Gold Seal

Oral Exam Summary

A Concise Guide to the FAA Practical Test Oral Exam

The Gold Seal Online Ground School

www.OnlineGroundSchool.com

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Private Pilot

Oral Exam Summary

Table of Contents
Introduction

............................................

VFR Requirements

............................................

Airplane Systems

............................................

14

Aerodynamics

............................................

19

Airspaces and Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Emergencies

............................................

27

Weather

............................................

32

Weather Reports

............................................

35

Aeromedical Factors

............................................

45

Airmans Practical Test Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Private Pilot

Oral Exam Summary

A Study Guide for the Private Pilot Practical Test
by Russell Still, CFI, CFII, IGI, Gold Seal, Master CFI

Introduction
Its been a long road, but youre finally getting ready for your checkride. Youve worked
very hard to get to this point. Congratulations are already in order and you are to be
commended for the time and effort youve invested in your new skills and knowledge.
The hardest parts are honestly behind you. Now its just a matter of polishing up and
preparing to give your examiner a good performance.
If youre like a lot of pilots, as the day of your checkride approaches, you may start to get
nervous. I know Ive missed more than one night of sleep in anticipation of a practical
test. The best way to minimize your stress is to over-prepare yourself and develop
confidence in your ability. There shouldnt be any surprises during your practical test
its all material that youve already learned.
Your practical test will be broken into two parts the oral exam and the flight test.
Depending on the examiner, the oral test will probably last between one and two hours.
The examiner is not going to come prepared to trick you or fail you. He wants you to
pass. But he also wants to ensure that you are a safe and proficient pilot.
There is a wide variety of material that your examiner can discuss with you. And thats
probably the first thing to remember. Although he will expect you to come up with the
answers, your oral exam is a dialog, not a monologue. The two of you will discuss flying
issues and the questions will naturally appear as part of the conversation. He will
probably even give you a little prompting here and there if he senses that you know the
material but cant quite get it out in the verbiage hes looking for. In some cases, he may
even let you look up the answer if you indicate to him that you know where to look.
Your examiner will be looking at the big picture. Hes not going to fail you just because
you didnt know one or two answers. His job is to ascertain that you have a good enough
grasp of the required aeronautical knowledge to leave him as a safe, conscientious, and
adequately skilled pilot. He understands that your pilot certificate is truly a license to
learn. He needs to know that you have a knowledge base sufficient to fly and learn on.
Go into your oral exam with a friendly smile. Not only does that mark you as a confident
pilot, but it will also help you to manage your own stress level. Look clean and sharp just
like you would for a job interview. Have all your materials and documents separated out
3

in a file folder so you dont have to dig for them. Use the Practical Test Checklist at the
end of this book to confirm that you have everything. Try to wear a shirt with a pocket to
store a pencil, ballpoint pen, and a folded sheet of fresh paper. Maybe even a small
electronic calculator. Bring your FAR/AIM with tabs in it pointing to key sections of
Parts 61 and 91. And absolutely make sure that all of your publications and charts are
current. Many examiners will fail a candidate on the spot for appearing with expired
charts.
Everything that may be covered in your oral exam is important. None of it is just
something to regurgitate for the test. As a licensed pilot, it will remain knowledge that is
important to you for as long as you fly.

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

VFR Requirements
Required Documents
Your oral exam will most likely start with a review of the paperwork that you need to fly.
Hopefully, your instructor has drilled AROW into you from day one. Im sure you
remember what it stands for: A-R-O-W
(A) Airworthiness certificate,
(R) the registration,
(O) operating handbook, and
(W) weight and balance data.
These are the documents that must be in an airplane before you may fly it. Airworthiness,
registration, operating handbook, weight and balance
What documents are you, as a pilot, required to have with you? A logbook was required
when you were a student pilot, but it is not required to be in the airplane with you once
you become a private pilot. You do need to keep one to show currency, but are not
required to carry it with you.
You must have either on your person or available in the airplane:
(1) your valid pilot certificate,
(2) your valid medical certificate, and
(3) a picture ID.
Thats three things. A pilot certificate is essentially valid forever, but your medical
certificate must be renewed periodically, based on your age. A Class 3 medical certificate
is good for five years if you are under the age of 40, and good for two years if you are
40 or over. It expires at midnight on the last day of the month two or five years from the
date it was issued.
In case the examiner asks, be ready to tell him that the airplanes airworthiness
certificate remains valid for as long as the airplane remains in airworthy condition as
defined in the Federal Aviation Regulations the FARs.
When you leave your checkride, smiling because you passed with ease, you will have a
temporary paper license in your hand. This will authorize you to act as pilot in command
of a single engine land airplane. But be aware that there are a few other restrictions.
Special Endorsements
You may not fly an airplane having an engine greater than 200 horsepower, retractable
landing gear, or a tailwheel without additional training and logbook endorsements
attesting to your satisfactory completion of that training.

So that kind of brings us back to the logbook again. You dont have to have it on board
the airplane, but you must possess one with the necessary requirements and endorsements
for the type of flying you will be doing.
Remember:
You may not act as PIC in a high performance airplane, that is, one powered by more
than 200 horsepower without an endorsement.
You may not act as PIC in a complex airplane, that is, one with retractable landing gear
and a constant speed prop without an endorsement.
And you may not act as PIC in a tailwheel airplane without a separate endorsement.
Change of Address
Heres a favorite question of many examiners: If you move, how does that affect your
pilot-in-command privileges? The answer is easy. If you move, you have 30 days to
notify the FAA that you have a new address. If you dont provide them with the new
address, you can legally fly for only thirty days after your move.
Currency
That takes care of most of the paperwork involved in being a legal pilot. But as you
remember from your written test, there are other requirements necessary for you to
remain current. There are three main ones day VFR landings, night VFR landings, and
a biennial flight review.
To carry passengers during daylight hours, you must have made at least three takeoffs
and landings within the preceding 90 days. They dont have to be fullstop landings
touch and goes are fine. If your 90-day period has lapsed, you must either make these
takeoffs and landing solo or with a certificated instructor on board.
To carry passengers during nighttime hours, you must also have made at least three
takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days. These night landings, however, must
be to a full stop. No touch and goes for nighttime currency requirements.
If you get a tailwheel endorsement at some point, you will have a similar requirement for
takeoffs and landings within 90 days. In this case, regardless of whether it is day or night,
landings in a tailwheel airplane must be to a full stop to qualify for currency.
And while were on the subject, what constitutes nighttime? For the sake of nighttime
currency, night is defined as the period that begins one hour after sunset and ends one
hour before sunrise. Night is one hour after sunset until one hour before sunrise.

Category and Class

All of these landing requirements for currency refer to the aircrafts category and class.
Category is the broad group of flying machines. It contains airplane, glider, rotorcraft,
and lighter-than-air aircraft. Its easy to remember if you note that the word category has
the letters A, G, and R in it. A-G-R. Category breaks aircraft into airplanes, gliders, and
rotorcraft.
For you, the airplane class will be single engine land. Look at the letters in the word
class. L-A-S. Land and sea. Class breaks airplanes into land and seaplanes.
Fuel Requirements
Fuel management is obviously a very big issue to pilots. A surprisingly large number of
off-airport landings are the result of fuel starvation. If you run an airplane out of gas, but
set it down without a scratch in a beautiful forced landing, your pilot buddies will not
admire you. In fact, some insurance policies will not pay a claim that results from a crash
landing when the pilot simply ran the airplane out of gas. Civil Air Patrol pilots have it
really tough if they run an airplane dry, they are grounded as CAP pilots permanently.
I can pretty much guarantee that your examiner will ask you about fuel requirements for
day and night VFR flight. Im sure you know those, but just to be complete, Ill point out
that day VFR flight requires enough fuel to reach the first airport of intended landing
with enough remaining fuel to fly an additional 30 minutes. At night, its enough fuel to
fly to the airport and remain flying an additional 45 minutes. Personally, Im not flying
anywhere without at least one hour of reserve fuel.
Be aware that in order to know how much fuel is burned in 30 or 45 minutes, you must
know how much fuel your airplane is burning per hour. Your fuel burn requirements
should be an important part of every flight plan you put together.
Inspections
We said that an airplane must have the AROW documents on board before it can be
legally flown. There are some other regulatory requirements, too.
Rental airplanes must undergo a 100-hour inspection every hundred hours. The
inspection must be logged in the airplane logbooks, endorsed by a licensed A&P
mechanic. A&P, by the way, stands for airframe and powerplant. If you rent an
airplane that has not had a hundred hour in the last hundred hours, you are the one who
can will get nailed if the FAA does a surprise ramp check and discovers it.
Virtually every airplane, rental or pilot-owned, must undergo an annual inspection each
year. This is essentially the same as the 100-hour inspection, but must be signed off by an
A&P with an IA certification. IA stands for inspection authorization.

