HOW DO ELECTRIC GUITAR

PICKUPS WORK?
By

Maurice Yap
Peter Symonds College

Research report for the qualification, OCR GCE Physics B (Advancing Physics)
March 2015

How do electric guitar pickups work?

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction........................................................................................
1.1. The concept of pickups.............................................................................................................................

2. Electromagnetic induction..................................................................
3. Resonant peak....................................................................................
3.1. Factors affecting the resonant peak.........................................................................................................
3.1.1. Active pickups....................................................................................................................................

4. Hum-cancelling...................................................................................
4.1. Humbucking pickups...............................................................................................................................
4.1.1. Waveform models of the signals in a humbucker.............................................................................
4.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of humbucking pickups..................................................................
4.2. Hum-cancelling in single-coil pickups....................................................................................................
4.2.1. Single-coil pickup noise cancellation in a Stratocaster-style guitar.................................................
4.2.2. Single-coil pickup noise cancellation in a Telecaster-style guitar..................................................

5. Conclusion........................................................................................
6. Reference List....................................................................................
7. Bibliography......................................................................................
8. Evaluation of sources........................................................................

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1: Rickenbacker Electro A-22, the "Frying Pan" guitar (Doryfour, 2012)................................................................
Figure 2: A single coil alnico pickup on a Fender Telecaster guitar (own image)...............................................................
Figure 3: A direct injection box (own image).......................................................................................................................
Figure 4: Graph of e.m.f. against time (own diagram).........................................................................................................
Figure 5: The basic specifications of a two-bar humbucking pickup as published on its manufactures website
(Seymour Duncan, 2007)......................................................................................................................................................
Figure 6: The spectrogram plot of the frequency spectrum of a plucked guitar sting, with amplitude on the
vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal axis (McClung, 2009)..................................................................................
Figure 7: A humbucking alnico pickup on a Fender Jazz Bass guitar (own image)............................................................
Figure 8: Waveforms of the components of the electrical signal from the first coil of a humbucker when a note is
played (own diagram)...........................................................................................................................................................

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

Figure 9: Waveforms of the components of the electrical signal from the second coil of a humbucker when a note
is played (own diagram)........................................................................................................................................................
Figure 10: Waveforms of the noise signals in the coils of a humbucker (own diagram).....................................................
Figure 11: Waveform of the coils in a humbucker when a note is played (own diagram)...................................................
Figure 12: The body of a Stratocaster-style guitar (own image)..........................................................................................
Figure 13: The body of a Fender Telecaster guitar (Vintage & Rare, n.d.)..........................................................................
Figure 14: The pickup positions of a standard Stratocaster-style electric guitar, starting with position 1 on the far
left (own image)....................................................................................................................................................................
Figure 15: The pickup positions of a standard Telecaster-style electric guitar, starting with position 1 on the far
left (own image)...................................................................................................................................................................

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

1.INTRODUCTION
The electric guitar was introduced in the early 20th century to enable guitarists to be loud enough in jazz and
dance bands, to compete with the high volume of instruments like horns (trumpets, trombones and
saxophones) and the drum kit. It had been the case that guitars were modified to acoustically enhance and
increase their volume. For example, in 1927, the Los-Angeles based company, National, produced resonator
guitars with metal discs in the body to acoustically amplify the sound (Bacon, 2000, p.13). Also, guitars
were built with larger bodies for this reason, but they were harder and much more uncomfortable to play.
To solve this problem, the idea of using a pickup to electronically amplify the sound of the string through a
loudspeaker was introduced in the 1920s and 1930s. The earliest guitar built with this concept in mind
which had any sort of big influence was created by Paul Barth and George Beauchamp in 1931 (Bacon,
2000, p.13). It became the Rickenbacker Electro A-22 the Rickenbacker firms first production model and
the first ever guitar to use an electromagnetic pickup. It was nicknamed the Frying Pan because of its
appearance. It can be seen below in figure 1.

FIGURE 1: RICKENBACKER ELECTRO A-22, THE "FRYING PAN" GUITAR (DORYFOUR, 2012)

The electric guitar was born, along with famous and influential manufacturers like Gibson, Fender and
Ibanez; for the rest of the 20th century right up to today, the electric guitar has formed the basis of the rock,
metal and blues strands of music and also massively impacted and contributed to the sound of jazz, funk,
country, soul and pop music.

