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BioMed Research International

Volume 2014, Article ID 480573, 11 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/480573

Review Article
A Clinical and Pathological Overview of Vulvar
Condyloma Acuminatum, Intraepithelial Neoplasia,
and Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Boris Lonard,1 Frederic Kridelka,2 Katty Delbecque,1 Frederic Goffin,2
Stphanie Demoulin,3 Jean Doyen,2 and Philippe Delvenne1
1

Department of Pathology, University Hospital of Li`ege, 4000 Li`ege, Belgium

Department of Gynecology, University Hospital of Li`ege, 4000 Li`ege, Belgium
3
Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Li`ege, 4000 Li`ege, Belgium
2

Correspondence should be addressed to Philippe Delvenne; [email protected]

Received 15 November 2013; Accepted 15 January 2014; Published 25 February 2014
Academic Editor: Gerald E. Pierard
Copyright 2014 Boris Leonard et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Condyloma acuminatum, intraepithelial neoplasia, and squamous cell carcinoma are three relatively frequent vulvar lesions.
Condyloma acuminatum is induced by low risk genotypes of human papillomavirus (HPV). Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN)
and squamous cell carcinoma have different etiopathogenic pathways and are related or not with high risk HPV types. The goal
of this paper is to review the main pathological and clinical features of these lesions. A special attention has been paid also to
epidemiological data, pathological classification, and clinical implications of these diseases.

1. Introduction
Vulvar human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible
for the development of benign tumors (condylomata acuminata), of one type of preneoplastic lesions, and of certain
types of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) [1]. Condylomata
acuminate are vulvar exophytic benign tumors which result
usually (90%) from HPV types 6 and 11 (several other HPV
types can be involved) [2]. Up to 83% of women with external
genital warts or a history of external genital warts have a
concomitant cervical HPV infection [3].
Similarly to the cervix, most of the vulvar (pre)neoplastic
lesions are induced by HPV infection (most commonly HPV
16), except for the differentiated (simplex) type of VIN.
This allows to distinguish two types of VIN: (1) the
usual VIN (uVIN)/classic VIN (WHO terminology) which is
related to HPV infection; (2) the differentiated/simplex type
(dVIN), non-HPV-related, but associated with vulvar dermatoses, especially the lichen sclerosus [4, 5].
The distinction is also applicable for SCC with HPVrelated SCC, associated with uVIN and non-HPV-related

vulvar SCC, often associated with dVIN and lichen sclerosus

[1, 4, 6].
The incidence of HPV-associated VIN, unlike that of
vulvar carcinomas, has been increasing over the past 20 years,
especially in women of reproductive age, with the highest
frequency reported in women of 2035 years old [79]. dVIN
type and non-HPV-related vulvar SCC occur commonly in
elderly women [9].
Approximately 95% of malignant tumors of the vulva
are SCC. They represent 6.38% of all gynaecologic cancers
in Belgium (Belgian Cancer Registry 2011). The American
Cancer Society reports over 3,400 new cases of vulvar SCC
in the USA annually [10].
The incidence of both types (HPV and non-HPV associated) of vulvar SCC increases with age [11, 12]. The reported
incidence rates are 1 : 100,000 in younger women and 20 in
100,000 in the elderly [13]. The mean age at presentation is 60
74 years [7, 14]. Vulvar carcinoma may infrequently occur in
younger women and adolescents [15, 16]. The peak incidence
of vulvar cancer in Belgium (Belgian Cancer Registry 2011) is
observed in people over the age of 85.

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2. Condyloma Acuminatum (Genital Warts)