The ELT, or emergency locator transmitter, must be inspected each year. Most A&Ps do
this as part of the annual inspection. ELT batteries must be replaced after one hour of
cumulative use, or when half of their useful life has expired.
If your airplane contains a transponder, it must be inspected every two years. This is not
normally included in an annual inspection.
If you are the pilot of an airplane flown outside of annual, it doesnt matter who owns the
airplane. Youll be the one in trouble. Be prepared to show your examiner the
endorsements in the aircraft logbooks proving that it is current in terms of 100-hour and
annual inspections. Not knowing where to find these endorsements would be an
inauspicious start to your oral exam.
VFR Equipment Requirements
Finally, there are some equipment requirements for day VFR flight. Ive seen all sorts of
elaborate acronyms to help students remember them. Honestly, I think its easier to
simply memorize them. Seat belts are required in all aircraft. Newer aircraft must also
have shoulder harnesses. And with a few exceptions, an ELT is required equipment.
For VFR flight, an aircraft must have three navigation instruments: an airspeed indicator,
an altimeter, and a compass. Think about it - you have to be able to tell how fast, how
high, and in what direction youre going. Airspeed indicator, altimeter, and compass.
The airplane must also have an oil pressure gage, a temperature gage, and a fuel gage.
These are the instruments that let us monitor the engines likelihood to remain running.
Oil pressure gage, temperature gage, and fuel gage.
And so that the pilot can control the airplane, a tachometer, a manifold pressure gage if
the airplane has a constant-speed prop, and a landing gear position indicator if the
airplane has retractable landing gear are required. Think of what you need to control the
engines power and the airplanes landing gear. Since it is unlikely that youll be doing
your checkride in a high performance, complex airplane, the only gage youll need from
this final group is the tachometer.
Instruments required for day VFR flight include:
(1) Airspeed indicator, altimeter, compass
(2) Oil pressure gage, temperature gage, fuel gage
(4) Tachometer, and maybe a manifold pressure gage and maybe a landing gear indicator

Night VFR Flight Equipment

For night flight, the aircraft must also have:
Approved position lights, approved anticollision lights, a landing light (if the aircraft is
used for hire), and a spare set of fuses (obviously, not needed if the aircraft is equipped
with circuit breakers). Youll thrill your examiner if you include a pair of flashlights.
Preventative Maintenance
Although most of the work on an airplane must be performed by a licensed A&P
mechanic, Part 43 of the FARs does allow an owner to do some minor preventative
maintenance on his or her airplane. Examples include changing the oil, lubricating the
wheel bearings, and refilling hydraulic fluids.
Minimum Altitudes
At this point, Im sure you will have impressed your examiner completely with your
grasp of regulatory knowledge. Hes happy and ready to talk about flying. Be prepared to
talk about minimum safe altitudes.
Over a heavily populated area, it is 1000 feet above the highest obstacle within a
2000-foot radius.
Over open water or sparsely populated areas, there is no minimum altitude, although a
pilot must remain at least 500 feet from any person, vehicle, or structure.

Separation from Clouds

For VFR flight, we also must remain specific distances from clouds. Theres nothing
inherently wrong with being close to a cloud. The issue is IFR traffic that might suddenly
emerge. You need to remain far enough away so that you and the IFR pilot have enough
time to see and avoid each other.
Surely you know these, but lets review. Generally speaking, in most airspaces, a VFR
pilot should remain at least 500 feet below a cloud, 1000 feet above a cloud, and at least
2000 feet away horizontally.
So, lets say there is an overcast at 1400 feet AGL. Can you fly VFR? Well, if you
subtract 500 for your cloud clearance, that puts your altitude at 900 feet AGL. Not
particularly wise, but it is legal as long as you stay away from heavily populated areas.
Over them, the overcast would have to be at least 1500 feet AGL for you to squeeze
through, 500 feet below the clouds and 1000 feet above the ground.

Course and Altitude The Hemispherical Rule

All right, assume that the clouds arent an issue. Conditions are solid VFR. Were on a
trip from Tyler, Texas to Houston. True course is 177 degrees, but with the magnetic
variation thrown in, our magnetic course will be 171. What altitudes may we choose
from?
Well, of course it has to be some number of thousands plus five hundred feet. Were
going in an easterly direction so we use odd thousands plus five hundred feet. 5,500 feet,
7,500 feet. Something like that.
Now, consider that we have a stiff crosswind from the west and we need to put in about
10 degrees of crab angle. We add our 10-degree crosswind correction to our 171 degree
magnetic course yielding a new magnetic heading of 181 degrees. What happens to our
altitude now? Nothing. Thats right, absolutely nothing. No one cares what our magnetic
heading is. All that matters is the course that we track over the ground and thats still 171
degrees.
So, the rule that says we use odd thousands plus 500 for easterly courses, and even
thousands plus 500 for westerly courses means exactly what it says. Use your magnetic
course, not your magnetic heading.
When you go out for the actual flight portion of your practical, the examiner might have
you flying at an altitude that is 1800 feet above the ground. Regardless of the direction of
flight, why is this a legal altitude? It is legal because the east-west rule (known as the
hemispherical rule) does not apply when flying below 3,000 feet AGL.
Visibility Requirements
In addition to cloud separation and altitude requirements, there are also visibility
requirements for VFR flight. Generally speaking, anything less than three statute miles is
considered IFR, but that does vary with airspace. In class G, for example, you can legally
fly VFR with a one-mile visibility during the day. Smart? No. But legal? Yes, it is. If
youll abide by a three-mile minimum, youll be VFR legal in just about every case.
Another note about visibilities. Visibility is always defined in terms of statute miles.
Virtually everything else we do as pilots are in nautical miles, but just remember that
visibility is measured in statute miles.

10

Oxygen Requirements
I would guess that most VFR flights are conducted below 10,000 feet. Above 12,500,
however, there are some requirements for oxygen use that you must be aware of.
From 12,500 to 14,000 feet, the crew of an aircraft, and that is usually just the pilot for
small piston-driven airplanes, is required to be on supplemental oxygen for any period of
time longer than 30 minutes. The crew is required to use supplemental oxygen during
periods longer than 30 minutes at altitudes from 12,500 to 14,000 feet.
At altitudes above 14,000 feet, the crew is required to be on supplemental oxygen
continuously.
At altitudes above 15,000 feet, supplemental oxygen must be available for everyone on
board.
So, from 12,500 to 14,000 feet, the pilot and crew have a grace period of thirty minutes.
After that, they must be on oxygen. Above 14,000 feet, there is no grace period. They
must be on oxygen continuously. At altitudes in excess of 15,000 feet, oxygen must be
provided for the passengers although there is no requirement for anyone but the crew to
actually use it.
Flight Planning Requirements
There is one, final requirement for VFR flight. It applies to IFR as well. The FARs
demand that a pilot familiarizes himself with all available information concerning the
flight. That is pretty much a catch all, but the FAA in its wisdom chose to go one further.
Specifically, we are admonished to determine the runway lengths at our destination
airport and to be aware of our airplanes takeoff and landing capabilities.

11

Section Summary
The AROW documents are required to be on board a flying aircraft.
They are the airworthiness certificate, the registration, the operating handbook, and the
weight and balance data.
A pilot must have a valid pilot certificate, a valid medical certificate, and a picture ID in
his possession. Although it is required that a pilot keep a logbook to show compliance
with currency requirements, it is not necessary to have it on board the airplane.
A pilot certificate does not expire.
A third class medical certificate is valid for five years for pilots younger than 40, and is
valid for two years for pilots 40 and older.
A pilot must undergo a biennial flight review every two years. If he is issued a new
rating, the next BFR will not be due for two years after that.
The airplanes airworthiness certificate remains valid as long as the airplane remains
airworthy as determined by the FARs.
A separate endorsement is needed to fly airplanes with high performance engines, that is,
those with greater than 200 horsepower.
A separate endorsement is needed to fly a complex airplane, that is, one with constant
speed propeller, flaps, and retractable landing gear.
A separate endorsement is needed to fly a tailwheel airplane.
If you change your mailing address, you must notify the FAA within 30 days.
In order to carry passengers during daylight hours, you must have made at least three
takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days.
In order to carry passengers at night, you must have made at least three night takeoffs and
landings to a full stop within the preceding 90 days.
Nighttime is considered to be the period starting one hour after sunset and ending one
hour before sunrise.
You must have a minimum of 30 minutes reserve fuel for day VFR flight.
You must have a minimum of 45 minutes reserve fuel for night VFR flight.