1.1.THE CONCEPT OF PICKUPS

Pickups are devices attached to the body of an electric guitar beneath the strings to sense the vibrations of
the strings and send this as an electrical signal to be amplified. An example of one is shown in figure 2. They
work using electromagnetic induction and consist of very thin enamel or polymer-coated copper wire that is
wound thousands of times around either magnetic pole pieces that lie directly under each string (made of
metallic alloys like alnico) or a ceramic bar magnet that lies beneath all the strings (WillsEasyGuitar, 2014).
This forms the coil through which an electromotive force and current are induced (Brian, 2002). The two
ends of this coil are connected to a circuit inside the body of the guitar. The electrical signal is transferred
through a cable called a jack lead, which is plugged into the guitar at one end, and at the other end, optional
auxiliary effects pedals and the amplification system, which could take the form of a guitar amplifier,
headphone amplifier or a direct injection box (figure 3) or system for recording and live musical
performances.

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

LEFT FIGURE 2: A SINGLE COIL ALNICO PICKUP ON A FENDER TELECASTER GUITAR (OWN IMAGE)
RIGHT FIGURE 3: A DIRECT INJECTION BOX (OWN IMAGE)

2.ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The bar magnet of magnetic pole pieces under each string work to form a magnetic field away from the
guitar and through the strings (Woodford, 2014). Because electric guitar strings are made using
ferromagnetic metals like cobalt, nickel and iron or alloys which contain ferromagnetic metals like steel,
they themselves become magnetised and affect the magnetic field.
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that a voltage will be induced in a coil of wire when there
is a change in the magnetic field around it (Nave, n.d.a). This induced voltage is known as the electromotive
force (e.m.f.). When this coil forms part of a closed circuit, a current is induced on the circuit. The induced
e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of the flux linkage passing through the coil.
Lenzs law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. and current are opposite to the change that caused
it (Breithaupt, 2010, pp. 269-270).
The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the total magnetic flux passing through the coil and the number
of turns on the coil.
In differential form, combining these together gives the following equation, where is the e.m.f., is the
total magnetic flux, t is time and N is the number of turns on the coil (CGP Books, 2009, pp. 48-49):

d
N
dt

In the context of an electric guitar, the plucking of one or more of the strings causes it to vibrate as it is
under tension. They vibrate perpendicular to the magnetic field of the pickups magnets and cut through its
lines of flux. Because the strings are magnetised, it causes the magnetic field through the coil to oscillate
(Schuster, 2013). Because this field is perpendicular to the coil, the lines of magnetic flux are cut by the coil
and so an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. Due to Lenzs law, the direction of the induced voltage and current
will swap as the movement of the string changes direction.
The rate of change of flux through the coil is determined by the velocity at which the magnetic field is
oscillating, and hence also, the velocity of the guitar string. The movement of the plucked string can be

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

modelled by simple harmonic motion because it oscillates either side of a midpoint and there is force
pulling the string back towards its midpoint (CGP Books, 2009, p.12). The graph of velocity against time
takes the shape of a sine or cosine curve and therefore, the graph of induced voltage (e.m.f.) against time
must also take this shape. In figure 4, the length of time marked with T represents the time period of one
oscillation.

FIGURE 4: GRAPH OF E.M.F. AGAINST TIME (OWN DIAGRAM)

It can be deduced that the frequency,

1
T

(Breithaupt, 2010, p.13), of the vibration of the string (i.e. its

musical pitch) is exactly equal to the frequency of the alternating e.m.f. Because this is the electrical signal
that is amplified, the amplified sound has the same musical pitch as the plucked string sounds acoustically.

3.RESONANT PEAK
The wire of a pickup coil has an amount of impedance, a resistance to alternating current. It is determined,
in part, by the resistance (to direct current) of the wire, which slows down the electrons moving through the
wire, and therefore decreases the current (Archer & Pavlic, 2002). This imposes a limit on the minimum
time period for a change in the direction of the current, while the oscillation generates a large enough
electrical signal to be audible when amplified. This is because the electrons cannot move quickly enough.
Hence, there is an upper limit to the frequency at which the electrical signal can oscillate and still be audible
when amplified. This frequency is known as the resonant peak (WillsEasyGuitar, 2014).

