchange: A voluntary exchange between two people makes both
people better off.
Principle of Diminishing Returns: Suppose that output is produced with two or more inputs,
and we increase one input while holding the other inputs fixed. Beyond some pointcalled the
point of diminishing marginal returnsoutput will increase at a decreasing rate.
The RealNominal Principle: What matters to people is the real value of money or incomeits
purchasing powernot the face value of money or income.

Learning Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Apply the principle of opportunity cost.

Apply the marginal principle.
Apply the principle of voluntary exchange.
Apply the principle of diminishing returns.
Apply the real-nominal principle.

 Study Tip
While the concepts introduced in this chapter may seem very elementary, they are quite
important. In fact, the rest of the book is an application of the principles in this chapter. As
you go through the text, you may wish to look back and see how different topics are
examples of these five principles.

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18 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

2.1 The Principle of Opportunity Cost

To make a good decision, we must compare the benefits of the decision with the costs. The important cost
concept for decision making is that of the opportunity cost, what you sacrifice to get something. It is
important to recognize that opportunity costs often dont involve spending money. Waiting in line is a
cost: You sacrifice time you cant get back. Would you wait in line for 15 minutes at a gas station to save
$1 on a tank full of gas instead of paying $1 more at a gas station with no line? In this case you need to
recognize that sacrificing your time is part of the cost of the gasoline. Only if you value 15 minutes of
time at less than $1 would you want to wait in line.

Principle of Opportunity Cost

The opportunity cost of something is what you sacrifice to get it.
An opportunity cost can involve both time and money. When evaluating the costs of college, some costs,
such as tuition and books, are obvious because they involve spending money. Some costs are not obvious
because they dont involve spending money. The income you give up by going to college instead of
taking a full-time job is a cost. You sacrificed the income you could have earned to go to college. Some
things we think of as costs are not relevant to the decision. For example, whether you go to college or find
a full-time job, you must have a place to live and food to eat. As a result, room and board arent relevant
costs to the decision to go to collegeyou would have to pay these costs regardless of your choice.
Like you and other people, economies (countries) face opportunity costs. Economists use the production
possibilities curve to represent these costs. The production possibilities curve shows the possible
combinations of products that an economy can produce, given that its productive resources are fully
employed and efficiently used. The production possibilities curve shows us the cost of one good in terms
of the amount of the other good we must sacrifice. The bowed-out shape of the production possibilities
curve reflects the fact that the opportunity cost of a good increases as we produce more of it. Look at
Figure 2.1 in your text. The first few tons of wheat, moving from point a to point b, require little sacrifice
of steel. This makes sense as there are some resources (fertile land) that are very suited for wheat
production but not very well suited for steel production. As we produce more and more wheat, however,
we must begin to use resources that are better suited for steel production, and thus, we give an increasing
amount of steel for each additional unit of wheat. You can see this as we move from point c to point d in
Figure 2.1.

 Study Tip
The concept of opportunity cost is one of the most important concepts in microeconomics.
Make sure that you can recognize all the costs of a particular decision, both the monetary
costs and the opportunity costs. For an individual, the other uses of your time are an
important source of opportunity cost. You also need to recognize when particular costs are
not relevant to a decision.

Lets review an Application that answers a key question:

1. What is the opportunity cost of running a business?

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 19

APPLICATION 1: DONT FORGET THE COSTS OF TIME AND INVESTED

FUNDS
When you use your own time and money in a business, you sacrifice the opportunity to use those
resources in other ways. You sacrifice the opportunity to trade your time for the money you could
earn working for someone else, as well as the interest you could have earned investing the money
youve used in your business. Even though you dont write a check for these costs, they are
important costs for decision making. As a result, revenues must not only cover the explicit costs
of doing business, they must also replace the implicit costs of the owners time and invested
funds in order for the business to be profitable. If you are not able to cover these implicit costs,
you will likely not start your own business.