12

Rental airplanes must undergo a 100-hour inspection every one hundred hours.
All airplanes must undergo an annual inspection.
Equipment required for VFR flight includes:
Seatbelts, probably shoulder harnesses, and probably an ELT
An altimeter, an airspeed indicator, and a compass
An oil pressure gauge, a temperature gauge, and a fuel gauge
A tachometer, and possibly a manifold pressure gauge, and possibly a landing
gear indicator
Additional equipment required for night VFR flight includes
Approved position lights
Approved anticollision lights
A landing light (if the aircraft is used for hire)
A spare set of fuses (unless the aircraft is equipped with circuit breakers)
Over heavily populated areas, the minimum altitude is 1000 feet above the highest
obstacle within a 2000 foot radius.
Over lightly populated areas, the minimum altitude is 500 feet AGL.
Over unpopulated areas and open water, there is no minimum altitude.
For magnetic courses between 0 and 179 degrees, legal VFR altitudes are odd thousands
plus 500 feet.
For magnetic courses between 180 and 359 degrees, legal VFR altitudes are even
thousands plus 500 feet.
The hemispherical rule does not apply below 3000 feet AGL.
VFR aircraft should remain 500 feet below clouds, 1000 feet above clouds, and at least
2000 feet horizontal to clouds. This is a generalization but applies in most airspaces.
Three statute mile visibility is the general minimum for VFR flight below 10,000 feet.
A pilot is required to familiarize himself with all information regarding a flight including
the runway lengths at his destination airport, and the takeoff and landing requirements of
his aircraft.

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

13

Airplane Systems
Hopefully, the airplane in which you will take your checkride is one that youve been
practicing in regularly. The examiner is going to expect that you have a lot of knowledge
about this particular bird. Make sure that you have your own personal copy of the Pilot
Operating Handbook the POH - to study from. It is very important that you know your
airplane well.
First of all, the obvious. What kind of airplane is it? A Cessna 172 or a Piper Warrior? I
dont think youll miss this one. Fill in this chart for your airplane. Memorize it!
Empty weight:
Maximum takeoff weight:
Best glide speed:
Vso stalling speed in landing configuration:
Va maneuvering speed:
Vx best angle of climb speed:
Vy best rate of climb speed:
Vno maximum structural cruising speed:
Vne never exceed speed:
Range in hours considering full tanks:

What kind of engine does it have? Maybe a Lycoming O-320? Maybe something
smaller like an O-235. The examiner will want to know the manufacturer and designation
for your engine. And hes very likely to ask you what the designation means. In these two
examples, an O-320 and an O-235, the letter O stands for opposed. The cylinders in the
engine are opposed they are laid out horizontally, half pointing one way and half
pointing the other.
In cars, cylinders are usually V or inline. In airplanes, opposed is the norm. The term
opposed means that they pull on the crankshaft in exactly opposite directions.
Next, that number. O-320. The 320 means that the cylinder displacement of the engine is
320 cubic inches. If you had an O-235, the displacement would be 235 cubic inches.
How many cylinders are there? Most light piston airplane engines below 200 horsepower
have 4 cylinders. You will need to confirm that for you airplane. The engine will be
described in detail in your pilot operating handbook.
How much horsepower does the engine produce? Again, youll find it in the pilot
operating handbook, or POH. Its probably somewhere between 110 and 180 horsepower.
Is your airplane fuel injected? What does that mean, anyway? In carbureted or normally
aspirated engines, fuel and air is mixed in the carburetor. This vaporized mix is sucked
into the cylinders to be burned.

14

Fuel injected engines, however, have no carburetor. In them, the fuel is injected directly
into the cylinder. A performance increase is the result. Plus, the lack of a carburetor
means no chance of carburetor icing.
Your engine manufacturer and designation:
How many cylinders?
How much horsepower?
Is it fuel injected or carbureted?
How many quarts of oil?

The electrical system in your airplane is not involved in the firing of the spark plugs.
That's what magnetos are for. Think of them as little engine-driven generators that send
high voltage pulses to the spark plugs. The electrical system could go completely dead
and the spark plugs would continue firing normally.
The electrical system is used to power the airplanes lights and avionics and to charge the
battery. The battery exists only to drive the starter. Once the engine is running, the
alternator, or generator in some older airplanes, creates the electricity needed. After
starting your engine, flip the alternator switch. You should see a slight discharge on the
ammeter. This indicates that your alternator is doing its job. If the needle doesnt move,
your alternator may have failed and youll be running on battery power alone.
Airplanes typically have either 12 or 24-volt electrical systems. Youll find which yours
has in the POH. Does your airplane have a ground plug? If so, it is probably for starting
the engine after your onboard battery has given up. Ground plugs generally cannot be
used for recharging the battery.
Your fuel system consists of the fuel tanks, vents, caps, drains, a selector valve, fuel
pumps, and the fuel lines. Most light piston singles have two tanks, one in each wing. The
fuel caps generally have a vent allowing air to enter the tanks to replace the volume
evacuated as the fuel is burned. There is probably a separate vent tube that also serves the
same function. Without the venting, a negative air pressure would develop as the fuel was
used.
High wing airplanes normally are gravity fed with an engine driven fuel pump. Low wing
airplanes are more likely to have an additional backup fuel pump, driven by the electrical
system.
Each tank will hold a specific number of gallons. Make sure that you know what that is.
Of this quantity, a small portion will be unusable. Imagine that you drained all the fuel
from the tanks. Even though the gas was essentially gone, a few gallons would remain in
the low points of the system and in the fuel lines. This is the unusable fuel. Its there and
contributes to the gross weight of the airplane, but is unavailable for burning. Thus, when
you calculate your fuel burns for a trip, remember that only useable fuel should be
considered. Be prepared to tell your examiner the total number of gallons your airplane
holds and how much of that is useable.

15

Fuel burns vary by altitude and power setting. There is some average number of gallons
that you should simply memorize for your airplane. For a Cessna 152, that might be
around 6 gallons per hour. A Cessna 172 might average about 9 gallons per hour. Find
out what it is for your airplane.
Total fuel in gallons:
Useable fuel in gallons:
Average gallons/hour burned:

The vacuum system drives the attitude indicator and the heading indicator. You may
have also heard these instruments referred to as the artificial horizon and the directional
gyro. Heres how the system works.
A vacuum pump, driven by the engine, pulls air from the cabin, through the instruments,
and expels it into the engine compartment. As the air moves through the instruments, it
spins the gyroscopes which, in turn, drive the instruments. If the vacuum pump fails, the
attitude indicator and the heading indicator will also fail.
The loss of a vacuum pump in VFR conditions is not that critical. But a vacuum failure
while flying IFR in the clouds could be disastrous. Thats why the turn coordinator,
another gyroscopic instrument is electrically powered. Its there as a backup in case the
vacuum system fails. Remember that: the turn coordinator is electrically driven as a
backup to the vacuum system instruments.
The pitot-static system is the air pressure system that drives the airspeed indicator, the
altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator.
The pitot tube provides ram air for the airspeed indicator. If the tube becomes blocked,
the airspeed indicator will malfunction. It will work like an altimeter. That is, it wont
register any changes in airspeed, but will show an increase when the airplane climbs and
a decrease when the airplane descends.
If the static port becomes blocked all three instruments will be affected. The remedy for a
blocked static port is to use an alternate air source. There should be a switch for that in
the cockpit. It wont do you any good if you dont know where it is.
A blocked pitot-tube will only affect the airspeed indicator. A blocked static port will
affect the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator.
Our airplane systems include engine, electrical system, fuel system, vacuum system, and
pitot-static system. Study the operation of these in your Pilot Operating Handbook.

16

The Vacuum System

Firewall

Cabin Side

Engine Side

Attitude
Indicator
Vacuum
Pump

Overboard
Vent Line

Heading
Indicator
Relief
Valve

Vacuum Air
Filter

Suction
Gauge

The Vacuum System powers the Attitude Indicator (aka Artificial Horizon) and
the Heading Indicator (aka Directional Gyro or DG). These two gyroscopic
instruments are of particular significance during flight in conditions of
restricted visibility. If the Vacuum System fails, usually due to a failed vacuum
pump, these two instruments will gradually begin to fail as their gyroscopes
slow to a stop.
The electrically-powered Turn Coordinator acts as a backup for the Vacuum
System instruments.
The vacuum pump is driven by the engine. It pulls air from the cabin through
the instruments. This air movement spins the gyroscopes. The air is ultimately
dumped into the engine compartment.
Copyright 2005-2010 by Atlanta Flight, Inc.