2.1. Clinical Features. Condyloma acuminatum (CA) or
venereal/genital warts refer to benign proliferative epidermal
or mucosal lesions attributed mostly to HPV type 6 or 11,
but coinfections with high-risk HPV types are frequent. More
than 100 types of HPV have been identified, of which 40
can infect the genital areas. HPV are highly specific viruses
showing both species and regional specificity. They represent
the most common sexually-transmitted disease (STD) and
are highly contagious. The prevalence of CA peaks in the early
sexually active years, with two-thirds of the respective sexual
partners complaining of warts. The median time between
infection and development of lesions is about 5-6 months
among women. Up to 20% of people with genital warts will
present other STDs.
The following risk factors have been described, including
smoking, hormonal contraceptives, multiple sexual partners,
and early coital age. Patients who develop CA complain of
painless bumps and, less frequently, of pruritus, discharge, or
bleeding. Lesions are commonly multiple (multicentric) and
multifocal, also affecting the perianal, vaginal, and cervical
regions, but oral and laryngeal regions may also be involved.
Latent illness may become active, particularly with pregnancy
and immunosuppression. Lesions may regress spontaneously,
remain stable, or progress in size and/or number.
CA are soft, raised masses, with smooth, verrucous, or
lobulated aspects that may appear as pearly, filiform, fungating, or plaque-like eruptions. The surface commonly shows
finger-like projections, generally nonpigmented. They mainly
occur in the moist areas of the labia minora and vaginal
opening, but virtually, all genital regions may be affected
(fourchette, labia minora/majora, pubis, clitoris, urethral
meatus, perineum, perianal region, anal canal, introitus,
vagina, and ectocervix). Therefore, minutious colposcopic
examination, using acetic acid 25%, is of crucial importance
to detect potentially multiple involved sites.
CA are perceived as disfiguring, they impact sexual
lifestyle, causing anxiety, guilt, and loss of self-esteem and
creating concerns about cancer risk.
The most common treatments are painful and nonspecific, addressing the clinically evident lesions rather than the
viral cause. Various modalities include office-based treatment
(cryotherapy, electrocautery, laser, and/or surgery) or homebased treatment (chemotoxic agents or immunomodulatory
therapy). First episode patients should be STD screened.
Management should include partner notification.
2.2. Etiopathogenesis. The initial site of infection is thought
to be either basal cells of the immature squamous epithelium that HPV reaches presumably through defects in the
epithelium. Once HPV enters the cells, two distinct biological
sequences are possible. The first form is a nonproductive
or latent infection in which HPV DNA persists in the basal
cells without virus replication. Latent infections do not show
morphologic alterations and can only be identified using
molecular methods.

Figure 1: Vulvar condyloma acuminatum with acanthotic squamous epithelium and prominent koilocytic changes.

The second form of HPV infection is a productive

infection. Viral DNA replication in the intermediate and
superficial cell layers of the squamous epithelium occurs
independently of host chromosomal DNA synthesis. This
allows large amounts of intact virions to be formed, leading
to typical morphological aspects such as koilocytic changes.
Molecular biologic methods have identified HPV-6 as the
most common HPV type in CA. HPV-11 has been found in
approximately one fourth of genital warts. These two HPV
types are responsible for over 90% of CA [17, 18].
2.3. Pathologic Features
2.3.1. Gross Findings. The lesions are typically exophytic and
may range from discrete papillary excrescences to extensive
and coalescent cauliflower-like masses [4].
2.3.2. Microscopic Findings. CA shows a striking papillary
architecture. Papillae of different sizes and shapes are lined
by acanthotic squamous epithelium and have a fibrovascular
stroma, often containing scattered chronic inflammatory
cells. Hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, hypergranulosis, and
basal cell hyperplasia are seen. Koilocytic changes (rigid
perinuclear halos, binucleated nuclei, and slightly enlarged
nuclei with irregular contours and coarse chromatin), sometimes focal, are present in the most superficial layers of the
squamous epidermis. Mitotic figures are observed in the
lower third of the epidermis (Figure 1) [1, 4].
2.3.3. Ancillary Studies. The proliferation index by immunostaining (Ki67/MIB-1) in the upper third of the epithelium is
considered as an adjunct test to confirm the diagnosis of CA,
especially in lesions without evident koilocytic changes.
The presence of Ki67/MIB-1 immunostaining has been
further correlated with the detection of HPV DNA by
polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
In situ hybridization for HPV can also be performed on
paraffin-fixed tissue sections to confirm the presence of HPVDNA in CA. However, this test may lack sensitivity [4].