2.2 The Marginal Principle

Economics is concerned with making choices. We will assume that the relevant choice is whether to
change a current activity level by a little bit. That is, do we hire one more worker? Produce one more unit
of output? Purchase one more slice of pizza? This is what is known as a marginal change. To make a
good decision, we compare the marginal benefit, the additional benefit resulting from a small increase in
some activity, with the marginal cost, the additional cost resulting from a small increase in some activity.
If the marginal benefit is greater than the marginal cost, we want to increase the level of the activity.
Doing so will increase our total well-being by the difference between the marginal benefit and the
marginal cost. If the marginal benefit is less than the marginal cost, we want to reduce the level of the
activity. If they are equal, we are at the optimal amount of the activity.
Your text provides four examples:
How many movie sequels?
What should it cost to rent college facilities?
How strict should automobile emissions standards be?
What should the speed limit be?

Marginal Principle
Increase the level of an activity as long as its marginal benefit exceeds its marginal cost. Choose the level
at which the marginal benefit equals the marginal cost.

&

A marginal change refers to a small change in some activity. You can think of a marginal change
as taking the next step in a logical sequence. You would never, for example, compare the salary of
someone with a Ph.D. against someone who didnt finish high school. Why not? These arent two logical
options. A person doesnt decide to either earn a Ph.D. or drop out of high school. She decides whether to
drop out of high school or get a high school diploma. She next decides whether to go to college or not.
Upon graduating college, she decides whether to take a job or go to graduate school. These are each
sequential steps, and thus, we can make relevant comparisons between them. A person will continue to go
to school as long as the marginal benefit of the next level of schooling exceeds the marginal cost.

&

A restaurant might use the marginal principle when deciding whether to open for breakfast in
addition to lunch. Since many of the costs of the restaurant (rent, payments for equipment) are
fixed, the only additional cost of opening for breakfast would be the food, labor, and utilities needed to
open earlier. If the revenue from selling breakfast exceeds these costs, the restaurant should open for
breakfast.

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20 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

Lets review an Application that answers a key question we posed at the start of the chapter:
2. How do people think at the margin?

APPLICATION 2: HOW FAST TO SAIL?

In this Application we see the trade-off between time and money. A cargo ship can reduce travel
time by sailing faster, thus allowing it to deliver more cargo and earn more revenue. Speed,
however, is costly; sailing faster increases the amount of fuel consumed. To determine the
optimal speed, you would ask whether the increased revenue from delivering more cargo is
greater than the increased fuel cost from sailing faster. If it is, you increase your speed.

 Study Tip
Decision making based on the marginal principle is the basis for all decisions in this book. Be
sure you understand the concepts of marginal benefit and marginal cost. Recognize that people
should continue to take an action as long as the marginal benefit is greater than the marginal cost.

2.3 The Principle of Voluntary Exchange

The principle of voluntary exchange states that a voluntary exchange between two people makes both
people better off. Think about the last time you purchased a movie ticket. Since you were willing to pay
the price of a ticket, you must have valued seeing the movie more than the ticket cost. The theater
manager knows that the ticket price was higher than the theaters cost of letting you see a movie. Neither
of you felt cheated in the transaction because you were both better off.

&

Most of us recognize this principle in practice. All of us realize that we are better off trading our
time for money and then spending that money on other goods and services. Many people choose
to eat dinner in a restaurant, even though they could make the same food at home. This principle works
for trades between individuals and, as we will see later in the book, for trades between countries as well.
Lets review an Application that answers a key question:
3. What is the rationale for specialization and exchange?

APPLICATION 3: JASPER JOHNS AND HOUSEPAINTING

Why would a famous painter hire someone to paint his house? In the case of Jasper Johns, it is
better for him to specialize in painting artwork, even though he could probably do a better (and
faster) job of painting his house than could someone else. Why? Opportunity cost. If Jasper Johns
can hire someone to spend 10 days painting his house for $150 per day, or paint it himself in one
day (by giving up the opportunity to earn $5,000 for his art), he is clearly better off spending
$1,500 hiring someone. In fact, he is better off by $3,500, the $5,000 that he earned minus the
$1,500 that he paid to have his house painted.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 21

 Remember
A voluntary trade between two people will always leave both people better off.

2.4 The Principle of Diminishing Returns

The principle of diminishing returns says that if we produce output using two or more inputs and change
the amount of only one input, beyond some point output will increase at a decreasing rate.