17

The Pitot-Static System

Altimeter

Vertical Speed Indicator

Airspeed Indicator

Attitud
e

Static Port

Pitot Tube

The Pitot-Static System drives the Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator (aka VSI), and the Airspeed
Indicator. These instruments interpret air pressure.
The Pitot Tube supplies ram air for the Airspeed Indicator. If the Pitot Tube becomes blocked, only the
Airspeed Indicator will be affected. It will malfunction and act like an Altimeter. That is, it will not
show airspeed, but will show an increase when the aircraft climbs and a decrease when the aircraft
descends. This incorrect indication of airspeed can be disastrous. If ice is the cause for the blockage,
apply pitot heat.
The Static Port supplies ambient air for all three instruments. If it becomes blocked, all three
instruments will malfunction. The corrective action is to use an alternate static source, usually
controlled by a switch in the cockpit. Alternatively, the glass on the VSI can be broken to allow ambient
cabin air into the system. When cabin air is used, expect the instruments to read slightly higher than
normal.
Copyright 2005-2010 by Atlanta Flight, Inc.

18

Aerodynamics
Lift
Lift is developed as the result of smooth airflow over an airfoil. If the airflow separates
from the wings surface, turbulence develops and lift is lost. This is what happens in a
stall.
The FAA and NASA tend to have slightly differing explanations regarding the causes of
lift. But since this is an FAA test, lets go with their somewhat dated explanation. It
involves a law of physics known as Bernoullis Principle.
Bernoullis Principle states that as the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases.
Airflow is accelerated over the wing, thus causing a relative low-pressure area above it.
Additionally, air is compressed under the wing causing a relative high-pressure area
below. Its this pressure differential, so the FAA says, that causes lift.
Lift is the force that pulls upward on wing. It is opposed by the weight of the airplane that
pulls downward. Thus, if lift exceeds weight, the airplane climbs. If weight exceeds lift,
the airplane descends. Lift and weight are equal in level flight.
Stalls
Now, we already said that a stall is simply a loss of lift. To fully understand what a stall
is, we need to understand two additional concepts chord line and relative wind.
The chord line is an imaginary line that runs from a wings leading edge to its trailing
edge. The relative wind is the airflow that hits the wing. It strikes the wing at an angle
exactly opposite to the airplanes line of flight.
The angle formed by the wings chord line and the relative wind is defined as the angle of
attack.
When a wing flies, there is always some positive angle of attack. At low angles, the
airflow adheres to the wings surface and lift is created normally. As angle of attack
increases, at some point known as the critical angle of attack, the airflow can no longer
follow the wings upper surface. At this critical angle of attack, the airflow separates and
turbulent eddies form. This results in the loss of lift that we call a stall.
A stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. It is not a function of pitch or
airspeed. It is only a function of angle of attack.
Thats why we reduce the back pressure on the yoke to recover from a stall. We let off on
the yoke, the nose drops, and the angle of attack is reduced below the critical angle. At
that point, the airflow resumes its smooth flow over the wing and the airplane begins
flying again.

19

Vertical
Axis

Lateral
Axis

Longitudinal
Axis

Vertical
Axis

Spins
Expect your examiner to ask about spins. First of all, you know what causes a spin. You
learned it for your written test. A spin results from a stall where one wing is stalled to a
greater degree than the other. Both wings are stalled, but one wing is stalled more than
the other.
Remember that in any stall, there is a loss of lift, but not a complete loss of lift. When one
wing is stalled more than the other one, it creates less lift than the other one. Thus, the
less-stalled wing creates an off-balance lifting force, twisting the airplane around the
longitudinal and vertical axes into a spin. A spin is a twisting, turning stall caused by an
unequal amount of stall on the two wings.
Whats the standard recovery for a spin? Kill the power, push forward on the yoke to
reduce the angle of attack, and apply opposite rudder to stop the rotation. Reduce the
power, apply opposite rudder, and push the yoke forward. To recover from a spin, reduce
the power, apply opposite rudder, and push forward on the yoke.
Turns
When we were discussing lift, we noted that lift opposes gravity to keep the airplane
flying straight, neither climbing nor descending. Lift points upward, gravity, or the
weight of the airplane points downward toward the center of the earth.
Now, imagine what happens when we bank the airplane. Gravity still points downward,
but the lift vector points off to the side at an angle. It is no longer straight up, opposing

20

the gravity vector completely. This redirection of the lift vector pulls the airplane into the
turn. The standard verbiage says, a turn results from the horizontal component of lift.
When the airplane banks, the lift vector is redirected into the horizontal. This horizontal
component of lift is what causes the turn. This balance of lift and gravity is used to turn
the airplane. A turn results from the horizontal component of lift.
Load Factor
Load factor describes the force of gravity as it affects an airplane in flight. In straight and
level flight, the airplane and its occupants feel one G of force. We feel our normal weight
as we sit in our seats. If the pilot pulls up suddenly, we feel our arms get heavy and our
cheeks sag as the G forces or load factor temporarily exceed their normal levels. Its all
involved with inertia.
Inertia is the force, described by Isaac Newton, that tends to keep us in our current state
of motion or rest. The airplane accelerates upward, inertia tries to hold us back, and the
result is an increase in our apparent weight.
In level banked turns, we also feel an increase in load factor. For your written test, you
memorized that load factor doubles in a 60-degree banked turn. That means we feel
twice our normal weight in a level, 60-degree bank. The airplanes wings must support
twice the weight of itself and its occupants.
As load factor increases, so does the airplanes stalling speed. But wait a second! We
just finished saying that an airplane stalls as a result of angle of attack, not airspeed. And
that is absolutely correct. It is a function of angle of attack.
Since most airplanes lack any instrument that tells us the angle of attack, we let the
airspeed indicator imply the angle of attack. In a certain configuration, say straight-andlevel, the critical angle of attack will occur at Vs, the airplanes stalling speed as
specified in the POH. In another configuration, a 60-degree banked turn for example, the
critical angle of attack occurs at a higher airspeed. The increase in load factor caused by
the bank causes the airplane to stall at a speed higher than Vs. The stall speed is higher,
but the critical angle of attack remains the same.
So, we can say that stall speed increases as load factor increases even though its really the
critical angle of attack that were dealing with. Think about that: Stall speed increases as
load factor increases. We are more likely to stall the airplane in a bank than in straight
and level flight because the stall speed is higher.

21

Left Turning Tendency

Propeller driven airplanes have a built in tendency to turn to the left. That actually
applies to most, but not all propeller driven planes. Those whose propellers turn to the
right have this left-turning tendency. Airplanes whose propellers turn to the left, however,
have a right-turning tendency.
Since most airplanes have props that turn to the right, well consider this left-turning
tendency to be the norm.
The left-turning tendency is most apparent in conditions of high power, high angle of
attack, and low airspeed. High power, high angle of attack, and low airspeed. Can you
think of a couple of situations where those conditions exist? How about slow flight?
Thats definitely a situation where we have high power, high angle of attack, and low
airspeed. Takeoff would be another one. In both cases, we counter this left-turning
tendency with a little extra right rudder.
Left-turning tendency is caused mainly by three things:
(1) Torque,
(2) Spiraling slipstream, and
(3) P-factor
Left-turning tendency is caused by torque, spiraling slipstream, and P-factor. It is most
noticeable in conditions of high power, high angle of attack, and low airspeed.

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

22

Airspaces and Airports

Lettered Airspaces
The air that we fly through is divided into a variety of volumes, each with different
names and different rules. We can first divide them into controlled and uncontrolled
airspaces.
In controlled airspaces, some types of ATC services are available. ATC services included
in controlled airspaces are Flight Following and IFR. These days, most of the controlled
volumes of air are covered by radar. Thus, when were flying around squawking 1200 on
the transponder, were probably showing up on someones radar screen.
In uncontrolled airspaces, no ATC services are offered. There is only one type of
uncontrolled airspace.
Airspace classes are identified by letter: A, B, C, D, E, and G.
A through E are controlled. Class G is the one uncontrolled airspace we noted.
Of the controlled airspaces, Class B, C, and D surround towered airports.
Class A airspace covers the entire continent, but never touches the ground. Class A
begins at 18,000 feet MSL and continues upward. Think of A for altitude. VFR flight
is not allowed in Class A. You must have an IFR clearance any time you fly 18,000 feet
or higher.
So, Class A is all airspace above 17,999 feet MSL.
Classes B, C, and D surround towered airports. We already said that. You need to know
that there are approximately 30 Class B airports in the United States. You must have an
explicit clearance to enter their airspaces. Examples include Atlanta, Los Angeles, New
York, and Chicago. Small airplanes generally stay away from Class B airports.
That leaves us with Class E. What is it? It is every other cubic inch of controlled air.
Think of E for everything else. E is all controlled airspace that is not A, B, C, or D. It
usually starts at 1,200 feet AGL.
Except when were near an airport, most of our VFR flying is done in Class E.
Remember, Class E represents the controlled airspace outside of the airport airspaces.