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2.4. Treatment Options
2.4.1. Home Therapy
(i) Podophyllotoxin (0.15% cream or 0.5% solution) is
an antimitotic and cytotoxic molecule that results in
necrosis of genital CA. Each course of podophyllotoxin treatment comprises self-application twice daily
for 3 days, followed by four rest days. However,
vulvar and anal warts are more feasibly and efficiently
treated with clearance rates of 4583% after use of
0.5% podophyllotoxin solution for 36 weeks. Transient and acceptable burning, tenderness, erythema,
and/or erosions for a few days when the warts
necrotize are described. Recurrence rates of 6100%
have been reported with podophyllotoxin between 8
and 21 weeks after clearance [1921]. Podophyllotoxin
is contraindicated during pregnancy, and women of
childbearing age must use contraception.
(ii) Imiquimod 5% topical cream (Aldara) induces interferon production and is a cell-mediated immune
response modifier. It is applied to the warts three
times a week at bedtime. Treatment continues until
wart clearance, or for a maximum of 16 weeks. It
presents minimal systemic absorption but causes erythema, irritation, ulceration, and pain at application
site. In clinical studies, clearance has been reported
in 3568% of patients with treatment courses up to
16 weeks. Erythema is often seen as a side effect
with imiquimod therapy and sometimes appears
to precede clinical resolution. Occasionally, severe
inflammation is seen necessitating discontinuation of
therapy. Relatively low recurrence rates (626%) after
successful clearance have been reported [13, 22, 23].
(iii) 5-Fluorouracil: no longer recommended for routine
use, it has antimetabolic and/or antineoplastic and
immunostimulative activity.
(iv) Sinecatechins ointment: Sinecatechins is available as
a 10% ointment in Europe and a 15% ointment in
the US. It consists in a preparation of green tea
catechins (sinecatechins). Evidence suggests that the
mechanism of action is made through antiproliferative mechanisms. The ointment is applied three times
a day until complete clearance, or for up to 4 months.
It cannot be used internally or during pregnancy.
Clearance rates of 4759% over 1216 weeks were
reported. Local side effects occur as frequently as with
other topical therapies. They are generally graded as
mild and typically include redness, burning, itching,
and pain at the site of application. In those clearing,
low recurrence rates of 711% were observed over 12
weeks follow-up [2426].

3
tissues. Although caustic, this treatment causes less
local irritation and systemic toxicity and has low cost.
Response rates of 5681% have been reported, with
recurrence rates of 36% [27]. TCA can be used safely
during pregnancy.
(ii) Cryotherapy may be performed weekly using an
open spray or cotton-tipped applicator for 1020
seconds and repeated as needed. A freeze-thaw-freeze
technique is applied to each lesion at each session.
Application techniques are difficult to standardize
and there may be significant intraoperator differences. Cryotherapy presents the advantages of being
simple, inexpensive, rarely causes scarring or depigmentation, and is safe during pregnancy. Clinical
studies have reported clearance rates in the range of
4475%, and recurrence rates of 2142% one to three
months after clearance [2729].
(iii) Surgical treatments have the highest primary clearance rates with initial cure rates up to 6090%. They
include electrosurgery, curettage, scissors excision,
and laser therapy. Surgery may be used as primary
therapy, and the majority of patients can be treated
under local anaesthesia. When performed carefully,
simple surgical approach leaves highly satisfactory
cosmetic results. Clearance rates of 94100% and
89100% have been reported for electrosurgery and
scissors excision, respectively, with recurrence rates
of 1929%. Formal surgery, under anaesthesia, is
convenient for the removal of bulky warts, extensive
warts, and anal/intra-anal warts.
Many patients either fail to respond to treatment or recur
after adequate response resulting in patient dissatisfaction.
Global recurrence rates exceed 50% after 1 year due to
repeated infection from sexual contact, persistence of virus in
surrounding skin, hair follicles, sites not adequately reached
by the intervention used, or immunosuppression [27, 3032].
2.5. Primary Prevention by Prophylactic Vaccine (Quadrivalent Gardasil). A quadrivalent HPV vaccine is available
for prevention of HPV-associated dysplasia and neoplasia
including cervical cancer, precancerous genital lesions, and
genital warts associated with HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18.
Vaccine efficacy is mediated by humoral immune responses
following immunization. It is indicated for prevention of
CA caused by HPV types 6 and 11 in boys, men, girls,
and women aged 926 years. The very high efficacy of
the quadrivalent HPV vaccine against HPV6/11 disease was
reported in multiple randomised, controlled trials. There is
now accumulating evidence that population-based quadrivalent HPV vaccination can result in dramatic declines in
genital warts incidence and reduction in HPV6/11 burden
[3335].