&

Think of a local fast-food restaurant and imagine that they currently have only two workers on a
shift. If the restaurant hired an additional person for that shift, would they be able to serve more
food? Yes. That person could staff another register or cook more burgers or take care of the drive-thru
business. What if the restaurant kept hiring people? With a fixed number of registers, preparation areas, or
grill space, it would be harder for additional workers to add much to output because of the fixed amount
of capital. In fact, at some point the workers would start to get into each others way and output might
actually fall as we hire more workers.
Lets review an Application that answers a key question:
4. Do farmers experience diminishing returns?

APPLICATION 4: FERTILIZER AND CROP YIELDS

Adding fertilizer increases crop yields, but after adding the first bag, each additional bag adds less
to our output than the previous bag. So, as you can see in Table 2.1 in the text, adding the first
bag of fertilizer increases output by 35 bushels per acre. The second bag increases output by only
15 bushels, and each additional bag of fertilizer adds a smaller amount to output. This is the
principle of diminishing returns. More fertilizer increases output, but each additional bag adds a
smaller and smaller amount to total output.

 Remember
Diminishing returns refers to the rate of change in output: Output grows at a smaller rate as
we add additional units of a variable input. Diminishing returns does not refer to the level
of output.

2.5 The RealNominal Principle

This principle states that what matters to people is the purchasing power of money, not its face value.
Suppose that you earn $500 per month, and you spend $250 on rent, $150 on food, and $100 on
entertainment. If your money income increases to $1,000, are you better off? If prices stay the same, you
are because youll be able to buy more things. If, however, your rent increases to $500, food to $300, and
the cost of entertainment to $200, you are no better off earning $1,000 than you were earning $500. Why?
What you can purchase with your money income is the same in both cases.

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22 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

For example, would you rather earn $2 per hour or $7.25 per hour? The answer depends on what
you can buy with that money. Even though at $7.25 per hour the dollar amount of the minimum
wage is higher in 2011 than it was in 1974, the purchasing power of the 1974 minimum wage of
$2 per hour was much greater. That is, even though you earned a smaller number of dollars (the
nominal value, or the face value of an amount of money) those fewer dollars were able to
purchase more stuff (the real value, or the value of money in terms of the quantity of goods it can
buy).

 Remember
The important concern in economics is not how many dollars you have, but what you can
purchase with those dollars. This is why we distinguish between real and nominal amounts.
Lets review an Application that answers a key question:
5. How does inflation affect lenders and borrowers?

APPLICATION 5: REPAYING STUDENT LOANS

Inflation reduces the purchasing power of a given sum of money. Borrowers like inflation (as
they give up fewer goods in repaying their loans), while lenders do not like inflation (the nominal
dollars they receive in repayment cant buy as much as the dollars they loaned). When the
nominal amount of the loan is fixed, inflation allows the loan to be repaid in less time. Deflation
increases the amount of time that it takes to repay the loan.

Activity
Suppose that you earn $12 per hour. (Thats the same as 20 cents per minute.) Think about the following
situations and consider the opportunity cost involved.
a. At the grocery store you have the choice to spend $1.50 for a package of unsliced mushrooms or to
spend $1.90 for a package of presliced mushrooms. How long would you have to spend slicing
mushrooms to be better off buying the presliced mushrooms?
b. There are two gas stations on opposite corners of the street. One sells gasoline for $2.35 per gallon,
the other for $2.32 per gallon. Your gas tank holds 10 gallons of gas. There is a line at the gas station
with the lower price, and you anticipate that you will spend five minutes waiting in that line. You
could buy gas now at the gas station with the higher prices. What should you do?

Answers
a. Since you can earn 20 cents per minute, if you would spend more than 2 minutes slicing mushrooms
you should buy the presliced mushrooms.
b. You will save 30 cents buying gasoline at the lower priced station since you save 3 cents per gallon
on each of the 10 gallons that you purchase. In terms of time, 30 cents is only one and a half minutes.
You are better off buying the higher priced gasoline.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 23

Key Terms
Marginal benefit: The extra benefit resulting from a small increase in some activity.
Marginal cost: The additional cost resulting from a small increase in some activity.
Nominal value: The face value of an amount of money.
Opportunity cost: What you sacrifice to get something.
Production possibilities curve: A curve that shows the possible combinations of products that an
economy can produce, given that its productive resources are fully employed and efficiently used.
Real value: The value of an amount of money in terms of what it can buy.