FIGURE 5: THE BASIC SPECIFICATIONS OF A TWO-BAR HUMBUCKING PICKUP AS PUBLISHED ON ITS

MANUFACTURES WEBSITE (SEYMOUR DUNCAN, 2007)

This resonant peak is one of the most important characteristics that determines the tone of an electric
guitar pickup. This is because the vibration pattern of a plucked string does not consist only of the
sinusoidal wave with the frequency of the musical note played, but in fact, a whole spectrum of frequencies,

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

which has a shape that gives a guitar its distinctive sound. It is this that distinguishes, for example, the
sound of a clarinet from that of a trumpet or from a vibraphone, all of which are playing the same musical
note. The resonant peak is one of the most important specification considered by guitarists when they buy a
pickup. Figure 5, a screenshot from Seymour Duncans online shop, exemplifies this.

FIGURE 6: THE SPECTROGRAM PLOT OF THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF A PLUCKED GUITAR STING, WITH
AMPLITUDE ON THE VERTICAL AXIS AND FREQUENCY ON THE HORIZONTAL AXIS (MCCLUNG, 2009)

The frequencies higher than the resonant peak are inaudible. This gives the effect that a high resonant peak
gives a brighter sound that is suitable for use in genres like rock and funk, while a low resonant peak gives a
warmer and mellower sound which is ideal for jazz. It can be seen in figure 6 that a plucked acoustic guitar
string produces frequencies well above 11 kHz. However, most manufactured guitar pickups generally have
a resonant peak of between 2 kHz and 5 kHz (Gallagher, 2012, p.53) and so much of the top-end of a
plucked guitar strings sound is lost from the output signal.

3.1.FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESONANT PEAK

Because the resistance of the coil of a pickup determines its resonant peak, relationships between resonant
peak and factors can be derived from the equation for resistance, where is the resistivity of the wire, R is
the resistance, A is the cross sectional area of the wire and l is the length of the wire (CGP Books, 2008,
p.34):

R
RA
l
=
R= R l
l
A
1
R
A
Firstly, it can be deduced that as resistance is directly proportional to resistivity, a coil made using wire of a
lower resistivity would raise the frequency of the resonant peak. Next the proportionality between
resistance and length implies that decreasing the length of the wire would also decrease the resistance and

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

raise the resonant peak. Finally, because the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
of the wire, a thicker wire would decrease the total resistance and increase the resonant peak.
In the context of an electric guitar pickup, these factors have a general limitation that there is a trade-off
between the brightness of its tone (i.e. how high the resonant peak is) and the strength of the electrical
signal (i.e. the output voltage). It was determined in section 2 that the output e.m.f. is directly proportional
to the number of turns in the coil. It is important for a guitar to have a significantly high output voltage as it
must be able to be transmitted through a long jack lead cable and still be strong enough to drive an
amplifier circuit (EMG Pickups, 2001). Due to resistance in the cable, the longer the cable, the more voltage
is lost. Another reason why a high voltage is desirable is that a high voltage gives a higher signal-to-noise
ratio. This means that the player is able to increase the gain and/or volume of their amplifier without
introducing a large amount of noise.
Increasing the number of turns by increasing the length of the wire would lower the resonant peak (with all
other factors remaining equal). Furthermore, increasing the thickness of the coils wire (i.e. cross-sectional
area) to raise the resonant peak would cause the number of turns in the coil to decrease, as it is physically
limited by the size of the pickup. The factor of resistivity is not one that can easily be changed as copper is
the metal used in almost all pickups because it has the lowest resistivity of materials that are suitable and
practical for this purpose in terms of cost, availability and physical properties.

