1

International Journal of Environment 1(1): 1-14, 2012

ISSN: 2077-4508

Pollutants Detection in Water Resources at El Saff Area and Their Impact on Human
Health, Giza Governorate, Egypt
1

Y.R. Gedamy, 1A.M. El-Aassar and 2A.M. Abdel-Gawad

1
2

Hydrogeochemistry Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.

Soil Fertility and Microbiology Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
The main objective of the present work is the detection of pollutants in water resources (surface water and
groundwater) and their impact on human health at El Saff area which occupies the southern position of Giza
governorate. Drinking and agriculture in this area depend mainly on the water of Nile River and two main canals
namely El Khashab and El Hager canals. Such canals are subjected to pollution from different sources. The
shallow groundwater tapped from the near surface quaternary deposits is also subjected to pollution. The socalled El Saff wastewater canal represents one of the main sources of pollution for the water resources in the
study area. This canal runs longitudinally for about 50km along the foot slopes of the eastern Eocene
escarpment. To achieve the aim of the present study, thirty five surface water and groundwater samples are
collected during August (2011) and chemically analyzed for detection of inorganic, biological and
bacteriological pollutants. The results indicated that all the detected pollutants are considered very serious to
people's health. The most important pollution problem sources include the wastewater produced from the
industrial complex at Helwan area in addition to the wastewater discharged into the Nile River and its canals.
On the other hand, the excessive seepage of drainage water rich in fertilizers and pesticides causes pollution for
groundwater.
Key words: El Saff area (Egypt), water pollution, inorganic pollutants, biological pollutants, bacteriological
pollutants.
Introduction
Water pollution problems have led to serious ecological and environmental problems. Contamination of
water is a serious environmental problem as it adversely affects the human health and the biodiversity in the
aquatic ecosystem.
Rivers worldwide serve as the recipients of great quantities of waste discharged by agricultural and
domestic activities. Agriculture seems to be the most considerable source of pollution due to flow from fertilized
land.
The Nile River, which represents more than 90% of the Nile basin's water resources, is the traditional
receptor of waste and drainage waters generated by different activities (Abu-Shady et al., 1996 and El Gohary
1994).
The main threat to drinking water resources is constant input of pollutant loads from roads, roofs, sewers,
industry and agricultural areas. Thus groundwater quality needs to be maintained at a sufficiently high standard
to minimize treatment requirements, which in turn is the result of a well-established and enforced protection
policy (Goran et al., 2009).
The protection of the water resources and treatment of water pollution are urgent matters to permit
ecologically sensitive construction and sustainable socioeconomic development in the whole catchments. To do
so, it is first necessary to understand the mechanisms responsible for water pollution and the severity of the
problem. This knowledge will allow managers to develop a more reasonable policy for waste management and
the prevention of water pollution based on joint efforts by local governments (Jinzhu et al., 2009).
El Saff area extends along the eastern side of the Nile River between latitudes 29 30 - 29 45 N and
longitudes 31 15 - 31 25 E. It is bounded by Helwan area to the North, Atfih area to the South, El Saff
wastewater canal to the East and Nile River to the West (Fig.1).
Then, its location is just to the south of Helwan area which includes many factories for iron, steel and
cements production. These factories constitute sources for pollution of water resources in the study area besides
El Saff wastewater canal and polluted agricultural drainage water.
The surface water system in the study area comprises Nile River, El Khashab and El Hagar canals. The
groundwater, on the other hand, is represented by the shallow quaternary aquifer.
The major threat for the water resources in El Saff area is comes from the polluted sewage water and
drainage water. This situation can be explained on the basis of the uncontrolled disposal of waste as well as
Corresponding Author: Y. R. Gedamy, Hydrogeochemistry Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: [email protected].

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

improper disposal of toxic waste from agricultural and other human activities. Other sources of pollution in El
Saff area are the abuse of fertilizers and pesticides as well as the direct discharge of untreated municipal water
into the river.

29
45

24

30

El-Shorafa (V)

22
Ghammaza
El-Kobra (V)
31

1
5
21

8
26

29
40

20

Ghammaza
El-Soghra (V)
32

28

27

El-

Ha
ger

Ca
nal

11

29
35

10
33

25

24

23

7
19
2

El-Saff City
13

14

12

34

El-Saff Canal

Legand
Groundwater sample
Nile river and canal water sample
El-Saff canal water sample
Flood drainage line
City or (V) Village

18
35

Oscar (V)
16

17

15

29
30

0 1

2 3 4

5 Km

H. Scale

31 17

31 19

31 21

31 23

Fig. 1: location map and water samples sites of the study area
Noteworthy, one of the most important factors of water pollution is the microbial contamination; especially
with pathogenic microorganisms. Enteric pathogens are typically responsible for waterborne diseases (Karaboze
et al., 2003 and Shawky et al., 2007).
Pathogens are a serious concern for managers of water resources, because excessive amounts of faecal
bacteria in sewage and urban run-off have been known to indicate risk of pathogen-induced illnesses in humans
(Fleisher et al., 1998). Several species of gram-negative bacteria present in municipal wastewater are
pathogenic. This pathogenisty is usually associated with certain components of the cell walls, in particular the
lipopolysaccharide, also known as LPS or endotoxin; layer (Baron, 1996). Thus, identification of these
pathogenic agents in water resources is beneficial for controlling and prevention planning of the infectious
diseases. The Nile, unfortunately, receives heavy loads of industrial, agricultural and domestic wastes. Drinking
water must meet specific criteria and standards to ensure that water supplied to the public is safe and free-from
pathogenic microorganisms as well as hazardous compounds (WHO report, 1993).
For a long time, pollution problems are ignored and their effect on the environment were not given due
consideration. Consequently, pronounced efforts are needed to control such pollution.
The objectives of this study are;
1- To give an overall picture of the pollutants and their sources.

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

2- Pollution loads and water quality determination.