Practice Quiz
(Answers are provided at the end of the Practice Quiz.)
1. The principle of opportunity cost evolves from the concept of
a. consumer spending.
b. wealth.
c. poverty.
d. scarcity.
2. A friend offers you a Coke, a Pepsi, or a Diet Coke. You dont like Diet Coke, so after some thought,
you take the Pepsi. What is the opportunity cost of your choice?
a. the Pepsi
b. the Coke
c. the Coke plus the Diet Coke
d. the Coke plus the Diet Coke plus the Pepsi
3. Which of the following is NOT an opportunity cost of attending college?
a. the wages that you could have earned while going to class
b. tuition
c. the cost of books
d. the cost of housing

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24 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

4. This question tests your understanding of Application 1 in this chapter. From the choices A, B, and C
below, choose the ones that you would include in your estimate of the opportunity cost of doing
business.
A: the expenses for mowers and edgers
B: the interest that the funds the owner invested in the business could have earned at the bank or
elsewhere
C: the value of the owners time when used in the best alternative activity
a.
b.
c.
d.

A and B
B and C
A and C
A, B, and C

5. The table below shows the production possibilities for an economy that produces two goods: lobsters
and boats. What is the opportunity cost of moving from point C to point D?
A
B
C
D
E
a.
b.
c.
d.

Lobsters
0
100
200
300
400

Boats
10
9
7
4
0

3 boats
100 lobsters
100 lobsters and 3 boats
4 boats

6. Refer to the graph below. Which move best describes an increase in efficiency in the use of existing
resources?

a.
b.
c.
d.

a move from i to d
a move from c to d
a move from d to g
None of the above. Higher efficiency in the use of resources is not represented by a move but by a
shift of the production possibilities curve.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 25

7. Refer to the graph below. At which point, or points, are resources fully and efficiently employed?

a.
b.
c.
d.

at points c and d only

at point g only
at points c, d, and g
at point i only

8. Refer to the graph below. Which of the following factors can cause a move from point d to points g or h?

a.
b.
c.
d.

The economys resources increase.

The opportunity cost of producing farm goods or factory goods changes.
The economy utilizes its resources fully.
Resources that used to be more suitable for producing farm goods are now perfectly adaptable to
the production of either farm goods or factory goods.

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26 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

9. Refer to the graph below. According to this graph, the opportunity cost of producing an additional
20 tons of wheat, from 140 to 160 tons, is

a.
b.
c.
d.

higher with normal precipitation than during a drought.

higher during a drought than with normal precipitation.
the same with normal precipitation or during a drought.
zero during a drought.

10. Refer to the graph below. What can we conclude about opportunity cost based on the shape of this
production possibilities curve?

a. The curve shows that as more of a good is produced, the higher the opportunity cost of producing
that good.
b. Resources appear to be perfectly substitutable, or equally adaptable to the production of either
bullet trains or space missions.
c. We can conclude that as you move downward along the curve, the opportunity cost of producing
bullet trains decreases.
d. The economys resources are abundant.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 27

11. Refer to the table below. What is the marginal benefit of the fourth slice of pizza?
Slices of Pizza Total Cost Total Benefit
1
$1.50
$4.00
2
$3.00
$7.00
3
$4.50
$9.00
4
$6.00
$10.50
5
$7.50
$10.75
a.
b.
c.
d.

$6.00
$1.50
$10.50
$4.50

12. The table below shows the marginal benefit that Ted earns from keeping his store open one more
hour. Ted has a marginal cost of $90 per hour. How many hours should Ted stay open?
Hours
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
a.
b.
c.
d.

Marginal Benefit
Per Hour
200
140
110
70
40
10
0

21
22
23
24

13. The optimal amount of an activity is determined at the point where the activity yields
a. maximum marginal benefit.
b. minimum marginal cost.
c. equal value of marginal benefit and marginal cost.
d. zero marginal cost.

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28 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

14. Refer to the graph below. The price line indicates the additional revenue (or additional benefit)
obtained from selling an additional unit of output. The marginal cost curve shows the cost of
producing an additional unit. What is the optimal level of output?

a.
b.
c.
d.