23

Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Class G

controlled

uncontrolled

Altitude greater than 17,999 feet MSL; IFR only

Biggest airports; shaped like an inverted wedding cake
Congested airports, but less so than Class B
Down-home airports; shaped like a column or a drum
Everything else that is controlled; usually starts at 1,200 ft. AGL
Ground upward; may contain untowered airports

Class E airspace usually begins where the Class G below it ends. Class G starts at the
ground and generally extends upward 1,200 feet. Then Class E takes over and continues
up to 17,999 feet. From there its Class A all the way up to 60,000 feet. I suppose NASA
takes charge from there.
Now that is a generalization of Classes G, E, and A. There is an exception. In a few
cases, Class E extends all the way to the surface around some untowered airports. On a
sectional, they are designated by a magenta segmented circle. Thats FAA verbiage for a
purple dashed line. So, in these cases, Class E starts at the ground and goes up to the
overlying Class A, starting at 18,000 feet.
Special Use Airspaces
In addition to the lettered airspaces, there are a variety of special use airspaces scattered
around the country. Examples include:
MOA
TRSA
Restricted
Prohibited
and TFR.
A MOA is a Military Operations Area. On sectional charts, MOAs are surrounded by
magenta hatched outlines. VFR flight is allowed inside of a MOA, but it is a good
practice to avoid these areas when there is ongoing military activity.
A TRSA is a Terminal Radar Services Area. This is an area, generally surrounding a busy
Class D airport that is under control of an approach controller. On sectional charts,
TRSAs are surrounded by concentric dark gray circles. VFR flight is allowed inside of a
TRSA, and communication with the controller is recommended, but not required. That is
a favorite question of examiners participation in TRSA services by the pilot is
voluntary.
Restricted Areas are identified on sectional charts by a blue hatched outline, and labeled
with a bold letter R followed by identifying numbers. You must have a permission
from "the controlling agency" to enter a restricted area (if it is active or "hot").
Prohibited Areas are also identified on sectional charts by a blue hatched outline. Inside,
however, is a bold letter P followed by identifying numbers. Flight inside of prohibited

24

areas is, well, prohibited. Dont go there. If you do, expect to have your license
suspended afterwards.
TFR stands for Temporary Flight Restriction. These are locations where flight is either
severely restricted or prohibited altogether. Because of their temporary nature, they do
not appear on any charts. TFR areas have become much more common since 9/11. They
might pop up while important politicians are visiting or a large gathering of people is
ongoing. It is really important to find out if there are any TFRs in your path before
embarking on a trip. Flight Service can give you this information when you get your
briefing. If you fly with Flight Following, ATC will probably tell you if any TFRs are
ahead, but ultimately, it is your responsibility to know where they are and avoid them.
Entry Into Airspaces
For Class A, you must have an IFR clearance to enter. No VFR flight at all in Class A.
For Class B, you must have an explicit clearance to enter. Just talking to ATC is not good
enough. The controller must say cleared into the Class Bravo before you enter. A
transponder is required for entry into Class B airspace.
For Class C, you must be in communication with the ATC controller who covers the area.
As long as he has said your tail number, you can consider yourself to be in
communication with him. A transponder is required for entry into Class C airspace.
For Class D, you must be in communication with the tower controller at the airport. As
long as he has said your tail number, you can consider yourself to be in communication
with him. A transponder is not required for entry into Class D airspace.
For Class E, there are no special requirements for entry. As we said, you will be in Class
E during most of your VFR flight.
Class G is uncontrolled and there are no special requirements for entry. Class G normally
starts at the ground and extends upward to either 700 feet or 1,200 feet AGL.
For a MOA, there is no special requirement for entry, but it is recommended that you talk
to ATC to find out if the area is hot. That means that the military is using it. If so, it is
best to avoid it altogether. If you do decide to enter a MOA, use extreme caution and keep
your eyes outside the cockpit.
For a TRSA, there is no special requirement for entry. If you wish to participate in the
services, contact the approach controller who covers the area and he will give you a
transponder squawk code. Obviously, you must have a transponder to participate.

25

Airport/Facility Directory
Airport/Facility Directories, or A/FDs for short, are the ubiquitous green books that
provide all the legal information for airports. Each AFD covers an area of several states.
They are issued every 56 days. Make sure that the one you bring to your checkride is
current.
When you look up an airport in an A/FD, be aware that they are in alphabetical order by
city, not by airport name.
Underneath the city name, you will see the name of the airport followed by its identifier.
Below that, the airports elevation above sea level will be listed as a number.
The remainder of the listing will give you the runway numbers, lengths and widths, radio
frequencies, and remarks about operations at the airport. If an explicit traffic pattern
altitude is listed, make note of it. Else, round the fields elevation to the closest hundred
feet and add 1,000 to it.
Unless otherwise specified, remember that standard traffic pattern turns are to the left.
Make sure that you spend time studying the legend in the front of the A/FD so that you are
extremely comfortable interpreting it properly.
Note: It has become commonplace to use smartphone or tablet apps such as ForeFlight to
look up airport information. For your checkride it is strongly recommended that you bring
the official hardcopy version of the A/FD and use that.

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

26

Emergencies
In any emergency, if possible, use the emergency checklist for your airplane. If you have
a co-pilot aboard, ask him or her to find it and read it to you. Honestly, though, unless
youre really high, you may not have the time or presence of mind to dig out a checklist
and read it. Thus, develop general procedures for emergencies and memorize them.
Loss of Power in Flight
In general, upon losing your engine, the first thing you do is establish your airplanes best
glide airspeed. In the case of a climbout immediately after takeoff, that would imply that
you lower the nose. This is one that many examiners will ask you about.
By establishing best glide speed, you guarantee yourself the maximum distance in your
glide. That makes sense because you are trying to reach the best landing area and it might
not be immediately below you.
So, even immediately after takeoff, best glide speed is your first reaction. However, if the
examiner asks what you do if your engine quits right after takeoff, he wants you to say,
Lower the nose!
Thats right. Lower the nose to reduce the angle of attack. This minimizes your chances
of stalling your already crippled airplane. So yes, you are going for best glide speed, but
think of this case as lowering the nose to reduce the angle of attack. THEN worry about
establishing your best glide speed.
Heres a good memory checklist for loss of power in flight: A B C
A Airspeed. Establish your airplanes best glide airspeed and trim it to stay there, hands
off.
B Best landing area. Maybe there arent any great spots within gliding distance. Your
job is to find the best of your options. Beware of power lines or other obstacles that you
might not see until you are close to the ground. Ideally, fly a standard pattern and land
into the wind. Keep the weight off the nose wheel even after touchdown.
C Cockpit duties. You have things to do in the cockpit, most noticeably, to try to restart
the engine. If the engine quits right after you did something, go back and reverse what
you just did. Otherwise, carburetor heat goes on, mixture goes rich, and think about
swapping tanks. If you simply ran a tank dry, usually just switching to a different tank
will get the engine running. If you have a fuel pump, turn it on. Next, try different mag
settings. Maybe the engine will run on one of the mags better than the other. If the prop
has stopped turning, engage the starter.
After trying your restart unsuccessfully, get on the radio. Hopefully youre already on
Flight Following. If so, all you have to do is say, Mayday, mayday, mayday, followed

27

by your callsign. They know where you are so you are relieved of having to figure out
your location. Otherwise, if youre on someones tower frequency, use it. As a last resort,
try the guard channel: 121.5. If you have time, squawk 7700 on your transponder so that
controllers can pick you out of the clutter on their screens.
One important thing to remember: do not go through your ABC checklist, one item at a
time. Start each item in order, but you should be doing them all at once. For example,
youve started slowing the airplane to best glide speed. While youre doing that, you
should already be looking for your best landing spot. And while youre looking, be
turning the carb heat and fuel pump on, pushing the mixture in, and switching fuel tanks.
It will be a very busy time, but get those items going. Dont wait to complete A before
moving on to B!
Finally, before touchdown, turn off the fuel valve and master switch and crack the door
so that it does not get lodged shut.
Fire or Smoke in the Cabin
Cabin fires are usually electrical in origin. Frequently they are the result of chaffed wires
or a shorted switch.
The first thing to do if you see smoke or suspect an electrical fire is to turn off the
airplanes master switch. Hopefully, this will stop the smoldering. If so, you should land
at the first available airport and diagnose the problem on the ground.
Another, more risky option after turning off the master and seeing that the smoke has
stopped is to turn all your avionics and lights off, then turn the master switch back on.
Carefully note whether the smoke returns. If you are positive it has not, one by one, turn
the avionics back on. You may be able to detect which component is causing the smoke
and simply keep that one turned off.
If there is flame associated with the smoke, I hope you have a fire extinguisher handy.
Turn off the master switch and use the extinguisher to kill the flames. Most airplanes say
to close all the vents in the airplane in the event of a cabin fire. The theory is that this will
reduce the oxygen needed to sustain the fire. Personally, Im not sure I buy that. Pilots
also need oxygen. And I am not convinced that you could reduce the oxygen supply
enough to hurt the fire anyway. But thats just me. I recommend that you study your POH
and do whatever it says in the case of a fire.
Engine or Wing Fire
Again, your POH will be the oracle for this one. Study it and be prepared to do what it
says. Generally speaking, turn the fuel selector valve to the off position and perform an
emergency descent. If the flames are lapping toward the cockpit, slip the airplane in the
descent to blow the flames to the side. Get on the ground!