3.1.1.ACTIVE PICKUPS
However, there is in fact a way that pickups can be manipulated to produce a high output voltage while not
compromising the range of frequencies produced: active pickup systems. These involve pickups with a
smaller number of turns in the coil and therefore, a low impedance and so a high resonant peak. A small
amplifier circuit is built into the shell of the pickup, which boosts the electrical signal and increases the
voltage that is transmitted through the jack lead, usually using a 9-volt battery inside the body of the guitar.
Because the electrical signal of the pickup only has to travel a very small distance (because the amplifier
circuit is built close to the coil), the very low output voltage is not a problem (EMG Pickups, 2001).
There are significant disadvantages of active pickups. One is that active pickups are generally more
expensive that passive ones, due to the extra circuitry. As well as this, the fact that an active pickup requires
a battery to work means that it requires replacing (Slash&roses, 2012). In addition to the pitfall of the extra
cost of batteries, the signal from active pickups fade very quickly when the battery is low, meaning that
players can have pickups fail while performing on stage without prior warning due to the battery having run
out.

4.HUM-CANCELLING

FIGURE 7: A HUMBUCKING ALNICO PICKUP ON A FENDER JAZZ BASS GUITAR (OWN IMAGE)

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

Most guitar pickups are either single coil as seen in figure 2 or humbuckers as can be seen above in
figure 7. A major pitfall of single coil pickups is that they are susceptible to sensing and outputting magnetic
noise (WillsEasyGuitar, 2014), known colloquially as hum, because of the sound that this magnetic noise
gives. For example, in the household, the vast majority of appliances, like computers, televisions and sound
systems, use transformers to convert alternating mains current into direct current. They create an
alternating magnetic field around them. This noise is also present in performance venues, like concert halls,
places of worship and pubs. Many use radio transmitters and receivers in wireless microphones or
communications systems. Electronic equipment on a stage, like keyboards, pedal boards and synthesisers
also uses alternating current transformers. Moreover, the microwaves of mobile phones commonly induce a
very distinct and displeasing signal into pickup coils.

4.1.HUMBUCKING PICKUPS
Humbucking pickups combat this by using two adjacently-placed coils that are connected in series. The two
coils are wound in opposite directions. This means that their signals are identical but have a phase
difference of radians and so are in antiphase to each other. Phase cancellation therefore occurs to the
superposed signals and due to destructive interference, the unwanted magnetic background noise is
eliminated. However, this would also mean that the vibration of the guitar string is also lost. This problem
is solved by making it so that the magnets in each coil have opposing polarities (i.e. one is north-seeking
and the other is south-seeking), changing the phase of the vibrating spring by radians on one of the coils
(Trynka, 2002, p.55; Breithaput, 2010, pp. 13-14).
In summary, humbucking pickups remove noise from the output signal using destructive interference, but
the signal of the guitar strings is kept through constructive interference. This also has the effect of
increasing the strength of the guitar string signal, which is why humbucking pickups generally have a higher
voltage than single coils.

4.1.1.WAVEFORM MODELS OF THE SIGNALS IN A HUMBUCKER

All diagrams in figures 8 to 11 have a horizontal time axis and a vertical axis for voltage. They are models of
the electrical signals in the coils of a single humbucking pickup that consists of two coils.

FIGURE 8: WAVEFORMS OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE ELECTRICAL SIGNAL FROM THE FIRST COIL OF A
HUMBUCKER WHEN A NOTE IS PLAYED (OWN DIAGRAM)

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

Figure 8 shows the electrical signals in the first coil of a humbucker when a single note is played by plucking
a string. The top left graph shows the noise signal, simulating unwanted background magnetic signals. The
top right graph shows the pure signal produced due to the vibration of the guitar string, while the bottom
graph shows these two signals superposed, which is what would be the output signal of the first pickup coil.

FIGURE 9: WAVEFORMS OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE ELECTRICAL SIGNAL FROM THE SECOND COIL OF A
HUMBUCKER WHEN A NOTE IS PLAYED (OWN DIAGRAM)

Figure 9 shows the electrical signals in the second coil of a humbucker at exactly the same time as figure 8.
The top left graph shows the noise signal, which is the same as that of the first coil, but inverted (phase
difference of by radians). The top right graph shows the signal of the guitar strings vibration. Notice that
it is in phase with, and therefore identical, to that of the first coil as it is in phase. The bottom graph shows
these two signals superposed, which is what would be the output signal of the second pickup coil.