3- The impacts of pollutants on the human health.
Materials And Methods
2.1. Water sampling:
Field trip took place within Aug.2011, during which surface water and groundwater samples were manually
and aseptically collected from the study area. The sampling sites used to provide the data reported in this paper
appear in Fig.(1). The present research is based on the results of thirty five (35) collected water samples
corresponding to all available water sources included surface water (13 samples) and groundwater (22 wells) in
El Saff area were obtained for chemical and biological as well as bacteriological analyses. These water samples
were collected from their water points and separated into three aliquots. One of aliquots was acidified with nitric
acid (1%) and stored in pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles for the measurements of trace elements and soluble
heavy metals. The second aliquot was taken in special container (100ml) for the measurements of biochemical
oxygen demands (BOD5), chemical oxygen demands (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC). Finally, the third
aliquot was collected in a special antiseptic container (100ml) for the measurements of microbiological and
pathological analyses of water. These water samples were immediately kept in the dark, cooled in an insulated
container and transported to the laboratory within 10h. and stored at 4oC until bacteriological analysis was
completed within 24h. of collection as specified in standard national and international methods.
2.2. Field measurements:
In situ measurements for water samples were carried out as locations (latitudes and longitudes) using GPS
instrument model (Magellan Nave 5000 pro.) together with some physical and chemical characteristics as EC in
S/cm using Electrical Conductivity meter (Jenway, model 470) and pH using pH meter (Jenway, model 3150).
2.3. Laboratory analyses:
The analyses included the determination of EC using EC meter model Orion (150 A+) and pH using benchtop pH meter (Jenway 3510). The inorganic constituents (B3+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Mo2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+)
were determined using ICAP model (thermo 6500) according to (ASTM, 2002). Also, the concentrations of
ammonia (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-) and phosphate (PO43-) were determined by colorimetric methods
using UV/Visible spectrophotometer (Thermo-Spectronic 300) according to (Fishman and Friedman, 1985).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) with the five-day incubation method and chemical oxygen demand (COD)
using potassium permanganate method were determined also according to (ASTM, 2002). The obtained
chemical data were expressed in milligram per liter (mg/l) or part per million (ppm).
The total viable bacterial counts (TVBCs) at 22C and 37C were determined using the spread-plate method
(APHA, 1995). The number of total and faecal coliforms were determined using the most probable number
(MPN) method using MacConkey broth media. The positive tubes were streaked on the Eosin Methylene Blue
(EMB) agar plates. Microscopic examination was carried out to ensure gram-negative, non-spore forming rods
(APHA, 1995). MPN of faecal streptococci was determined using azide dextrose broth at 37C for 48hr.
Positive tubes were indicated by dense turbidity and confirmed using ethyl violet azide dextrose broth
incubated at 37C for 24hr. (APHA, 1995). The isolation of gram-negative bacteria for groundwater samples in
the study area were performed using MacConkey agar supplemented with 0.001g/L crystal violet (Hausler and
Koontz, 1970). Several isolates were purified, screened and the suspected similar ones were grouped for the
purpose of selection and identification processes.
Isolates from the examined water samples were subjected to identification by biochemical characteristics
using API 20E strip system (BioMereux). Each API 20E strip consists of thirty five water points containing
dehydrated media. The isolate to be tested was suspended in sterile saline and added to each water sample. The
inoculated strip was incubated for 16-24h and the color reactions were noted either positive or negative.
Results and discussion
To achieve the main aim of this research, water pollution will be discussed on the basis of determining
inorganic and biological pollutants as well as bacteriological analyses with regard to the recommended levels of
contamination (WHO, 2006 and Egyptian Higher Committee for Water, 2007 as well as Rowe and AbdelMagid, 1995), shown in Tables (1 and 2).

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

3.I. Inorganic pollutants:

The inorganic pollutants in the water samples of the study area are discussed through the measurements of
Al3+, Fe3+, Hg2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Mo2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ as well as B3+, NO3-, NO2-, NH4+ and PO43-.
3.I.I. Al3+, Fe3+, Hg2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Mo2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ constituents:
Based on the results of analysis of the inorganic constituents and acceptable contaminant levels (Tables 1 &
2), it is clear that;
1-For Nile River, all water samples are contaminated with Hg2+ ion, as they have concentrations (0.00270.0074mg/l), above the acceptable limit of contamination. On the other hand, water samples Nos. 1 & 2 have
Fe3+ ion concentrations (0.3665-0.3999mg/l), higher than the acceptable limit of contamination. Also, sample
No.2 has Al3+ ion concentration (0.3632mg/l), slightly more than the acceptable limit of contamination. These
high concentrations of Hg2+, Fe3+ and Al3+ ions in the water samples are due to that their locations at the outlets
of El Saff wastewater canal which release into Nile River water across the floods runway in the area of study,
where El Saff canal is considered as an acceptor for the industrial wastes that coming from the factories existed
in Helwan area which is located at north of the study area.
2-For El Khashab and El Hager canals, water samples are contaminated with Fe3+ and Hg2+ ions, as they
have concentrations that ranged from 0.3683 to 1.163mg/l and from 0.007 to 0.1957mg/l, respectively, higher
than the acceptable levels of pollution. Water sample No.6 has Mn2+ and Pb2+ ions concentrations (0.6808 and
0.0366mg/l), respectively, higher than the acceptable levels of pollution. The high concentrations of Fe3+, Hg2+
and Mn2+ ions are due to that El Khashab and El Hager canals are recharged from Nile River (which is exactly
polluted by some of these contaminants as Fe3+ and Hg2+) and also these canals received industrial wastes from
factories existed in the study area that discharged their wastes in these canals at these localities, while the canals
are polluted by Pb2+ ions due to the high traffic intensity. In addition, high Fe3+, Hg2+, Mn2+ and Pb2+ ions
concentrations are detected in irrigation canals that can be attributed to the deposition of most of the waste
suspended materials in these canals. Consequently, the distribution of these soluble ions in the irrigation water
was mainly affected by their occurrence in the liquid wastes discharged into the irrigation canals. The industrial
complex at Helwan produces large amounts of liquid wastes (about 115000 m3/day) loaded by about 3.39
tons/day of suspended solids which currently are discharged into El Khashab and El Hager canals as well as the
Nile River, and certainly pollute such water (Abdel-Aal et al., 1988).
3-For El Saff wastewater canal, all the collected water samples are contaminated as they have
concentrations of Fe3+ ion (0.6039 - 18.68mg/l), higher than the acceptable limit of pollution. Also, sample
No.(10) has Al3+ and Pb2+ ions concentrations, 0.8732 and 0.0166mg/l, respectively, higher than the acceptable
limits of pollution. For instance, sample No.(8) has Al3+ ion concentration (0.3343mg/l), more than the
acceptable limit of contamination. This is due to that El Saff wastewater canal acts as an acceptor for
discharging large amounts of irrigation drainage water containing impurities of soluble metals from the
intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides together with industrial wastes discharge into this canal at south
Helwan area.
4-For groundwater, all collected water samples are polluted as they have Hg2+ ion concentrations (0.0030.033mg/l) greater than the acceptable limit of pollution. Also, 22% of the collected groundwater samples are
contaminated and exceeded the permissible limit of pollution as they have Fe3+ ion concentration ranged from
0.4321 to 1.77mg/l., 14% of the water samples are polluted with Mn2+, where they have Mn2+ ion concentrations
(0.4028-0.5156mg/l) above the limit of pollution. The higher ions concentrations of Al3+ and Zn2+ ions (0.337
and 9.84mg/l, respectively) are strictly confined to water samples Nos.29 and 31, respectively. These results
confirm that there is a seepage from El Khashab and El Hager canals as well as from El Saff wastewater canal
that contains relatively high soluble metals as well as downward infiltration of excess amounts of irrigation
water rich in fertilizers and pesticides to the groundwater aquifer. Noteworthy to mention that, the main
recharge sources of the Quaternary aquifers are the seepage from Nile water and downward infiltration from the
excess irrigation water of cultivated lands as well as the seepage from canals and drains (Yousef, 2007). ElSaff
wastewater canal was generally dug in the Pliocene clay sediments and sometimes cutting the foot slope of the
eastern limestone plateau. These rocks traversed by many wadi courses. Wadi deposits that fill these courses
facilitate the arrival of the canal water not only to the old cultivated lands but also to the Nile course itself. On
the other hand, the consequent water level contour map shows that the movement of groundwater takes place
essentially from east to west, i.e. from the new reclaimed area around El Saff canal (+71m) to the old cultivated
lands (+26m to +24m) near the Nile River (+23m) since the latter acts as a discharging area for the former
(Elsheikh, 2008). Also, the results of the geoelectrical survey in Ghamaza area reveal that the groundwater
exists at shallow depths ranging from 7.5 to 10.8m and the sedimentary section above the water table consists of
gravel and sand which permits seepage and filtration from the disposal site to the groundwater ( Mahmoud et
al., 2012). This does not exclude the contribution of aquifer matrix interaction, which leads to some release of

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

more soluble heavy metals. Therefore, all groundwater samples are seriously polluted by soluble inorganic
pollutants especially near El Saff wastewater canal and agricultural liquid wastes.
5-All water samples (surface water and groundwater) collected from the study area have Mo2+ and Cu2+
ions concentrations below the acceptable limits of contamination.
6-All water sources in the concerned area are suitable for irrigation except El Saff wastewater canal as it has
iron and manganese ions concentrations more than the permissible limits for irrigation (5 and 0.2mg/l,
respectively), (Rowe and Abdel-Magid, 1995).
Table 1: Concentrations of the inorganic constituents in the water resources samples within the study area (mg/l).
Sample
Al3+
Fe3+
Hg2+
Mn2+
Cu2+
Mo2+
No.
Surface water
Nile River water
1
0.0562
0.3665
0.0074
0.0579
0.0017
0.00029
2
0.3632
0.3999
0.0027
0.0733
0.0017
0.00029
3
0.0735
0.0798
0.0074
0.0478
0.00029
0.00029
El Khashab and El Hager canals water
4
0.188
0.5564
0.1957
0.2517
0.0006
0.00029
5
0.061
1.163
0.0056
0.149
0.00029
0.00029
6
0.2088
0.3683
0.0422
0.6808
0.0019
0.00029
7
0.2085
0.2667
0.007
0.0881
0.00029
0.00029
El Saff wastewater canal
8
0.3343
18.68
0.0186
0.2827
0.0311
0.0046
9
0.1761
3.753
0.0107
0.2595
0.016
0.0023
10
0.8732
6.324
0.0102
0.2467
0.0535
0.0018
11
0.1114
0.6039
0.0072
0.2366
0.00029
0.00029
12
0.1852
2.951
0.0073
0.3507
0.0032
0.00029
13
0.1483
0.6664
0.004
0.1713
0.0044
0.00029
Groundwater
14
0.0049
0.0029
0.007
0.4028
0.0013
0.00029
15
0.0049
0.0029
0.0073
0.0009
0.001
0.00029
16
0.0235
1.77
0.0093
0.0164
0.0048
0.00029
17
0.0056
0.0207
0.0063
0.0029
0.00029
0.00029
18
0.0061
1.109
0.0076
0.0104
0.00029
0.00029
19
0.0177
0.4321
0.0059
0.4257
0.0036
0.00029
20
0.0216
0.5401
0.0039
0.0078
0.00029
0.00029
21
0.0256
0.2978
0.003
0.5156
0.007
0.00029
22
0.0052
0.1467
0.0047
0.03884
0.0013
0.0043
23
0.0275
0.1278
0.0064
0.0227
0.0059
0.00029
24
0.0056
0.1148
0.0062
0.1366
0.00029
0.0037
25
0.0049
0.0032
0.0076
0.0009
0.00029
0.013
26
0.0049
0.0029
0.0081
0.002
0.00029
0.00029
27
0.0049
0.0029
0.0081
0.0009
0.00029
0.0329
28
0.0049
0.0029
0.0081
0.0009
0.00029
0.0101
29
0.337
0.0029
0.033
0.0014
0.0004
0.0013
30
0.0201
0.0029
0.0316
0.0013
0.0011
0.0016
31
0.0103
0.0029
0.0253
0.0644
0.0102
0.0037
32
0.0105
0.0351
0.0112
0.0223
0.00029
0.0004
33
0.0049
0.6271
0.0083
0.0059
0.0024
0.02
34
0.025
0.1012
0.0092
0.001
0.0027
0.0.05
35
0.0034
0.0068
0.0093
0.0009
0.00029
0.0417
Permissible levels
0.2
0.3
0.001
0.4
2
0.07