2.4.2. Office Therapy

(i) Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) solution (8090%) is
used directly to the wart surface, weekly. It rapidly
penetrates and cauterizes skin, keratin, and other

3. Vulvar Intraepithelial Neoplasia

The term vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) was
endorsed by the International Society for the Study of Vulvar

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Disease (ISSVD) in 1986 to describe intraepithelial neoplastic

proliferations of the vulvar epidermis [4]. Previously, other
terms had been used to describe histologically similar lesions:
Bowens disease, erythroplasia of Queyrat, bowenoid
papulosis, and bowenoid dysplasia [4]. In 2004, the terminology for squamous VIN was reviewed by the ISSVD
that classified VIN in two groups: usual type (uVIN) and
differentiated type (dVIN). uVIN type is predominant while
dVIN accounts for a small proportion (<25%) of all VIN
lesions [36, 37]. Both types of VIN have the potential to
progress to vulvar cancer.
3.1. Clinical Features. Usual-type VIN (warty, basaloid, or
mixed) occurs in young women. The incidence peaks at 45
49 years old, and has increased in recent years and has nearly
doubled in the last decades, especially in young women. It is
causally related to HPV infection. Other risk factors include
smoking and immunosuppression. The lesions are frequently
multifocal and have the potential to progress to invasive
carcinoma.
Differentiated VIN affects older women, tends to be
unifocal, and unicentric. It is not associated with HPV
infection, but it is associated with vulvar dermatosis, mainly
lichen sclerosus. It also has the potential to progress to
invasive carcinoma. VIN is clinically important because the
rate of progression to invasive SCC is reported to be as high
as 80%, if left untreated [38].
The disease is asymptomatic in about 50% of cases.
When symptomatic, the main complaints include itching,
pruritus, pain, and dyspareunia. The appearance is variable
from unique to multifocal lesions, flat, raised, or eroded,
white, grey, red, or brown. After visual or colposcopic
examination, such lesions should be biopsied for histological
examination. A complete gynaecologic examination is of
paramount importance to exclude any multicentric lesions
that may affect the cervix, the vagina, and the anal region.
The diagnosis of VIN can be subtle. To avoid delay, the
physician must exercise a high degree of suspicion. Vulvar
biopsy should be used liberally.
3.2. Etiopathogenesis. A part of vulvar carcinogenesis (for
uVIN and HPV-related vulvar SCC) is superposable to
cervical carcinogenesis. The viral oncoproteins E6 and E7
play a key role in the (pre)malignant transformation. After
viral DNA integration in human host-cells, these viral oncoproteins E6 and E7 are overexpressed. Then, E6 degrades the
tumor suppressor protein p53, therefore inducing the absence
of cell cycle arrest [39]. Moreover, E7 induces an inactive
retinoblastoma tumor suppressor gene product, resulting in
hyperproliferation of host cells, with overexpression of the
cell cycle-related marker p16 [39].
Based on their associations with cervical and anogenital
cancers, a nonexhaustive number of anogenital HPVs (HPVs
16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66,. . .) have been
classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) as oncogenic [40].
Among women infected with high-risk types of HPV,
other factors such as smoking, immunosuppression, and

Figure 2: Differentiated VIN developed on sclerous lichen: white

and surelevated nodules.