28

Fire While Starting

As before, study your POH and be prepared to do what it says. Generally speaking, if the
fire starts while cranking, keep cranking. With some luck, when your engine starts, it
may suck the flames back into the cylinder.
Carburetor Ice
This one does not have to turn into an emergency if you recognize the symptoms early.
Because of the physics of refrigeration, air gets cooled as it rushes through the carburetor
throat by as much as 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Thats why you can get carburetor icing on a
70-degree day. It doesnt have to be freezing outside to suffer from carburetor icing.
The first signs of ice might be roughness in the engine sound. Fluctuations or a reduction
in RPM (or manifold pressure if you have a constant-speed prop) might be noticed.
When carburetor heat is first applied, you may see a further reduction in power as the
frost in the venturi melts and is ingested into the engine. Soon, however, the power (RPM
or manifold pressure) should start to come back up again. If that happens, problem
solved. Continue your flight with the carb heat on.
Remember that carburetor heat degrades the performance of the engine. You will not get
your pre-icing power back fully. Oh, and dont forget fuel injected engines dont have a
carburetor. If you have fuel injection and notice engine roughness or loss of power, look
elsewhere for the problem.
Structural Icing
This is one that most VFR pilots should never have to experience. To get structural ice,
you must be in visible moisture and the temperature must be at or below freezing. Unless
you are in the clouds or flying through freezing rain, you aren't going to collect any ice.
If you believe that you may encounter icing conditions, immediately turn the pitot heat
and windscreen defroster on. These are considered anti-icing devices. De-icing devices
are not commonly found on light single engine aircraft. They would include expandable
leading edge boots or chemical drip systems on wings and propellers.
Sometime, a chance dash through a tenuous cloud may result in a layer of frost on the
windscreen or leading edges of the wings. If that happens, turn on the defroster and
ensure that you stay out of additional moisture. The frost should disappear naturally
through sublimation. If it doesnt, try to stay VFR and land as soon as practical.
Buildups of ice are dangerous since they add considerable weight to the aircraft, while
reducing lift and increasing drag. If you land at an airport carrying a load of ice, make

29

sure that you approach at a faster-than-normal airspeed. With all that junk on your wings,
your stall speed may be significantly higher.
If you find yourself stuck in the clouds, collecting ice, the rule of thumb says to climb.
This may require a huge leap of faith, but give it a try. The theory is that colder air can
hold less moisture. Thus, if you can get to a higher, colder level, you may find dryer air
and the ice you carry can begin to sublimate away.
Icing can become a severe emergency condition very quickly. Even after you get your
private pilot certificate, I strongly recommend that you study icing further. Read about it
in textbooks, and consider attending some of the FAA and AOPA seminars that are
frequently held. Knowledge is life.
High Density Altitude
While not an emergency, the existence of high density altitude is something that a pilot
certainly wants to be aware of. By definition, density altitude is pressure altitude
corrected for non-standard temperature.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
True altitude is the altitude above mean sea level.
Absolute altitude is the altitude above the surface.
Standard temperature is 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit.
Standard pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury.
High density altitude can be confusing. It means that the air, in terms of density, has the
quality of air at a higher true altitude. Thus, high density altitude identifies air which has
a lower than expected density. High density altitude describes low density air.
On high density altitude days, air is less dense than normal and airplanes perform worse
than normal. The engine breathes less dense air and produces less power. Fewer air
molecules move through the prop reducing thrust. And fewer molecules dash over the
wings creating less lift.
Plan on longer than normal takeoff runs on high density altitude days as well as more
sluggish climb performance.
High temperature and high humidity produce high density altitudes. A solution to the
problem is to plan your takeoffs early in the morning when the air is cooler and consider
offloading some quantity of baggage or fuel to reduce the airplanes weight. Fuel weighs
six pounds per gallon.

30

Wake Turbulence Avoidance

All aircraft trail swirling vortices of air while they are flying. These vortices spin off the
wingtips of airplanes as a byproduct of lift. Wake turbulence is most severe when the
producing aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow. Size and weight differential contribute
greatly to the effect of wake turbulence on small aircraft.
The pair of vortices can trail for several miles behind an airplane. They have a tendency
to sink below the producing aircrafts flight path and are blown by existing winds. Thus,
the simplest method of avoidance is to remain on a higher flight path, upwind of the
producing aircraft.
On landing, touch down further down the runway, past the landing point of the larger
aircraft.
On takeoff, become airborne prior to the larger aircrafts point of rotation. Stay above and
upwind to the larger aircrafts flight path.
Wake turbulence is most severe when the producing aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow.

31

Weather
This is a broad area and there is no guarantee what your examiner may have as favorite
topic. Generally, an examiner will probably not grill you in the same detail that the
written test did. But he can. Go back and review everything. Ill give you the most
common topics that you can expect to discuss in your oral exam.
Temperature and Air Movement
Weather results from a heat exchange. You probably remember that from your written
test preparation. Heated air expands. Thus, a given volume of warm air will contain fewer
molecules than the same volume of cooler air. Heated air rises, cooled air sinks. That
results in the vertical air movement we call convection.
Air Pressure and Air Movement
Cool air is more dense and weighs more than warm air for the reason sited above. It
contains more molecules per given volume. Humidity also contributes to air density.
Dry air weighs more than humid air.
Air masses separate themselves because of their differing amounts of pressure. A dense
air mass will exhibit a relatively higher pressure than a less dense air mass. These fluid
air masses tend to push each other around due to the differences in pressure. The lateral
movement of air is called advection. More commonly, we refer to it as wind.
Some weather charts connect points of equal pressure by lines called isobars. When
isobars are close, expect to see higher winds since the pressure differential will be more
pronounced. Remember that - its a common question asked in oral exams. Isobars are
lines that connect points of equal barometric pressure.
Clouds, Fog, and Dewpoint
Fog, by definition, is a cloud that occurs within 50 feet of the ground. Otherwise, clouds
and fog are the same thing. They are simply local masses of air that are saturated with
water vapor.
Why are some clouds white while others are black? It has nothing to do with rain or
water content. Clouds are 100% saturated, so one cannot hold any more water vapor than
another one. All clouds are essentially white. When they appear black, it is only because
less sunlight is being filtered through. A black cloud is simply a white cloud in a shadow.
Any volume of air is saturated when its temperature reaches the dew point. When we
listen to the temperature and dew point on the ATIS, we are simply trying to determine
how far apart these two numbers are. If temperature and dew point are close, the air will
be close to the point of saturation. If temperature and dew point on the ground are equal,
expect to see fog.

32

Air Stability
Air masses are divided into two categories: stable and unstable. This distinction is very
significant to pilots since it tells us what type of weather to expect. In real life, we would
normally see some combination of stable and unstable conditions. There is usually not a
sharp line between the two.
Stable air will usually be smooth, but have poor visibility. Storms are not likely, but we
might expect fog, clouds, and possible steady rain.
Unstable air will usually be choppy, but have good visibility. Thunderstorms are more
likely to appear.
Stratiform clouds are associated with stable air.
Cumuliform clouds are associated with unstable air.
Stable air is characterized by stratiform clouds, poor visibilty, and smooth air.
Unstable air is characterized by cumuliform clouds, good visibility, and turbulent air.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are violent, local phenomena that include rain, high winds, and lightning.
Thats right, thunderstorms always have lightning. Big surprise, huh? Without lightning,
you have no thunder, and you have a storm, but not a thunderstorm.
Thunderstorms may sometimes appear in lines. These are called squall lines. Frequently,
they appear at the leading edge of a moving front.
Three conditions are required for a thunderstorm to develop.
(1) High humidity,
(2) Unstable air, and
(3) A lifting force
Thunderstorms develop in three distinct stages.
Cumulous Stage Unstable, humid air is lifted and cumulous clouds begin to tower. The
cumulous stage of thunderstorm is characterized primarily by updrafts.
Mature Stage The top of the cumulonimbus cloud starts to spread and rain begins to
fall. Both updrafts and downdrafts are present. This is the most violent stage of a
thunderstorm.
Dissipating Stage The updrafts that feed the storm cease, and air movement becomes
primarily downward as the storm collapses on itself.