Pb2+

Zn2+

0.0009
0.0009
0.0009

0.009
0.0021
0.009

0.0043
0.0044
0.0366
0.0009

0.0116
0.0197
0.038
0.009

0.0063
0.0034
0.0166
0.0021
0.0035
0.0026

0.2731
0.1375
0.5224
0.0061
0.0194
0.011

0.0021
0.0028
0.0035
0.0042
0.003
0.0045
0.0043
0.0049
0.0022
0.0037
0.0024
0.0013
0.0018
0.0049
0.0041
0.0027
0.0011
0.0078
0.0016
0.0015
0.0031
0.0022
0.01

0.0564
0.009
0.5826
0.009
2.226
0.0044
1.692
0.1623
0.1433
0.5078
0.047
0.009
2.105
0.009
0.0001
0.0505
0.01
9.84
0.009
0.676
0.2258
0.0325
5

3.I.ii. Boron constituent:

1-For Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals, as shown in table (2), a low concentration of boron
in all collected water samples is observed and it ranges between 0.0151 and 0.1809mg/l, i.e., below the
acceptable limit of pollution.
2-For El Saff wastewater canal, the majority of collected water samples (67%) has boron concentration
ranges from (0.2311 to 0.3288mg/l), below the acceptable limit of pollution. The relatively high concentrations
of boron (0.4912 and 0.701mg/l) are detected in samples Nos.11 and 13, respectively, this is due to the
discharge of sewage water and industrial wastewater rich in sodium tetra borate (borax) which is widely used as
a cleaning aid (Hem, 1989).
3-For groundwater, most of collected water samples (59%) have boron concentrations (0.0203 to
0.3546mg/l), below the acceptable limit of pollution, while the rest of samples (41%) have boron concentrations
(0.6211 to 2.634mg/l), i.e., more than the permissible limit of pollution, this is attributed to downward
infiltration of excess irrigation water and drainage water rich in fertilizers and pesticides.

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

3.I.iii. Nitrate constituent:

1-For Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals, all collected water samples have nitrate
concentrations range from 1.4 to 25.4mg/l, Table (2), which are below the safe level for drinking water.
2-Concerning El Saff wastewater canal, 83% of the collected water samples have nitrate concentrations
range from 7 to 24.4mg/l, considerably high concentration (66mg/l) is detected in sample No.13 (7% of
samples), due to the outlets of drainage irrigation water into this canal at this site.
3- All groundwater samples are within the permissible limit of drinking water, as they have concentrations
range from 0.6 to 42.2mg/l, (Table 2), below the safe level for drinking water. Noteworthy to mention that the
relatively high NO3- concentrations of 42.2 and 30.6mg/l that found in the two groundwater samples Nos. 18 and
25, respectively, are considered critical concentrations and may increase by time.
The primary source of nitrates in groundwater is the leaching of nitrate salts into the groundwater supply
from agricultural fertilization and the seepage of sewage water. Agricultural practices result in non-point-source
pollution of groundwater, and the effect of these practices accumulate over time (Schilling and Wolter, 2001;
Liu et al., 2005). In addition to agricultural practices, non-point sources of pollution include nitrogen dissolved
in precipitation, irrigation return flows and dry deposition (Almasri and Kaluarachchi, 2004). Point sources of
nitrogen such as septic systems have been shown to contribute to nitrate pollution of groundwater.
3.I.iv. Nitrite constituent:
1-The concentrations of NO2- ions in the Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals water samples
range from 0.015 to 0.135 mg/l, i.e., below the permissible limit of pollution, Table (2). Concerning El Saff
wastewater canal samples, all water samples have nitrite concentrations range between 0.21 and 4.84mg/l,
higher than the acceptable limit of pollution due to the outlets of drainage irrigation water into this canal.
2-Results show that the majority of groundwater samples (91%) has nitrite concentrations range from 0.004
to 0.054mg/l, i.e., below the permissible limit of pollution. Except 9% of the groundwater samples (Nos. 19, 31)
that have nitrite concentrations of 0.675 and 0.315 mg/l, respectively, more than the permissible limit of
pollution, this is due to the effect of the wastewater of El Saff canal (seepage from El Saff wastewater canal to
groundwater at these localities).
3.I.v. Ammonia constituent:
1-The term ammonia includes the non-ionized (NH3) and ionized (NH4+) species. The concentrations of
NH4 ions in the Nile River range from 0.1 to 2.8 mg/l, while for El Khashab and El Hager canals water
samples, the concentrations of NH4+ range from 0.2 to 4.8 mg/l (Table 2), i.e., the majority of the Nile River and
its canals water samples (71%) have ammonia concentrations higher than the permissible limit of pollution, this
is due to the drainage of El Saff wastewater canal in the Nile River, El Khashab and El Hager canals at these
sites.
2-Concerning El Saff wastewater canal samples, all samples are contaminated as they have ammonia
concentrations range from 2.2 to 8.2mg/l, i.e., higher than the acceptable limit of pollution due to the outlets of
drainage irrigation water into this canal.
3-The majority of groundwater samples (95%) have ammonia concentrations range from 0.6 to
4.8mg/l, i.e., higher than the permissible limit of pollution. In contrast, the rest of groundwater samples (5%),
represented by sample No. 35 has ammonia concentration (0.2mg/l), less than the permissible limit of pollution.
The high concentration of ammonia in groundwater is due to the seepage from El Saff wastewater canal at these
localities and irrigation return flow rich in ammonium fertilizers as ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 and
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4. Also, wastewater, animal manure, and refuse dumps may be considered as
important sources for elevated ammonium in groundwater (Chen et al., 2006).
+

3.I.vi. Phosphate constituent:

1-For the Nile River, all water samples have phosphate ions concentration ranges from 0.025 to 0.311mg/l,
Table (2), i.e., below the permissible limit of pollution (1mg/l) that stated by Fadiran et al., 2008.
2-In El Khashab and El Hager canals, all water samples have phosphate ions concentration ranges from
0.246 to 1.298mg/l. 50% of the collected samples (samples Nos. 4 and 6) are polluted as they have
concentrations more than the permissible limit of pollution (1.185 and 1.298, respectively). The relatively high
concentration of phosphate in the canals is attributed to the disposal of wastewater in them at these sites.
3- In El Saff wastewater canal, the phosphate ions concentrations samples range from 0.015 to 1.688mg/l.
The relatively high concentration of phosphate is detected at samples Nos. 9 and 10 as they have phosphate

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Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

concentrations 0.988 and 1.688mg/l, respectively, due to the outlet of drainage irrigation water into this canal,
where the wastewater effluents represent important sources of phosphate.
4- In the groundwater samples, Phosphate ions concentration ranges from 0.008 to 5.287mg/l, the relatively
high phosphate concentrations in groundwater samples are detected at samples Nos.18 & 21 as they have
concentrations 5.287 and 2.208mg/l, respectively, more than the permissible limit of pollution referred to the
seepage from El Saff wastewater canal at these localities and return flow after irrigation.
3. II. Biological pollutants:
Three items are discussed here; the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD)
and total organic carbon (TOC).
3.II.i. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5):
1-For the Nile River, all representative water samples of the Nile River are free from BOD5 concentrations.
2-For El Khashab and El Hager canals, all collected water samples in the study area are unsuitable for
drinking purpose, as they have BOD5 concentrations that range from 12 to 30mg/l, i.e., more than the acceptable
limit of pollution, Table (2), this is due to the drainage of both wastewater (houses drain) and the outlets of
factories especially for chemical, pulp and food industries into these canals. This is manifested by the previous
work of Chhatwal et al., 1993, which stated that manufacturing produces large quantities of BOD5. The major
contributors are the chemical industry (about 44% of the manufacturing BOD5), the pulp and paper industry
(about 27%), and the food processing industries (about 20%).
3-On the other hand, for El Saff wastewater canal, the BOD5 concentration (6mg/l) was detected in samples
Nos. 11 and 13, while the rest samples are free from BOD5 concentration. This is due to that El Saff wastewater
canal acts as an acceptor for discharging of industrial wastes.
4-For the groundwater, most of the groundwater samples (60%) in the study area are suitable for drinking
purpose, while the rest of groundwater samples (40%) are contaminated as they have BOD5 concentrations (863mg/l) more than the safe limit for drinking water, table (2). This is due to seepage from El Khashab and El
Hager canals, in addition to return flow after irrigation.
3.II.ii. Chemical oxygen demand (COD):
The results of COD determinations obviously do not correspond to the values obtained by BOD5
determinations, where COD values are higher than that of BOD5 values, but they may be helpful in comparing
conditions in a stream at one time with those at another time (Table 2).
1-Results revealed that the representative samples of the Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals in
the study area have high values of COD concentrations (16.8 and 33.6 - 67.2mg/l, respectively), more than the
permissible limit of drinking water. These high values are due to drainage of El Saff wastewater canal into the
Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals water at these localities, in addition to the outlets of the pulp
and paper industry factories where the chemical oxygen demand (COD) resulting from industrial wastewater,
especially the residues and wastewater generated by the pulp and paper industry have high COD and BOD5,
high levels of chlorophenols, a strong color, and contain more than 500 different adsorbent organic halide
compounds, (Savant et al., 2005).
2-For El Saff wastewater canal, all the collected water samples are contaminated as they have COD
concentrations range from 33.6 to 50.4mg/l, more than the permissible limit of pollution. These high values are
due to the outlets of the pulp and paper industry factories in this canal.
2-For groundwater samples, the majority of the collected samples (95%) are unsuitable for drinking purpose
as they have COD concentrations (12-168mg/l) more than the permissible limit of pollution. The high value for
groundwater samples is due to the seepage from El Saff wastewater canal and El khashab and El Hager canals to
groundwater, respectively.
3.II.iii. Total organic carbon (TOC):
All surface water and groundwater samples in the study area contain total organic carbon concentrations
less than the permissible limit for drinking use (Table 2).
3.III. Bacteriological pollutants:
The bacteriological analyses involved total viable bacterial counts (TVBCs), total coliforms (TC) and
estimation of faecal coliforms (FC), faecal streptococci and pathogenic bacteria.