long-term use of oral contraceptives can result in a doubling

or tripling of risk for HSIL (high grade squamous intraepithelial lesion) and invasive cancer [41].
The HPV-independent pathway of vulvar SCC and dVIN
is not well known. Genetic mutations in TP53 [42, 43] or
PTEN [44] and epigenetic alterations such as hypermethylation of the MGMT, RASSF2A, or TSP1 gene promoters
[45] have frequently been detected in dVIN and vulvar SCC,
suggesting that the alteration of these genes contributes to
vulvar carcinogenesis.
3.3. Pathologic Findings
3.3.1. Gross Findings. Typical low-grade VIN appears as pale
areas, whereas high-grade VIN lesions appear as white or
erythematous papules or macules that frequently coalesce
or show a verrucous growth. Approximately 1015% of the
lesions are hyperpigmented.
Differentiated/simplex VIN can be seen as focal discoloration, ill-defined white plaques, or discrete elevated
nodules but they are typically less bulky than uVIN lesions
[4]. Approximately two thirds of VIN lesions are multifocal
(Figure 2) [1].
3.3.2. Microscopic Findings
(1) Usual/Classic VIN (uVIN). uVIN shows morphological
characteristics similar to all HPV-associated intraepithelial
lesions such as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), anal
intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN), vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (VaIN), and penile intraepithelial neoplasia [46].
These preneoplastic lesions are characterized by epithelial
thickening and surface hyperkeratosis and/or parakeratosis. Dysplastic squamous cells with scant cytoplasm and
hyperchromatic nuclei are accompanied by dyskeratotic cells
with eosinophilic cytoplasm. Nuclear pleomorphism and
hyperchromasia are present. However, nucleoli are uncommon. Loss of cell maturation and increased mitotic activity,
including abnormal mitotic figures, are also seen [1, 4, 5].
uVIN involves the skin appendages in more than 50% of
the cases studied [1]. uVIN is divided into warty (condylomatous) and basaloid types, essentially based on the
architecture and appearance of the intraepithelial lesions.

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Figure 3: uVIN 3, basaloid type composed of a homogeneous population of dysplastic parabasal type cells on nearly whole thickness
of the epidermis.

Figure 4: Differentiated VIN: atypical keratinocytes (with large

vesicular nuclei with macronucleoli), present in the basal as well as
mid layers of the epithelium. No koilocytic changes are identified.

The warty type shows a striking papillary pattern, acanthosis, with cytological signs of viral infection (koilocytic
changes, multinucleation, and coarse granules) [1, 4].
The basaloid type presents a flat surface and is composed
of a homogeneous population of small atypical parabasal
type cells on nearly whole thickness of the epidermis. The
epithelium lacks cellular maturation and koilocytic changes
which are rarely seen [1, 4]. Sometimes, these two types are
present within the same lesion [1, 4].
A rare variant is pagetoid VIN where atypical squamous
cells present a pale cytoplasm and are isolated or grouped in
small clusters [47, 48].
Based on the level of involvement of the thickness of the
epithelium by the dysplastic cells, uVIN were graded in 3
grades (WHO terminology [5]):

eosinophilic cytoplasm and typically prominent intercellular

bridges. These keratinocytes, present in the basal as well as
mid-layers of the epithelium, also show marked cytologic
abnormalities such as large vesicular nuclei with macronucleoli.
Mitotic activity is more frequent at the base of the
epidermis. No koilocytic changes are identified (Figure 4)
[1, 4].
This lesion is frequently associated with lichen sclerosus
and other cutaneous inflammation such as lichen simplex
chronicus [42, 47].

(i) low-grade (VIN 1) if the dysplastic cells involve the

lower third of the epithelium;
(ii) moderate grade (VIN 2) when the dysplastic cells are
present in the lower two-thirds of the epithelium;
(iii) high-grade (VIN 3) if there is full-thickness involvement of the epithelium by the dysplastic cells. VIN 3
is synonymous with carcinoma in situ.
It is interesting to note that VIN 2 and VIN 3 confer the
same risk and rate of progression to invasive carcinoma if
untreated (Figure 3) [4].
The International Society for the Study of Vulvovaginal
disease (ISSVD) has proposed that VIN should not be graded
but described as high-grade VIN lesions only (VIN 2 or
VIN 3). The ISSVD has also recommended that the term lowgrade VIN (VIN 1, or mild dysplasia) should not be used
anymore and that such lesions should be classified as flat
condyloma acuminatum, or given an appropriate descriptive
term [49].
(2) Differentiated VIN (dVIN). Differentiated (simplex) VIN
is classified as high-grade VIN (thus VIN 3) due to its
associated high risk to progress into invasive SCC [1, 4].
It shows epidermal hyperplasia with associated parakeratosis, with elongated and branched rete ridges. An important
feature is the finding of squamous cells with abundant bright