FIGURE 10: WAVEFORMS OF THE NOISE SIGNALS IN THE COILS OF A HUMBUCKER (OWN DIAGRAM)

Figure 10 illustrates what happens in a humbucking pickup when the player is not playing. The top left and
top right graph are the noise signals from the first and second coils respectively. The bottom graph shows
these two superposed what happens in a humbucker of two coils wired in series. The horizontal straight

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

line represents no change in voltage and therefore, no electrical signal. In terms of sound, the humbucker
produces silence when this signal is amplified.

FIGURE 11: WAVEFORM OF THE COILS IN A HUMBUCKER WHEN A NOTE IS PLAYED (OWN DIAGRAM)

Figure 11 shows the signals of the two coils when a single note is played (top left and top right). Because the
noise signals are in antiphase, it is eliminated. The two sinusoidal waves of the vibrating string are in phase,
and therefore constructively interfere to give a sinusoidal wave with a larger voltage amplitude than each
coil individually, but with no noise. This is the output signal of a humbucking pickup.

4.1.2.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HUMBUCKING PICKUPS

Humbucking pickups use two coils and so in total, have roughly double the number of turns of a single coil
pickup. This means that the total length of wire in a humbucker is roughly double that of a single coil and so
the total resistance is also roughly double and the resonant peak is much lower.
Also, the higher output voltage of humbucking pickups means that a more powerful signal is received by an
amplifier. This can be a problem for cheaper amplifiers where the pre-amp has a fixed gain; the powerful
signal can overload the components in these pre-amp circuits and distort the sound.
Together, these two features high output and low resonant peak mean that humbucking pickups give a
deeper, warmer and fuller sound than single coil pickups. This sound may be desirable or undesirable,
depending on the players application of their guitar and tonal preferences.
The very high signal-to-noise ratio of humbucking pickups makes is ideal for use in metal music. Because of
the genres characteristic sound, the gain on guitar amplifiers are turned up very loud to produce a heavily
distorted sound. Having humbucking pickups means that this can be done without having too much noise
in the sound coming from the amplifier. The higher frequencies in the tone of a guitar is also much less
important in the metal genre, and so the lower resonant peak of humbuckers does not pose a problem.

4.2.HUM-CANCELLING IN SINGLE-COIL PICKUPS

Noise-cancellation is also applied to single coil pickups using the same principle as the two coils in a
humbucker. Two separate pickups have coils wound in opposite directions, but use magnets with opposite
polarities, like in a humbucker. Although this does reduce the unwanted noise, it is much less effective than
a humbucking pickup as the two pickups sense the string (and therefore the unwanted magnetic signals in

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

the environment) at a much greater distance apart. Taking advantage of this also has implications on the
tone of the sound. In addition to the increased resonant peak, using two single coil pickups simultaneously
may force the player to compromise their desired tone. The further away a pickup is away from the bridge of
the guitar, the warmer and less bright the sound it produces, and conversely, the further away from the neck
of a guitar a pickup is, the less warm and full its sound. A player therefore cannot use these two extremes in
tone and take advantage of hum-cancellation.

LEFT FIGURE 12: THE BODY OF A STRATOCASTER-STYLE GUITAR (OWN IMAGE)

RIGHT FIGURE 13: THE BODY OF A FENDER TELECASTER GUITAR (VINTAGE & RARE, N.D.)

4.2.1.SINGLE-COIL PICKUP NOISE CANCELLATION IN A

STRATOCASTER-STYLE GUITAR
As can be less in figure 12, the standard pickup arrangement for a guitar designed using the model of
Fenders Stratocaster guitar is three single-coil pickups neck, middle and bridge (corresponding to the
pickups at the top, middle and bottom of the body in figure 12). The neck and bridge pickups have the same
configuration in terms of the direction in which the coil is wound and the polarity of the magnetic polepieces. The middle pickup has the opposite configuration. A five-way switch is used to select the pickup(s)
that are included in the output signal. Figure 14 shows each of the five possible positions of this switch.
Table 1 shows the pickup selection of each switch position.

FIGURE 14: THE PICKUP POSITIONS OF A STANDARD STRATOCASTER-STYLE ELECTRIC GUITAR, STARTING
WITH POSITION 1 ON THE FAR LEFT (OWN IMAGE)

Switch position
1
2
3
4
5

Pickup(s) selected
Neck
Neck and middle
Middle
Middle and bridge
Bridge

Hum cancellation?
No
Yes
No
Yes
No

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Tone

Warmer
Brighter

How do electric guitar pickups work?