8
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

The results of the total number of bacteria are shown in table (3). The total number of bacteria ranged from
2104 to 276 104 cfu/ml and from 4104 to 361 104 cfu/ml at 22C and 37C, respectively.
The most probable number (MPN) of faecal indicators total coliforms (TC), faecal coliform (FC) and faecal
streptococci (FS) are shown in table (3).
MPN of TC varied from 10 to 1800/100ml and from 2 to 430/100ml water for FC. The counts of FS
fluctuated between 2 and 210/100ml water in El Saff area
The highest bacterial indicators were recorded at El Saff area. This might be explained by the effect of
domestic and agricultural wastes discharge from the urbanized surrounding area (Shaaban-Dessouki et al.,
1993).
The ratio FC/FS points to the source of faeces whether it is human (> 4) or animal (< 0.7) (Geldreich,
1974), accordingly, the FC/FS ratio was in the range of 0.19-11, which means the mixed origin of faecal
pollution.
Table 2: Concentrations of inorganic and biological constituents in the water resources samples within the study area (mg/l).
Sample
B3+
NO3NO2NH4+
PO43BOD5
COD
No.
Surface water
Nile River water
1
0.0182
9
0.015
1.2
0.044
Nil
16.8
2
0.0151
9.2
0.022
0.1
0.311
Nil
16.8
3
0.0734
9.6
0.042
2.8
0.025
Nil
16.8
El Khashab and El Hager canals water
4
0.0978
23.2
0.016
1
1.185
30
33.6
5
0.0365
1.4
0.047
1.8
0.356
30
33.6
6
0.1809
25.4
0.021
4.8
1.298
12
67.2
7
0.0175
2.2
0.135
0.2
0.246
12
67.2
El Saff wastewater canal
8
0.2517
7
4.28
8
0.442
Nil
33.6
9
0.2323
17.8
4.84
6.6
0.988
Nil
33.6
10
0.2311
10
4.12
8.2
1.688
Nil
33.6
11
0.4912
22.8
0.051
2.8
0.015
6
50.4
12
0.3288
24.4
0.302
3.2
0.299
Nil
33.6
13
0.701
66
0.21
3.4
0.134
6
33.6
Groundwater
14
0.0255
0.6
0.006
3.4
0.008
Nil
33.6
15
0.1264
6.4
0.004
2.4
0.015
Nil
9
16
0.3248
7.6
0.033
1
0.442
Nil
50.4
17
0.0987
7.8
0.007
0.8
0.09
Nil
12
18
0.1992
42.2
0.006
3.6
5.287
3
16.8
19
0.3241
3.2
0.675
1.6
0.016
Nil
33.6
20
0.0702
5.4
0.035
3
0.219
Nil
21
21
0.0497
18
0.037
2.6
2.208
Nil
21
22
0.0593
1.8
0.021
0.8
0.207
6
16.8
23
0.6211
7.8
0.014
2.8
0.071
Nil
33.6
24
0.3454
14
0.026
2.2
0.08
6
67.2
25
0.6480
30.6
0.014
1.2
0.140
Nil
67.2
26
0.0203
7.8
0.054
4.8
0.093
6
50.4
27
0.1678
5.6
0.034
1.4
0.120
8
40.1
28
0.3546
4.5
0.025
2.5
0.091
10
60.2
29
1.516
19
0.041
2
0.191
30
35.6
30
1.037
3.6
0.006
3.2
0.218
12
33.6
31
1.252
13.6
0.315
4
0.292
15
50.4
32
2.242
5.6
0.017
5
0.11
51
168
33
2.334
11.2
0.019
2.2
0.2
57
150
34
2.283
17.6
0.012
0.6
0.25
31
50.4
35
2.634
8.6
0.011
0.2
0.403
63
100.8
Permissible levels
0.5
45
0.2
0.5
1
6
10

TOC%

0.00167
0.4975
Nil
0.00167
Nil
0.00167
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.00167
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.00167
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
10

On the other hand, (Niewolak, 1998) reported that the data on absolute values of FC: FS may not reflect the
source of contamination in Czarna Hancza River, Poland.
According to the guideline criteria for faecal indicator organisms of WHO report (1993) which accept the
guide values of the investigated bacteria up to 500/100ml for total coliforms and 100/100ml for both faecal
coliforms and faecal streptococci, the survey of the indicator bacteria along El Saff water resources revealed that
the Nile River water at this branch is subjected to sewage pollution.
In the present study, the isolates of genus 1 were differentiated and confirmed by API 20E as E. coli (Table
4), E. coli is the main indicator of faecal pollution, which causes diarrhea, vomiting and fever, this also indicated
that all water resources of El Saff are subjected to sewage pollution.

9
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

Based on morphological and API 20E biochemical reactions (Table 4), most members of genus 2 are
identified as Pseudomonas flourcsence.
At present, the genus Klebsiella is subdivided into 5 species (Podschun, et al., 2001).
The isolates of genus 3 were identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae according to morphological and
biochemical characteristics (Table 4). K. pneumoniae represented 14% of the identified gram negative bacteria
isolated from El Saff area. This pathogenic bacterium has been previously isolated from surface water
(McIntosh and Austin, 1990; Podschun et al., 2001). There are 2200 known species of Salmonella which cause
intestinal infections such as sallmonellosis. The species of genus 4 was classified as Salmonella cloerasuls
because of its biochemical characteristics (Table 4). Such pathogenic bacterium constituted 11% of gramnegative bacteria from the examined water. On the other hand, isolates of genus 5 were identified as Shigella sp
and represented 9% of the identified gram negative bacteria. This pathogenic bacterium is an invasive pathogen
which causes shigellasis or Shigella-related diarrhea. On the other hand, genus 6 includes 8 isolates (8%) of
gram-negative bacteria which were identified as Proteus vulgaris (Table 4).
4-Impact of the polluted water on the human health:
The consequences of pollution on the human race are widespread and range from a reduction in the
recreational value of beaches and waterways, to unaesthetic drinking water, to serious health hazards. The
concern of these people responsible for the protection of human health has turned increasingly to problems
associated with chemical pollution. Industrial wastes can contain a variety of toxic inorganic, metallic, and
organic compounds such as mercury and pesticides.
Table 3: The total viable bacterial counts (TVBCs) x 104 cfu/ml water, the most probable number (MPN) of total coliforms (TC), faecal
coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS) /100ml water of El Saff area
Total coliform
Faecal coliform
Faecal streptococci
Sample
Total viable bacteria 104 cfu ml
No.
22C
37C
Surface water
Nile River water
1
35
43
2
27
32
15
8
2
3
71
97
El Khashab and El Hager canals water
4
96
120
275
28
10
5
192
244
225
71
59
6
103
130
275
20
69
7
16
29
10
83
5
El Saff wastewater canal
8
187
315
1600
381
114
9
142
232
900
360
76
10
219
264
1350
310
205
11
217
280
1800
350
170
12
276
361
1800
390
75
13
207
261
1800
370
52
Groundwater
14
50
72
15
62
75
16
59
106
25
2
4
17
67
90
18
14
22
19
206
252
350
260
40
20
180
230
900
430
210
21
15
23
22
9
17
23
20
35
-24
5
10
25
11
19
26
18
24
27
11
19
28
18
24
29
2
4
30
11
15
31
6
9
32
41
65
33
63
86
34
47
52
35
19
28
-