55 units, where price is greater than marginal cost

85 units, where price equals marginal cost
100 units, where price is below marginal cost
either 55 units or 100 units, or as long as price differs from marginal cost

15. This question tests your understanding of Application 4 in this chapter: Fertilizer and crop yields. Do
farmers experience diminishing returns? The table below shows the relationship between the amount
of fertilizer and the corn output, all else the same.

What causes a farmer to experience diminishing returns?

a. The fact that he doubles up all of his inputs at once in order to increase his crop yield.
b. The fact that he changes just one of the inputs, fertilizer, in order to increase crop yield.
c. The ability of the farmer to increase his crop yield faster than the rate of increase in fertilizer.
d. The farmer experiences diminishing returns anytime this years crop is less than last years crop.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 29

16. Which of the following key principles of economics is the principle of voluntary exchange?
a. If participation in a market is voluntary, both the buyer and the seller must be better off as a result
of a transaction.
b. What matters to people is the real value of money or incomeits purchasing powernot the face
value of money or income.
c. What matters in decision making is what happens at the margin.
d. The opportunity cost of something is what you sacrifice to get it.
17. From the principle of voluntary exchange, we conclude that
a. often buyers are made better off and sellers are worse off when an exchange is made.
b. often sellers are made better off and buyers are worse off when an exchange is made.
c. both the buyer and the seller must be better off as a result of a transaction.
d. both the buyer and the seller might be worse off as a result of a transaction.
18. According to the real-nominal principle, what matters to workers is the real wage rate (or purchasing
power of wages). The real wage rate
a. always increases when the nominal wage rate increases.
b. always increases when the nominal wage rate decreases.
c. may increase or decrease when nominal wages change.
d. will not change with a change in the nominal wage rate.
19. Which of the following is NOT an example of nominal value?
a. a price shown on a clothing tag in a retail store
b. the value you could sell your house for at an auction today
c. tuition costs that are adjusted for inflation
d. the amount of money you receive from the bank as interest on a deposit
20. James has enough money to buy a car at the market price from 15 years ago, but that amount of
money is only half of what he would need to buy it today. Which principle does this problem
represent?
a. the principle of opportunity cost
b. the principle of voluntary exchange
c. the principle of diminishing returns
d. the real-nominal principle
21. During your next job interview, you will use the marginal principle to explain why you should be
hired. What will you say?
22. Think about opportunity cost. What is the opportunity cost of you attending college? Write a short
essay describing what it really costs you to attend.
23. Which economic principles are involved in the analysis of scarcity using a production possibilities
curve?
24. Among the reasons for the use of marginal analysis in economics is that there are natural and
technical constraints that prevent us from achieving unlimited results. Provide five examples of
situations in which additional effort yields diminishing returns.

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30 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

25. Think about the discussion of speed and safety in the text. Drivers have to decide whether or not to
speed as they drive down the interstate. Explain how each of the following factors affects the decision
to speed:
i. a smaller likelihood of getting caught speeding.
ii. better safety equipment in cars.
iii. increased fines for speeding.

Answers to the Practice Quiz

1. d. The concept of opportunity cost is based on the principle of scarcity. Because resources are scarce,
there exists a trade-off for every choice you make.
2. b. Opportunity cost is the value of your next best choice, which in this case, is the Coke.
3. d. Housing is not an opportunity cost because you have to live somewhere anyway. However, you are
implicitly giving up the wages that you could have earned.
4. b. Opportunity costs are costs stated in terms of the alternative use, such as how the funds could have
been used, or the value of your time when used in the best alternative activity.
5. a. Three boats must be sacrificed (7 4) in order to increase the production of lobsters by 100.
6. a. When the economy moves from a point inside to a point on the production possibilities curve,
resources become fully and efficiently employed.
7. a. As long as a point lies on the curve, resources are fully and efficiently employed at that point.
8. a. An increase in the amount of resources available to the economy shifts the production possibilities
curve outward.
9. c. In both instances, the economy must give up to 40 metric tons of aluminum in order to increase
wheat production from 140 to 160 tons.
10. b. Since the production possibilities curve is a straight line, the opportunity cost remains constant as
you move downward along the line. A linear production possibilities curve reflects perfect
substitutability of resources in production.
11. b. The marginal benefit is the extra benefit provided by the fourth slice of pizza: $10.50 $9.00 =
$1.50.
12. 2. The marginal benefit of the 23rd hour is only $70, and so Ted would not want to pay costs of $90
to stay open for an hour if the benefit is only $70.
13. c. According to the marginal principle, we should increase the level of an activity if its marginal
benefit exceeds its marginal cost and reduce the level of an activity if its marginal cost exceeds its
marginal benefit. If possible, pick the level at which the activitys marginal benefit equals its marginal
cost. Maximum, minimum, or zero are not the measures of optimality.
14. b. Stop the level of an activity where marginal benefit (or price in this case) equals marginal cost.