3.3.3. Ancillary Studies. p16, a surrogate marker of HPV, can

be used to detect HPV infection. Diffuse and intense nuclear
and cytoplasmic staining typically correlates with high-risk
HPV infection. Focal and weak positivity is nonspecific.
p16 immunostaining is characteristically negative in the
epidermis of dVIN [50, 51].
Detection of increased proliferative activity in the upper
layers of the epithelium using Ki67/MIB-1 staining has shown
to be well correlated with the presence of HPV DNA by
molecular analysis. Ki67/MIB-1 can help for distinction
between dVIN and normal vulvar epidermis [52]. HPV in
situ hybridization can also be used and is more specific than
MIB-1 staining. However, this test suffers from low sensitivity
[4].
PCR analysis of VIN 1 lesions has shown a mixture of lowand high-risk HPV (geno)types, whereas VIN 2 and VIN 3
are generally associated with high-risk HPV, most commonly
HPV 16 and 18. Molecular studies have failed to demonstrate
HPV DNA in dVIN. To identify dVIN, p53 staining can be
used. 90% of dVIN show a high p53 positivity in the basal
layer with suprabasal extension [42, 47].
3.4. Treatment Options. Due to the natural history of VIN, all
VIN lesions should receive treatment. There is little consensus
regarding the optimal method of management.
(i) The mainstay of management for VIN has been the
surgical excision. One important advantage of surgical excision is that a complete histologic assessment
is performed to exclude or define the presence of

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occult invasive carcinoma. The goal of the surgery
is to obtain a 5-mm disease-free margin to control
symptoms and to avoid malignant transformation.
Results are initially good, but the recurrence rate is
in between 30% to 50% [53]. Large and/or iterative
ablations can lead to severe anatomical and functional
sequellae, which is particularly distressing in young
women. Because of this, and particularly because of
the increase in younger women affected, great interest
has been paid to nonsurgical treatment of VIN.
(ii) Laser ablative therapy is an alternative to excision.
The disadvantage of ablative therapy is that a necrotic
ulcer on the vulva may result and wound healing
may be slow. Complete healing may take several
weeks. Pain, which is severe in some patients, is
the main complication with laser therapy. Bleeding
and infection have also been reported. The cosmetic
results appear to be excellent. Laser therapy is an
acceptable treatment modality, if invasive carcinoma
has been ruled out. Many consider laser therapy
the treatment of choice in the management of VIN,
particularly for those who have multifocal disease. In
the review article of the 253 patients treated with laser,
23% recurred [53].
(iii) Since most uVIN lesions are associated with high riskHPV types 1618 infection, it has been hypothesized
that the high recurrence rate following excision or
ablative therapies is due to failure to remove the
reservoir of HPV present in adjacent vulvar skin.
Imiquimod is a low molecular weight imidazoquinoline acting as an immune response modifier, which
could have the ability to generate HPV-specific cellmediated immunity and potentially induce a regression of VIN lesions. Several studies have demonstrated that imiquimod is effective and safe for the
treatment of VIN. Imiquimod 5% cream has been
approved for the treatment of external anogenital
warts and has shown safety and efficacy for different
dermatological conditions such as external anogenital
warts, superficial basal cell carcinoma, actinic keratosis, and extra genital Bowens disease. In recent
years, randomized control trials have shown that
the application of 5% imiquimod is effective in the
treatment of high-grade VIN [54]. The first studies
had a short term follow-up, so presenting important
bias because of the high risk of recurrence even after
several years from the primary treatment. Recently,
Terlou et al. published a report with seven-year
median follow-up showing that in case of complete
response, imiquimod is effective in the long-term
[55]. However, all the investigations compared the
patients treated with imiquimod to a control group
treated with placebo, and only few authors analyzed
data about the main outcomes in women treated
with imiquimod and in women treated with different
modalities. Imiquimod seems therefore to offer two
important benefits: the avoidance of surgery and a
lower recurrence rate for complete responders.

Figure 5: Exophytic and ulcerated squamous cell carcinoma.

The risk factors for VIN recurrence after treatment are

smoking, large lesions sizes, surgical specimen with positive
margins. Because of the high risk of recurrence and risk of
progression to invasive carcinoma, long-term follow-up is
mandatory. The ACOG recommends an after therapy visit at
6 and 12 months, and then annually.
3.5. Primary Prevention. Recent randomized controlled trials
have demonstrated that sustained protection from VIN can
be offered with a prophylactic HPV vaccine. Immunization
with HPV vaccination (bi or quadrivalent vaccine) has the
potential to prevent about 70% of the VIN.
For example, the quadrivalent vaccine against HPV 6, 11,
16, and 18 was shown to be 97% effective in preventing VIN
2-3 in a population that was naive to these viruses at the time
of first vaccination and 100% effective in those who remained
unexposed through the completion of the vaccine regimen
[56].
It seems that vaccinating HPV-naive women is efficacious, and it would be preferable to vaccinate women before
they become sexually active.