10
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

Noteworthy to mention that, chemical wastes affect water in several different ways. They can alter the pH
of a river and impact color, taste, and odor. If liquid wastes from several different sources are emptied into
rivers, they may react and produce other compounds. Such reactions or changes in pH can cause materials to
precipitate in the river. If the pH becomes exceedingly acid, the river will be devoid of life.
The factors to be considered here will be mercury, iron, aluminum, and manganese as well as boron, nitrate,
ammonia and phosphate, because their concentration are more than the acceptable limits of drinking water.
Table 4: API 20E biochemical characteristics pathogenic of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from El Saff area
Type
Genus 1
Genus 2
Genus 3
Genus 4
Genus 5
ONPG
+
+
ADH
+
LDC
+
+
ODC
+
+
CIT
+
+
H2S
URE
+
TDA
IND
+
VP
+
GEL
GLU
+
+
+
+
MAN
+
+
+
INO
+
SOR
+
+
+
RHA
+
+
+
SAC
+
MEL
+
+
AMY
+
ARA
+
+
OX
NO2
+
-+
+
+
N2
MOB
+
+
+
McC
+
+
+
+
+
OF-O
+
+
+
+
+
OF-F
+
+
+
+
Where they confirmed as

Genus 6
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Genus 1: E.coli; Genus 2: P.flouresence; Genus 3:K.pneumonia; Genus 4: Salmonella cloerasuls; Genus 5:
Shigella sp.; Genus6: Proteus vulgaris.
4.I. Impact of the polluted water by mercury on the human health:
Mercury is used as a preservative and a pigment in the paint industry, in pulp manufacture, in batteries and
in some medicines as a dental amalgam.
The ultimate effects of mercury in the body appear to be inhibition of enzyme action and cellular damage
caused by the ability of mercury to bind tightly with sulfur-containing groups in molecules which are present in
both enzymes and cell walls. Such binding is able to inactive enzymes and upset chemical reactions which they
catalyze in the body. The membrane properties of cell walls get disrupted by the binding of mercury, and normal
cellular activities are inhibited. The damage done to the body by mercury has been generally usually permanent.
Symptoms of mercury poisoning include deafness, loss of coordination, insanity, and death. In addition
methyl mercury may cause genetic damage (Chhatwal et al., 1993). Also, the effects of mercury on man are
abdominal pain, headache, diarrhea, hemolysis and chest pain.
4.II. Impact of the polluted water by iron on the human health:
More than 0.2mg/l is objectionable for most industrial uses. The failure of the red blood cells has been due
to the conversion of their hemoglobin to a closely related substance, methemoglobin, which cannot combine
with oxygen. The conversion is brought about by the action of nitrate on the iron (Fe) in the hemoglobin
molecule, which oxidizes it from divalent to trivalent iron. The condition produced by nitrate (or nitrite)
poisoning has been termed as methemoglobinemia.
Hemoglobin (Fe2+) can
combine with oxygen

nitrate
Methemoglobin (Fe3+) cannot
combine with oxygen

11
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

For a nitrate to be highly toxic it must first get converted to nitrite.

microbial
Nitrate (NO3-) Nitrite (NO2-)
reductioin
4.III. Impact of the polluted water by aluminum on the human health:
Aluminum is used in alloys and for making lightweight utensil such as kitchen ware. It is used extensively
in aircraft construction concentration in buildings and in electrical conductors. Aluminum compounds are used
throughout the chemical industry.
Aluminum salts are used in treating water for potable supply, and the small amounts left in the finished
water are regarded as harmless to consumers. Excessive amounts, however, can cause illness.
4.IV. Impact of the polluted water by manganese on the human health:
Manganese is used extensively in the steel industry for making alloys. It is also found in glass, ceramics,
batteries, fertilizers and fireworks. It is discharged to surface water from industries using these elements.
The concentrations of manganese depend to a lesser extent on the concentration of sewage effluents. It may
influence the taste of water at concentrations over 0.1mg/l. High doses of manganese are toxic to living
organisms and this toxicity is greater at lower pH values. Manganese is an undesirable impurity in water
supplies, mainly owing to a tendency to deposit black oxide stains. Manganese usually persists in the water for
greater distance downstream from the pollution source than iron contained in the drainage inflows.
More than 0.2mg/l precipitates upon oxidation, causes undesirable tastes, deposits, on foods during
cooking, stains plumbing fixtures and laundry and fosters growth in reservoirs, filters and distribution systems.
Noteworthy to mention that, most water used in industrial fields containing more than 0.2mg/l.
4.V. Impact of the polluted water by boron on the human health:
It is present in washing powders as a water softener. Boron occurs in surface water as a result of its
presence in discharged wastewater because of its use in domestic products.
In small doses, boron is harmless to mammals, but high dosages can affect the central nervous system, and
prolonged ingestion gives rise to the condition known as borism.
4.VI. Impact of the polluted water by nitrates on the human health:
Water containing large amounts of nitrate (more than 100mg/l) is bitter tasting and may cause physiological
distress. Water from shallow wells containing more than 45mg/l has been reported to cause methemoglobinemia
in infants. Small amounts of nitrate help reduce cracking of high-pressure boiler steel.
Increased nitrate levels in water supplies can be fatal to infants. At these levels the disease
methemoglobinemia is induced by intestinal bacteria that have the ability to convert nitrate to nitrite is then
absorbed into the bloodstream, where it binds with hemoglobin. This binding action effectively prevents the
hemoglobin to accept the oxygen that is necessary for respiration. The red blood cells lose their capacity to carry
oxygen, causing the blood to turn dark and resulting in death form asphyxiations. One of the symptoms of
nitrate poisoning is a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes.
4.VII. Impact of the polluted water by ammonia on the human health:
Toxicological effects are observed only at exposures above about 200mg/Kg of body weight.
4.VIII. Impact of the polluted water by phosphate on the human health:
Almost 80% of phosphate production goes into fertilizers. Other uses of phosphate include manufacture of
soaps and detergents, pesticides and animal feed supplements. Phosphates are used extensively in the production
of washing powders.
Phosphates are present in surface waters as a result of municipal sewage and industrial wastewater
discharge.
High concentrations of phosphorus may present in certain industrial wastewater. Phosphorus-based
fertilizers are extensively used in agriculture.