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Chapter 2: The Key Principles of Economics 31

15. b. The notion of diminishing returns applies to all inputs to the production process. Because the
farmer is changing just one of the inputs, fertilizer, the output will increase, but at a decreasing rate.
Eventually, additional fertilizer will actually decrease output as the other nutrients in the soil are
overwhelmed by the fertilizer.
16. a. According to the principle of voluntary exchange, a voluntary exchange between two people makes
both people better off.
17. c. According to the principle of voluntary exchange, if participation in a market is voluntary, both the
buyer and the seller must be better off as a result of a transaction.
18. c. Changes in the real wage rate depend not only on the nominal wage rate but also on the price level.
19. c. When costs are adjusted for inflation, they represent real values. An increase in prices due to
inflation does not represent an actual increase in the amount of the good or service provided.
20. d. The real value of a good is a sum of money in terms of the quantity of good it can buy. The real
value of this car has not changedonly its nominal value, the face value of a sum of money, has
changed.
21. In accordance with the marginal principle, you should be hired because the additional cost to the
company (your salary and benefits) will outweigh the contributions you will make to the firm, or the
additional revenue the firm will obtain from your productive activity.
22. What is the opportunity cost of a college degree? Consider a student who spends a total of $40,000
for tuition and books. Instead of going to college, the student could have spent this money on a wide
variety of goods, including housing, stereo equipment, and world travel. Part of the opportunity cost
of college is the $40,000 worth of other goods the student sacrifices to pay for tuition and books.
Also, instead of going to college, the student could have worked as a bank clerk for $20,000 per year
and earned $80,000 over four years. That makes the total opportunity cost of this students college
degree $120,000.
23. The production possibilities curve involves two of the fundamental principles: the principle of
opportunity cost, and the principle of diminishing returns. The principle of opportunity cost is
described by a move from one point to another along the curve. The curve shows combinations of two
goods, or sets of goods, that can be produced when resources are fully and efficiently employed.
As we increase the production of one good, we must sacrifice some of the other good. The principle
of diminishing returns explains the shape of the curve. The curve is bowed out because resources are
not perfectly substitutable in production. For this reason, it takes an ever greater amount of resources
to produce additional units of a good, particularly when the production of that good is already high.
24. a. Additional water into a flowerpot does not cause a flower to grow proportionally to the amount of
water added.
b. As speed rises, it becomes harder and harder to gain an extra mile of speed.
c. As consumption rises, an extra bite does not yield as much satisfaction as the previous one.
d. The knowledge gained from an extra hour of study is less than the knowledge gained from the
previous hour, particularly when you have been studying for a long time already.
e. In an eight-hour workday, the productivity of the last hour is smaller than the productivity of the
first hour.

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32 O'Sullivan/Sheffrin/Perez, Macroeconomics, 8e

25. A lower likelihood of getting caught speeding would lower the marginal cost of speeding. For
instance, if there is a 10 percent chance of getting a ticket, and a ticket costs $100, the expected cost
of getting caught is 0.1(100) = $10. If there is only a 5 percent chance of getting caught, the marginal
cost of speeding drops to $5, and more people will speed. As cars become safer, the risk of injury in
an accident decrease, as does the expected injury if one occurs. This also lowers the marginal cost of
speeding and should lead to more speeding. Increased fines make speeding more expensive, raising
the marginal cost and discouraging people from speeding.

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