4. Invasive Squamous Cell Carcinoma

4.1. Pathologic Features
4.1.1. Gross Findings. SCC may appear as an exophytic or an
endophytic ulcerated lesion. The labia majora and minora
are preferentially involved. The majority of vulvar SCC are
solitary. However, multifocal tumors are seen in 10% of
cases (Figure 5) [4]. Clinical symptoms are usually related
to the ulceration of the lesion. There is in average 12 to
18 months delay between initial symptoms and definitive
histological diagnosis due to prescription of corticoid or
antifungal topical therapy without detailed examination of
the genitalia.
4.1.2. Microscopic Findings. The current World Health
Organization (WHO 2003) classification of vulvar tumors
describes several variants of invasive squamous carcinoma
[5]:
(a) Keratinizing Squamous Cell Carcinoma NOS (Not Otherwise Specified). This is the most common histologic subtype of

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figures are rare and koilocytosis is usually absent. Verrucous
carcinoma presents no or very little metastatic potential.
HPV type 6 has been identified in a number of verrucous
carcinoma [4, 5, 6164], but it is controversial in the literature;
a recent retrospective study does not support a causal role of
HPV in the development of verrucous carcinoma [65].
(f) Squamous Carcinoma with Tumor Giant Cells. This is a
rare and aggressive variant of invasive SCC characterized
by the presence of numerous multinucleated tumor giant
cells. Large atypical nuclei with prominent nucleoli and brisk
mitotic activity are frequent [4, 5].

Figure 6: Keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma: infiltrative neoplastic cells are mature with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm and
show keratin pearls.

SCC. Neoplastic cells are mature with abundant eosinophilic

cytoplasm and show keratin pearl. The nuclei are enlarged
with prominent nucleoli and features readily identified in
most cases include considerable nuclear atypia and mitotic
activity (Figure 6) [1, 4, 5]. Previously, keratinizing neoplasms
are considered as non-HPV-associated tumors. The presence
of dVIN and/or lichen sclerosus in adjacent skin was an
evidence of an HPV-independent implication [50].
Recently, typing by polymerase chain reaction showed
a significant number of discrepancies: prevalence of HPV in
keratinizing SCC is observed up to 49.1% [57].
(b) Nonkeratinizing Squamous Cell Carcinoma. The cells
in this subtype of invasive SCC show minimal evidence
of keratinization with scattered keratinized cells but lacks
keratin pearl. Keratin pearl formation is not observed [1, 4, 5].
Prevalence of HPV in nonkeratinizing SCC is 85.7% [57].
(c) Basaloid Carcinoma. This tumor subtype arises in association with high-grade uVIN and comprises irregular nests and
cords of basaloid cells with scant cytoplasm. The cells are
ovoid, relatively uniform in size, and the nuclei show evenly
distributed granular chromatin with no evident nucleoli. No
keratin pearls are observed [1, 4, 5]. Prevalence of HPV
in basaloid SCC is 92.3% [57]. HPV-16 can be detected in
approximately 70% of cases [1, 58].
(d) Warty (Condylomatous) Carcinoma. This histologic subtype is architecturally characterized by the presence of multiple papillary projections with fibrovascular cores. The papillae are lined by keratinized squamous epithelium showing
koilocytic changes (the most characteristic features). Keratin
pearl formation in the invasive nests is often seen [1, 4, 5, 59,
60]. Prevalence of HPV in warty carcinoma is 78.2% [57].
HPV 16 is frequently observed [59, 60].
(e) Verrucous Carcinoma. This highly differentiated variant of
SCC is characterized by bulbous pegs of neoplastic cells that
appear to push into the underlying stroma. The neoplastic
squamous epithelium is hyperplastic and associated with
prominent hyper- and parakeratosis. The tumor cells have
abundant cytoplasm. Nuclear atypia is minimal. Mitotic