33

In VFR flight, we can frequently see the towering cumulous clouds that identify a
thunderstorm. In these cases, give them a wide birth and simply fly around them. Never
attempt to fly underneath a thunderstorm. Severe turbulence, heavy rain, and possible hail
are likely to greet you. Wind shear can appear at any altitude and in any direction.
If we are flying IFR in the clouds, we need to be especially cautious of embedded
thunderstorms. Hidden in the surrounding clouds, we could stumble into one without ever
seeing it. A forecast of embedded thunderstorms might be a good reason to stay on the
ground.
Lines of thunderstorms are to be avoided altogether. Park the airplane and go catch a
movie.
If you inadvertently find yourself in a thunderstorm, do not attempt to hold your altitude.
Maintain a level attitude and try to fly your way out.
Cloud Coverage
A ceiling is defined as the lowest layer of broken or overcast clouds. There is an easy
memory aid to remember the order of cloud coverages. In the real estate business there is
a term called FSBO (pronounced FIZBO). It stands for for sale by owner. The same
acronym works for clouds.
FSBO Few, Scattered, Broken, Overcast
Types of Fog
Heres a phrase that will help you remember the types of fog:
Fog usually seems present after rain.
That gives you the letters U, S, P, A, R.
U Upslope
S Steam
P Precipitation Induced
A Advection
R - Radiation

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

34

Weather Reports
Relating to weather reports:
Ceiling Lowest layer of broken or overcast clouds
IFR Ceilings less than 1,000 feet and visibilities less than three statute miles
MVFR Ceilings between 1,000 and 3,000 feet AGL and visibilities from three to five
statute miles
Weather Briefings
The primary means for obtaining a weather briefing is for the pilot to call Flight Service
at 1-800-WX-BRIEF.
Three types of weather briefing are available.
Standard This one gives you everything you need for your flight. Generally, prior to a
flight you should request a standard briefing.
Abbreviated This would be requested when you had previously received a standard
briefing and simply wanted an update on some specific conditions.
Outlook This type of briefing is requested six or more hours prior to your departure
time.
The first thing given in a standard briefing is adverse conditions. If a line of
thunderstorms, for example, existed across your flight path, you might choose to cancel
the trip altogether and the remainder of the briefing would not be necessary.
Next you are given a synopsis. It is an overview of current conditions in the broad
geographical area.
Following that, current conditions are given at your departure, enroute, and destination
points.
Forecast conditions are provided next at your departure, enroute, and destination points.
Winds aloft are given at three thousand foot intervals as you request. You may need to
interpolate to discern the forecast winds that will affect you.
Finally, the briefer will describe NOTAMs that may affect you and will indicate the
presence of any TFRs along your route of flight.
Remember: the types of briefings available are standard, abbreviated, and outlook.

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AIRMETs
An AIRMET is an advisory of significant weather conditions primarily of interest to
smaller aircraft. Issued every six hours, AIRMETs report IFR conditions, moderate
turbulence, moderate icing, and surface winds of 30 knots or greater.
SIGMETs
A SIGMET is an advisory of non-convective conditions hazardous to all aircraft.
SIGMETs report severe turbulence, severe icing, and obscurations due to duststorms or
volcanic ash. SIGMETs forecast conditions for a maximum of four hours.
Convective SIGMETs
A Convective SIGMET is basically a SIGMET associated with thunderstorms. The text
of the bulletin contains either an observation and a forecast, or only a forecast. Forecasts
are valid for a maximum of two hours.
METARs
A METAR is a routine weather report. It is an hourly observation at an airport. It is one
of the more common types of textual weather reports that pilots and briefers consult.
TAFs
A TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) is a 24-hour forecast of conditions expected
within five statute miles of an airport. It is also a commonly used textual weather report.
Aviation Area Forecasts
An Aviation Area Forecast (FA) is general weather forecast that covers several states and
uses abbreviations similar to those used in TAFs. They are issued three times a day.
Internet Provided Weather Charts
Although pilots used to consult a wide variety of weather depiction and prognostic charts,
today most people consult more modern representations of the weather on the Internet.
In general, radar charts show current conditions of precipitation. Radar shows rain, hail,
and snow, but does not show clouds.
Satellite charts show clouds, but do not show precipitation. Visible satellite depictions
only show clouds in daylight. Infrared charts show clouds in day or night, evaluating
them based on their temperature.
Many online weather services show composite charts which overlay radar and satellite
images for a more complete picture.
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Surface Analysis Charts

Generated every three hours, a Surface Analysis Chart shows fronts, winds, and
temperature/dewpoints across the contiguous United States. This is the type of overview
chart that you usually see in newspapers and on television weather reports.
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
Also called Low Level Prognostic Charts. The term Prognostic Chart is simply a
Surface Analysis chart shown as a forecast in increments of 12 hours into the future.
Nothing special except that the aviation version outlines areas of IFR, MVFR, and
significant turbulence. The FAA written test, at the time of this writing, still assumes that
the government meteorologists and Flight Service briefers are using the old style fax
charts. They arent. Thus, the old four-panel black and white Significant Weather
Prognostic Chart that you will be tested on is virtually non-existent. There are Internet
based four-panel charts, shown in color, but they tend to be used less frequently than
other single panel charts.
Weather Depiction Charts
The Weather Depiction Chart shows fronts, cloud coverage at reporting stations across
the country, and outlines current areas of IFR and MVFR. It is peppered with small
circles that represent reporting stations. The circles are filled in to indicate cloud cover.
Radar Summary Charts
These charts are produced hourly and identify areas of precipitation and discrete cells.
Honestly, I don't know why anyone would look at one of these when you can get realtime
radar on the Internet. These charts do give maximum tops.
In-Flight Weather Information
While in flight, you can talk to a weather briefer on 122.0. This facility is called Flight
Watch. Tell them your approximate location on your initial call. That will enable the
briefer to talk to you via the closest ground transmitter.
HIWAS is a recorded broadcast of hazardous weather transmitted over the voice channel
of some VOR stations. You can locate them on your sectional. The availability of
HIWAS will be indicated by a small circle with the letter H in it within the VOR
information box.
If you are being tracked by Flight Following, ATC controllers may be able to tell you
about precipitation that is close to you. For weather further away, youll have to check
with Flight Watch.
Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

37

Surface Analysis Charts

Both charts are different graphical representations of the same thing, although the top chart shows more detail from
specific weather reporting stations (including temp/dewpoint and winds).

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Another Surface Analysis Chart Southeastern United States

This is one you probably wont see on an FAA test, but it is commonly used by meteorologists.

WARM

Moderate
Turbulence

COLD

Severe
Turbulence

OCCLUDED

Rain

STATIONARY

Drizzle
Snow

High
Pressure
Center

Airflow will be outward

and clockwise

Low
Pressure
Center

Airflow will be inward

and counterclockwise

Rain
Showers
Snow
Showers
Thunderstorm
Freezing
Rain
Haze
Fog

When isobars are close together, expect strong winds

39

Few

Scattered

Overcast Overcast Obscure

w/ breaks

Broken

Wind
Calm

METAR - A METAR is an observation of current conditions.

METAR KPDK 151645Z 12010G18KT 10SM SKC 24/15 A3001
METAR KLAX 101212Z 08004KT 6SM BR SCT008 BKN090 17/16 A2996

Interpretation:
(1) METAR: Reporting station is KPDK, observation on the 15th of the month at 1645 Zulu.
Winds from 120 at 10 knots, gusting to 18 knots.
Visibility ten statute miles.
Sky clear.
Temperature 24 degrees Celsius, dewpoint 15 degrees Celsius.
Altimeter 30.01 Hg.
(2) METAR: Reporting station is KLAX, observation on the 10th day of the month at 1212 Zulu.
Winds from 080 at 4 knots.
Visibility six statute miles in mist. (BR = mist, HZ = haze, SHRA = showers, TSRA = thunderstorms)
Scattered clouds at 800 feet AGL, broken clouds at 9,000 feet AGL.
Temperature 17 degrees Celsius, dewpoint 16 degrees Celsius.
Altimeter - 29.96 Hg.