TABLE 1: SWITCH POSITION CONFIGURATIONS OF A STANTARD FIVE-WAY STRATOCASTER PICKUP SWITCH

4.2.2.SINGLE-COIL PICKUP NOISE CANCELLATION IN A TELECASTERSTYLE GUITAR

Figure 13 shows that the standard pickup arrangement for a guitar designed using the model of Fenders
Telecaster guitar is two single-coil pickups neck and bridge (corresponding to the pickup at the top and
bottom of the guitar body in figure 13). The neck and bridge pickups are wound in opposite directions and
have magnets with opposing polarities. A three-way switch is used to select the pickup(s) that are included
in the output signal. Figure 15 shows each of the three possible positions of this switch. Table 3 shows the
pickup selection of each switch position.

FIGURE 15: THE PICKUP POSITIONS OF A STANDARD TELECASTER-STYLE ELECTRIC GUITAR, STARTING
WITH POSITION 1 ON THE FAR LEFT (OWN IMAGE)

Switch position
1
2
3

Pickup(s) selected
Neck
Neck and bridge
Bridge

Hum cancellation?
No
Yes
No

Tone
Warmer
Brighter

TABLE 2: SWITCH POSITION CONFIGURATIONS OF A STANDARD THREE-WAY TELECASTER PICKUP SWITCH

5.CONCLUSION
This report has shown that through the application of several ideas and concepts from within the subject of
physics, the creation and enhancement of probably the most influential device to music in the last century
has been made possible. While electromagnetic induction is the foundation of a pickups workings, the use
and thorough understanding of other areas of physics involved resonant peak and phase are just two of
these have developed it from very simple and crude 1920s and 1930s prototypes, into much more
sophisticated components, with a very large market that has a wide range of pickups available to the
consumer.
The availability of information about the physics behind guitar pickups has also allowed musicians, who
may not necessarily have a background in science, to understand such concepts. They are now more
informed about how different factors affect the operation of and sound produced by a pickup, enabling
them to select and use pickups to suit their desired preferences and uses.

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6.REFERENCE LIST
Archer, M. & Pavlic, T. (2002) What is the difference between resistance and impedance?. [Online]. 1 October 2002.
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Wakeling, & Sarah Williams (eds.). United Kingdom, Coordination Group Publications Ltd (CGP).
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Gallagher, M. (2012) Guitar Tone: Pursuing the Ultimate Guitar Sound. United States, Course Technology.
McClung, D. (2009) New adventures with music. [Online]. 20 December 2009. Embracing the Random. Available
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Nave, C.R. (n.d.a) Faradays Law. [Online]. HyperPhysics. Available from: http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw.html [Accessed: 13 February 2015a].
Schuster, D. (2013) Doc Physics - Electric Guitar Pickup Coil to Amplifier to Speaker Voice Coil Theory. YouTube.
[Online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-colsdWF4-s [Accessed: 25 February 2015].
Seymour Duncan (2007) Warren DeMartini RTM, bridge. [Online]. 1 September 2007. Seymour Duncan. Available
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January 2015].
Slash&roses (2012) Active Vs Passive Pickups | Guitar Columns. [Online]. 20 January 2012. Ultimate-Guitar.Com.
Available from: http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/columns/the_guide_to/active_vs_passive_pickups.html [Accessed:
1 March 2015].
Trynka, P. (2002) The electric guitar: an illustrated history. United Kingdom, Virgin Books.
Vintage & Rare (n.d.) Fender TELECASTER 52 Heavy Relic Custom Shop Team Built 2011 Red Sparkle Guitar For
Sale. [Online]. VintageandRare.com. Available from: http://www.vintageandrare.com/product/FenderTELECASTER-52-Heavy-Relic-Custom-Shop-Team-Built-2011-Red-Sparkle-38045 [Accessed: 1 March 2015].
WillsEasyGuitar (2014) How guitar and bass pickups work and why it matters. YouTube. [Online]. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnHH6Uke090 [Accessed: 28 January 2015].
Woodford, C. (2014) Electric guitars. [Online]. 18 June 2014. Explain That Stuff. Available from:
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7.BIBLIOGRAPHY
BBC (2006) Making electricity. [Online]. 15 September 2006. BBC Bitesize. Available from:
http://bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_pre_2011/electric_circuits/mainsproducedrev1.shtml
[Accessed: 28 January 2015].
Beauchamp, G.D. (1937) Electrical stringed musical instrument. [Online]. Available from:
http://www.google.com/patents/US2089171 [Accessed: 25 February 2015].
Breslyn, W. (2013) Is Nickel Magnetic?. [Online]. 17 October 2013. Magnets and Magnetism. Available from:
http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~wbreslyn/magnets/is-nickel-magnetic.html [Accessed: 25 February 2015].
Corfe, J. (2011) Electromagnetic Induction. [Online]. 16 April 2011. MrCorfe.com. Available from:
http://www.mrcorfe.com/KS4/AQA/Phy3/Electromag/Induction.php [Accessed: 11 February 2015].
Electrical4u (2013) Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction. [Online]. 18 May 2013. Electrical4u. Available from:
http://electrical4u.com/faraday-law-of-electromagnetic-induction/ [Accessed: 13 February 2015].
Irons, R. (2012) How Hum-Cancelling Works, Part 1. [Online]. 7 September 2012. Seymour Duncan. Available from:
http://www.seymourduncan.com/blog/the-tone-garage/how-hum-cancelling-works-part-1/ [Accessed: 28 February
2015].
Lowe, T.L. & Rounce, J.F. (2002) Calculations for A-level Physics (Calculations For A Level Physics). United Kingdom,
Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Nave, C.R. (n.d.b) Guitar Pickups and Harmonic Content. [Online]. HyperPhysics. Available from:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/music/eguit.html [Accessed: 28 January 2015b].
Seed, M., Shepherd, J. & Horn, D. (2003) Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: v. 2: Production
and Performance. John Shepherd, David Horn, Paul Oliver, & Peter Wicke (eds.). United Kingdom, Continuum
International Publishing Group Ltd.