(g) Keratoacanthoma-Like Carcinoma. This variant has been

included in the last WHO classification (2003) of vulvar SCC.
It presents an appearance of keratoacanthoma and occurs on
hair-bearing skin. Histologically, it is characterized by the
presence of a central crater filled with proliferating squamous
epithelium and anucleated masses of keratin. Invading nests
and cords of squamous epithelium are observed in the
dermis. These tumors may regress spontaneously by a poorly
understood immune mechanism [4, 5].
There is no grading system unanimously accepted for vulvar SCC. The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC
2010) recommends a four-grade system: well-differentiated
(G1), moderately differentiated (G2), poorly differentiated
(G3), and undifferentiated (G4) (GX, grade cannot be
assessed) [66].
The grading system recommended by the Gynecologic
Oncology Group (GOG) is based on the percentage of undifferentiated cells (small cells with scant cytoplasm infiltrating
the stroma).
Grade 1 tumors have no undifferentiated cells, Grade 2
tumors contain less than 50% undifferentiated cells, Grade 3
tumors have greater than 50% but less than 100%, and grade
4 is essentially entirely composed of undifferentiated cells.
The risk of recurrence has been reported to be higher with
increasing grade [6769].
4.1.3. Ancillary Studies. Immunohistochemical expression of
p16 is commonly expressed in vulvar squamous tumors and
VIN associated with oncogenic HPV [70, 71]. Indeed, the
sensitivity and specificity of p16 immunostaining are close
to 100% for detecting HPV-related carcinomas [50, 72].
Therefore, the anti-p16 antibody may be used as a good
alternative to PCR [50, 73]. p53 staining is positive in 50
70% of HPV-unrelated vulvar SCC, which contrasts with a
negativity of p53 staining in almost HPV-related vulvar SCC
[50].
4.2. Treatment Options. Vulvar carcinoma benefits from a
surgical staging system based on criteria established by
the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics
(FIGO) [74]. The latter includes variables related to the
primary disease (early or locally advanced stage) and the
nodal status (negative versus ipsilateral or bilateral positivity).
Pretreatment assessment includes confirmation biopsy
and careful perineal, vulvar, and vaginal examination.

8
MRI and PET CT are not part of a routine work up and must
be prescribed on individual basis.
Early stage carcinoma is best treated by a radical local
excision with macroscopic tumor-free margins of 1 cm [75].
The traditional radical vulvectomy is no longer systematically applied due to its major deleterious impact on vaginal
function. In the same operating time, nodal staging is
justified when tumor depth exceeds 1 mm. Bilateral radical inguinofemoral (IF) nodal dissection carries a heavy
potential morbidity (lymphocele, lymphoedema) and must
therefore be individualized [76]. The sentinel node approach
is nowadays considered validated for early stage neoplasms
with a greater diameter <2 cm [77]. For early stage disease
>2 cm, IF nodal staging must include superficial inguinal
and deep femoral node dissection [78]. The procedure may
be carried out ipsilaterally in case of labia major lateralised
disease. The dissection must be bilateral in case of midline
disease (minor labia, periclitoral, periurethral, or perianal)
[79].
Locally advanced vulvar carcinoma based on vaginal,
urethral, or anal involvement is treated by concomitant
chemoradiation associating external beam, brachytherapy
implant, and radiosensitizing platinum chemotherapy. In this
context, nodal staging may precede the initiation of the
radiotherapy [80]. External beam target volume may then
be tailored on the basis of the patients nodal status and
limit the radiation induced morbidity in the absence of nodal
metastases.
Recommended follow-up includes clinical vulvar, vaginal, and nodal examination on a three to six monthly basis.
Indication of routine morphological or metabolic imaging
exams must be individualized.

BioMed Research International

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

5. Conclusion

[13]

The understanding of all the aspects of these three relatively

frequent diseases that are vulvar condyloma acuminatum,
vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, and vulvar SCC guarantees
an optimal care of the patients. A close cooperation between
clinicians and pathologists is also essential concerning their
accurate diagnosis.

[14]

Conflict of Interests

[15]

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests

regarding the publication of this paper.

[16]

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in Medicine
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
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Volume 2014

AIDS

Behavioural
Neurology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Research and Treatment

Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and

Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com

Volume 2014