12
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

Phosphorus, in the concentrations that occurs in natural waters, is not harmful to health. The main concern
is about the growth of algae, because some of these organisms, the blue/green algae, can produce toxins as a byproduct of their photosynthesis in water supply reservoirs and recreational lakes.
Summary and conclusion:
The current research is carried out to throw light on the pollutants detection and their impact on human
health in El Saff area, Giza governorate, Egypt.
To achieve the aim of this research, water pollution was discussed on the basis of determining of inorganic
and biological as well as bacteriological constituents during analyses of thirty five (35) water samples collected
within August 2011. The collected water samples are corresponding to all available water sources included 13
surface water (Nile River, and El Khashab and El Hager canals as well as Elsaff wastw water canal) and 22
groundwater samples.
The results revealed that the surface water (Nile River, and El Khashab and El Hager canals) as well as the
groundwater samples are variably polluted by Fe3+, Hg2+, Mn2+, Al3+, B3+, NO3- and NH4+ as well as BOD5 and
COD. Also some bacteriological pollutants were detected in surface and groundwater samples.
The high concentrations of Hg2+, Fe3+ and Al3+ ions in the Nile river water samples are due to that their
locations at the outlets of El Saff wastewater canal which release into Nile River water across the floods runway,
where El Saff canal is considered as an acceptor for the industrial wastes that coming from the factories existed
in Helwan area which located at north of the study area. The high concentrations of Fe3+, Hg2+ and Mn2+ ions in
El Khashab and El Hager canals are due to that these canals are recharged from Nile River (which is exactly
polluted by some of these contaminants as Fe3+ and Hg2+) and also these canals received industrial wastes from
factories existed in the study area that discharged their wastes in these canals at these localities, while the canals
are polluted by Pb2+ ions due to the high traffic intensity. In addition, high Fe3+, Hg2+, Mn2+ and Pb2+ ions
concentrations are detected in irrigation canals that can be attributed to the deposition of most of the waste
suspended materials in these canals. The high concentrations of Fe3+, Hg2+, Al3+ and Zn2+ ions in the majority of
groundwater confirm that there is a seepage from El Khashab and El Hager canals and, from El Saff wastewater
canal that contains relatively high soluble metals as well as downward infiltration of excess amounts of
irrigation water rich in fertilizers and pesticides to the groundwater aquifer.
The relatively high concentrations of boron in El Saff wastewater canal is due to the discharge of sewage
water and industrial wastewater rich in sodium tetra borate (borax) which is widely used as a cleaning aid.
While the high boron concentrations in the groundwater is due to downward infiltration of excess irrigation
water and drainage water rich in fertilizers and pesticides.
Noteworthy to mention that, the relatively high NO3- concentrations in some groundwater samples are
considered critical concentrations and may increase by time. The primary source of nitrates in groundwater is
the leaching of nitrate salts into the groundwater supply from agricultural fertilization and the seepage of sewage
water.
About 9% of the groundwater samples have nitrite concentrations more than the permissible limit of
pollution, this is due to the effect of the wastewater of El Saff canal (seepage from El Saff wastewater canal to
groundwater at these localities).
The majority of the Nile River and its canals water samples have NH4+ concentrations higher than the
permissible limit of pollution, this is due to the drainage of El Saff wastewater canal in Nile River and, El
Khashab and El Hager canals at these sites. The high concentration of ammonia in groundwater is due to the
seepage from El Saff wastewater canal at these localities and irrigation return flow rich in ammonium fertilizers
as ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 and ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4. Also, wastewater, animal manure, and
refuse dumps may be considered as important sources for elevated ammonium in groundwater.
The relatively high concentration of phosphate in El Khashab and El Hager canals is attributed to the
disposal of wastewater in them at these sites. The relatively high phosphate concentrations in groundwater
samples referred to the seepage from El Saff wastewater canal at these localities and return flow after irrigation.
All water samples El Khashab and El Hager canals in the study area are unsuitable for drinking purpose, as
they have BOD5 concentrations more than the acceptable limit of pollution, this is due to the drainage of both
wastewater (houses drain) and the outlets of factories especially for chemical, pulp and food industries into these
canals. About 40% of groundwater samples are contaminated as they have BOD5 concentrations more than the
safe limit for drinking water. This is due to seepage from El Khashab and El Hager canals, in addition to return
flow after irrigation.
All Nile River and, El Khashab and El Hager canals water samples in the study area have high values of
COD concentrations more than the permissible limit. These high values are due to drainage of El Saff
wastewater canal into surface water in addition to the outlets of the pulp and paper industry factories where the
chemical oxygen demand (COD) resulting from industrial wastewater. For groundwater samples, the majority of
the collected samples (95%) are unsuitable for drinking purpose as they have COD concentrations more than the

13
Int. j. Environ. 1(1): 1-14, 2012

permissible limit of pollution. The high value for groundwater samples is due to the seepage from El Saff
wastewater canal and, El khashab and El Hager canals to groundwater.
The bacteriological analyses involved total viable bacterial counts (TVBCs), total coliforms (TC) and
estimation of faecal coliforms (FC), faecal streptococci and pathogenic bacteria. The bacteriological analyses
showed that TVBCs ranged from 2x104 to 276 x104 cfu/ml and from 4x104 to 351 x104 cfu/ml at 22C and
37C, respectively. Several pathogenic bacterial isolates representing six genera were identified to species level.
These included, Esherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas flourcsence, Salmonella colerasuis,
Shigella sp. and Proteus vulgaris. The results of the present investigation revealed that, the River Nile water at
El saff area was subjected to sewage pollution during the study period.
The most important pollution sources in the study area include the wastewater produced from the industrial
complex at Helwan area in addition to the wastewater which is discharged into Nile River and its canals. Also,
the seepage of irrigation water which contain excessive amount of fertilizers and pesticides into groundwater.
So all water sources in the concerned area are unsuitable for drinking purposes, while these water resources
are suitable for irrigation except El Saff wastewater canal.
Finally it can be concluded from this study that the majority of water resources in the study area is
contaminated variably by different kinds of pollutant which are very serious to people's health, animals, soil and
plant. Thus, monitoring of chemical and microbial quality of water is must to control the spreading of pathogens
transmitted by contaminated water that had been previously isolated from surface water. So, it is essential to
reduce or eliminate the pollutants content in the wastewaters discharged into the water resources.
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