12

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How do electric guitar pickups work?

8.EVALUATION OF SOURCES
Source

Type

Archer & Pavlic,

2002

Web page

Bacon, 2000

Book

BBC, 2006

Web page

Beauchamp, 1937

Patent

Breithaupt, 2010

Book

Breslyn, 2013

Web page

Brian, 2002

Web page

CGP Books, 2009

Book

Reliability
Two answers by undergraduate students
Martin Archer was a Physics student at Imperial College London, and is therefore likely to be very well
informed about impedance
Ted Pavlic was an Electrical Engineering student at Ohio State University, and his studies specialise in this
topic area
Although the information in the two answers agree with each other, they are unlikely to have been crosschecked by others; this could be a source of unreliability
Published hardback book, so it has been checked and edited by multiple people
It is a book primarily about the musical aspect of electric guitars, and so the information about physics may
be of a lower quality
Published 15 years ago, so it does not provide information on the very latest technical innovations
The BBC is a publicly-funded organisation, and is therefore tightly regulated, meaning that it is likely that
the information they publish has been checked for accuracy
Used across the country by many GCSE Science students, so it should be a very reliable source
Not applicable this is the original patent and is therefore a primary source
Popular physics text book with information of a very wide range of physics topics
Probably very thoroughly researched
Published book so it has been checked by multiple people to ensure accuracy
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
Jim Breithaupt is an experienced physics writer who was formerly a senior teacher at a large sixth form
college and A-level Physics examiner, so is a reliable source
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
Wayne Breslyn is a scientific researcher at the University of Maryland and has a PhD, so is well-informed
The websites content probably has not been checked by other people, which could compromise reliability
Marshall Brian has degrees in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, so is well-educated and is
knowledgeable on the subject
The website has many writers, so the content probably has been checked and edited
An A-level revision guide aimed at students, so it has been cross-checked for accuracy of information

GCE Physics G496 Researching Physics | Maurice Yap 6946

How do electric guitar pickups work?