TAF - A TAF is a forecast.

TAF KCLT 290530Z 290606 VRB06KT P6SM SCT060 OVC120 TEMPO

2124 SHRA FM0200 09010KT 3SM OVC015

Interpretation:
TAF: Forecast within 5 statute miles of KCLT. Prepared on the 29th day of the month at 0530
Zulu. Valid from 0600 Zulu on the 29th until 0600 on the following day.
Winds variable at 6 knots. Visibility greater than 6 statute miles (P means plus or greater than).
Scattered clouds at 6,000 feet AGL, overcast at 12,000 AGL.
Temporarily, between 2100Z and 2400Z, rain showers are expected.
Beginning at 0200 Zulu, winds from 090 at 10 knots. Visibility 3 statute miles. Overcast at 1,500
feet AGL.

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41

The top two panels show forecasts from the surface to 24,000 feet. The
bottom two panels show forecasts at the surface. The two left panels
give a 12-hour forecast. The two right panels give a 24-hour forecast.

The Significant Weather Prognostic Chart is broken up into four panels.

Modern Internet-distributed charts are in color, but the ones on the FAA
test are black and white like this one.

Shading indicates that precipitation covers at least half of the area.

Light dashed lines indicate the freezing level above mean sea level.
Heavy dashed lines surround areas of moderate or greater turbulence.

Areas surrounded by solid outlines indicate areas of IFR conditions.

Scalloped outlines surround areas of MVFR conditions.

Note the legend!

Note the legend!

42
Although FAA written exams may show dashed
rectangles, in real life, Severe Weather Watch Areas are
outlined with sold rectangles as shown here. Areas of
precipitation are shown in concentric, irregular outlines
in increasing levels of severity. NE means no echo.

Closeup of Radar Summary Chart Eastern United States

Copyright 2005 by Atlanta Flight, Inc.

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44

STNY
OCLD
TROF
WK
CIG

Stationary
Occluded
Low Pressure
Weak
Ceiling

Clear

Few

Scattered

Broken

Overcast

Obscure

Copyright 2005 by Atlanta Flight , Inc.

Each circle represents a reporting station.

Bases of clouds are indicated in hundreds
of feet AGL and appear below the circles.

Note the legend!

Aeromedical Factors
Hypoxia
You are already well aware that the higher you go, the less dense the air becomes. There
are fewer molecules of air at higher altitudes. That means there is less oxygen available
for breathing. Hypoxia is the condition that results. Hypoxia is caused by an oxygen
deficiency in the body. Some people will start to feel the first signs of this at altitudes as
low as 10,000 feet. Symptoms include headache, loss of alertness, dizziness, and inability
to think clearly.
At night, vision may suffer from a lowered concentration of oxygen in the blood at
altitudes as low as 5,000 feet.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced as a byproduct of
combustion. Ideally, all of the carbon monoxide and other exhaust gases are expelled
from the engine through the exhaust manifold and harmlessly dissipate into the
surrounding outside air. No system is perfect, though, and there may be some leaks. If
carbon monoxide gets into the cockpit in sufficient concentration, disaster could be the
result. This problem is particularly significant during winter when outside air vents are
likely to be closed and the heater is turned on.
Carbon monoxide reduces the bloods ability to transport oxygen. As the concentration of
carbon monoxide builds in the bloodstream, symptoms of hypoxia may appear. The
ultimate result could be unconsciousness followed by death.
Opening outside air vents and using supplemental oxygen will reduce the likelihood of
carbon monoxide poisoning.
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is a condition characterized by rapid, uncontrolled, shallow breathing. It
is usually instigated by stress or anxiety. In this process, carbon dioxide is removed from
the blood quicker than oxygen is added to it. Thus, the normal balance of carbon dioxide
and oxygen is disturbed. Hyperventilation is frequently self-propagating.
Hyperventilation can be reversed by forcing a slower breathing rate. Breathing into a bag
will cause the reabsorption of some of the expelled carbon dioxide. Thats a very
common trick. And talking out loud will help the sufferer to resume a more normal rate
of respiration thereby reducing the effects of hyperventilation.

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Motion Sickness
Motion sickness is caused by conflicting signals to the brain regarding movement and
orientation. In a bank, for example, the eyes supply one message, the vestibular system
provides another, and the body may feel unfamiliar G-forces. Taken together, these
signals cause some amount of confusion in the brain. Stress and fear can be contributing
factors. The result may be anxiety, weakness, sweating, dizziness, and ultimately,
vomiting.
Most people have some initial tendency toward the symptoms of motion sickness.
Generally, straight-and-level flight in calm air will not cause any of these symptoms to
occur. But turbulence, abrupt changes in pitch, and steep banks can precipitate feelings of
discomfort in many people until they develop a tolerance over the course of several
flights.
When a pilot or passenger feels the onset of symptoms, straight-and-level flight should be
assumed immediately. Direct cool air vents onto the person and suggest that they focus
on objects outside of the airplane. Instruct them to avoid unnecessary head movements. If
symptoms do not abate, a gentle descent to an airport landing is probably the best option.
Spatial Disorientation
Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of orientation with regard to the
position, attitude, or movement of the airplane in space. This type of confusion usually
occurs when outside visual references are lost. The symptoms of motion sickness are not
normally seen since the person experiencing it may not sense anything out of the
ordinary.
The vestibular system frequently provides erroneous information to the brain during
flight. In visual conditions, it isnt necessarily a problem since the pilot tends to believe
his outside references. But place that pilot in the clouds or in dark nighttime conditions
and he starts to react to his vestibular inputs.
Perhaps a turn is perceived when the airplane is in straight-and-level flight. Or maybe a
descent is interpreted as a climb. A common example finds a pilot in IMC (instrument
meteorological conditions) believing he is in a turn. He corrects to what he senses is
straight-and-level. In reality, his correction may have placed the airplane in a turn in the
opposite direction. As the lift vector is redirected into the horizontal, a turning descent or
spiral develops. Airspeed increases as the spiral steepens. When the pilot realizes that
something is amiss, he may not make the proper correction, or, worse yet, panic may set
in.
Prevention is the obvious best solution to spatial disorientation. Without extensive
instrument training, a pilot should avoid situations of limited outside visibility. If outside
references are lost, the only course is to trust the instruments and ignore the sensations
produced by the vestibular system.

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Scuba Diving
Scuba diving subjects the body to increased pressure. This causes more nitrogen to
dissolve in the body tissues and fluids than normal. When this occurs, a slow
depressurization of the body is needed. Otherwise, nitrogen bubbles can form in the body.
This painful and potentially incapacitating condition is called the bends.
Since we experience relatively rapid decreases in pressure when we climb in an airplane,
flight should be avoided immediately after scuba diving. A minimum of twelve hours
should be allowed between scuba dives and flight up to 8,000 feet MSL. For higher
flights, wait at least twenty-four hours after the scuba dive is completed.
Night Flight
Most of the aeromedical issues relating to night flight result from diminshed vision.
When flying at night, we may have more trouble seeing other aircraft. At altitudes above
5,000 feet, the reduced oxygen levels further limit our ability to see well. Additionally,
depth perception may be impaired making it difficult to judge distances.
Before any night flight, ensure that you have adequate lighting on board the airplane.
Your preflight inspection should include a thorough test of all the lights cabin and
external.
Take two flashlights with fresh batteries. Protect your night vision by avoiding looking
into brightly-lit areas. While using a flashlight, place your fingers over the lens so that
only a thin sliver of light is emitted. Red lights are good at preserving your night vision,
but are difficult to use when reading sectional charts.
If you are subjected to bright light or flashes of lightning, cover one eye. This will help
you to protect your night vision in that eye. Those black eye patches sold in drug stores
work perfectly. Keep one in your flight bag.
Make your traffic scan slow and deliberate. Give your eyes time to focus on each section
of sky. Look at dimly-lit objects slightly off center. If you find yourself in clouds or
significant haze, turn off the strobe lights. Their reflection on the clouds could cause
spatial disorientation.

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Airmans Practical Test Checklist

Dont leave home without it.
Airplane
AROW documents
Aircraft Maintenance Records (i.e. the aircraft logbooks)
Pilot Operating Handbook
Pilot Candidate
Documentation
Photo identification
Medical/student pilot certificate
Logbook with necessary endorsements
FAA Form 8710-1 completed and endorsed
Computer test report from the FAA Knowledge Test
Examiners fee
Equipment
View-limiting device
Current sectional chart
Current Airport Facilities Directory
Current FAR/AIM
Computer and plotter
Pens and/or pencils with erasers
Flight plan forms
Electronic calculator

Copyright 2014 by Atlanta Flight, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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