CGP Books, 2008

Book

Corfe, 2011

Web page

Doryfour, 2012

Web page

Electrical4u, 2013

Web page

EMG Pickups, 2001

Web page

Gallagher, 2012

Book

Irons, 2012

Web page

Lowe & Rounce,

Book

CGP is a very popular brand with educational institutions and so is likely to be an accurate source of good
quality information
This particular book is on the reading list for A2 Physics at my college, which was compiled by teachers in
the Physics department, who are all well-educated, very competent and extremely knowledgeable
An A-level revision guide aimed at students, so it has been cross-checked for accuracy of information
CGP is a very popular brand with educational institutions and so is likely to be an accurate source of good
quality information
This particular book is on the reading list for AS Physics at my college, which was compiled by teachers in
the Physics department, who are all well-educated, very competent and extremely knowledgeable
The website of Jon Corfe, my old GCSE Physics teacher, which he uses for teaching
The content of the website is likely to have been cross-checked by many knowledgeable science teachers
over many years, to ensure the reliability of the information, as it is frequently used by GCSE students
Not applicable source was only used for an image and was not used for information
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
The site has been produced by a diverse range of experienced electrical engineers
Their expertise in the subject area suggests the information is accurate and reliable
EMG is a very well-known company that specialises in active pickups the subject of the information which
the source was used for
EMG is successful and spends a lot of money on marketing, suggesting that its websites information has
been well researched and cross-checked by experts in this field
EMG sells active pickups, so there may be some bias to exaggerate their advantages and vice versa
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
Mitch Gallagher has written many good quality books on music technology
He has worked in the music industry for many years in different roles and so is very knowledgeable on
guitar tone
Reliable source of information about guitar tone, though maybe less so on physics
Published book so it has been checked by multiple people to ensure accuracy
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
The page is from Seymour Duncans official blog
The writer is an employee of Seymour Duncan, a company with a very large share of the market for guitar
pickups
The depth, clarity and supporting images of the article suggest that it is a reliable source of information
Published book so it has been checked by multiple people to ensure accuracy

GCE Physics G496 Researching Physics | Maurice Yap 6946

How do electric guitar pickups work?

2002
McClung, 2009

Web page

Nave, n.d.a

Web page

Nave, n.d.b

Web page

Schuster, 2013

Online video

Seed et al., 2003

Book

Seymour Duncan,
2007

Web page

The co-authors are likely to have been educated to a high level in physics
It is likely that the information in the book has been researched from and cross-checked across multiple
sources
The book is aimed at A-level students, so the publisher has probably required that it be checked thoroughly
Not applicable source was only used for an image and was not used for information
The webpages are undated and I havent been able to date them, so it is unknown how up-to-date the
information is
The website was produced by Rod Nave, a physics professor at Georgia State University, so it is likely to be
reliable
It is unknown whether the content has been checked and edited by other people
Updated recently so information is not out-of-date
Doc Shuster is an American High School teacher, and so is very well-informed about the physics involved in
my topic area
Probably reliable
Published book so it has been checked by multiple people to ensure accuracy
Large encyclopaedia that has probably been well-researched and checked and edited by multiple competent
people
Not applicable source was only used for an image and was not used for information

Slash&roses, 2012

Web page

Trynka, 2002

Book

Vintage & Rare, n.d.

Web page

WillsEasyGuitar,
2014

Online video

User-generated content, so may have biased opinions

A very popular article on Ultimate-Guitar.Com, a very popular website for electric guitarists, so the content
has been read and approved by many
Writer probably has no background in physics, so the source is probably unreliable for information on
physics
Strong focus on the musical and historical aspects of the electric guitar, as opposed to physics
A diverse team of expert writers and journalists contributed to the content, so it is reliable for assessing
historical and social aspects
Questionable reliability, so the information given has been cross-checked with other sources
Published book so it has been checked by multiple people to ensure accuracy
Not applicable source was only used for an image and was not used for information
Recently uploaded video so information is up-to-date
It is unknown whether the producer has a background in physics, since he is primarily a guitarist
Questionable reliability, so the information given has been cross-checked with other sources

GCE Physics G496 Researching Physics | Maurice Yap 6946

How do electric guitar pickups work?

Woodford, 2014

Web page

Updated recently so information is not out-of-date

Writer is an experienced science writer with many published books on science, which have won many
prestigious awards
Chris Woodford has an MA from Cambridge University and specialised in physics

GCE Physics G496 Researching Physics | Maurice Yap 6946