International Journal of Architecture, Engineering and Construction

Vol 2, No 4, December 2013, 219-233

Perceptual Dimension of Interior Daylight in Sacred

Architecture: Analytical Study of the Lighting Programs
in Five Sacred Buildings of Different Styles
Nelly Shafik Ramzy
Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences,
Sinai University El Masaeed, El Arish City, Egypt
Abstract: This paper investigates and compares different types of lighting programs in sacred buildings. A
general study exploring lighting techniques throughout the history is performed and followed by an analysis for
some prominent lighting programs, in which five featuring constructions are examined in order to investigate
lighting qualities in each of them. The aim of the paper is to investigate the luminous environment produced
by these lighting schemes through a comparative study conducted by both qualitative and empirical methods,
using sun angle charts to study the positions of sunbeams inside buildings and Autodesk Ecotect software to
study the patterns of daylight distribution in these buildings. Studying these buildings, which depended on
daylight as the primary light source, provides us with valuable insights to maximize the accentuating quality of
light and to enhance the buildings aesthetic schemes, without the need of extra energy exhaustion. The paper
is a step towards sustainable lighting schemes for religious buildings that help to create significant atmosphere
with minimum use of energy.
Keywords: Lighting program, daylight, top-light, peripheral light, dome-lighting, clerestory
DOI: 10.7492/IJAEC.2013.020

1 INTRODUCTION
Light is what gives character to architecture; without light form, color, or texture are not to be comprehended. It was considered as a celestial substance
and the ultimate source of visual beauty in architecture since the earliest buildings. Depending on how it
is used, light can transform the spatial context; create
agreeable or disagreeable, sublime or mysterious sensations; or simply highlight aspects of the space that
interest the viewer. Therefore, the history of architecture can be also told by referring to how natural light
has been treated in accordance with different styles.
Light has been used in the sacred buildings, not only
to provide the necessary visual condition for the ritual
acts to be performed, but also to evoke mystical and
spiritual feelings. In ancient Egypt, where the sun was
thought to be the eye of Ra, creator of the universe,
temples were designed, so that, the sanctuary and processional paths were oriented according to its move-

ment. In ancient Greek civilization temples were also

orientated towards the east to relate directly to the first
light of the day. The Romans, the first to consciously
design interior space, also used light to enhance and articulate space and the most representative example for
this concept was the Pantheon in Rome. Light was also
given great significance in the early Judaism, Christianity and Islam. From the Byzantine monuments to
the Gothic and Renaissance monuments, light was employed as the medium, through which the representation of heaven was given a temporal earthly reading.
The hypothesis of this paper is that, in sacred buildings, the perceptual dimension of light has more importance than visual clarity and that there are certain
aspects of space that may emphasize this dimension.
The paper aims to analyze some of the most outstanding luminous environments in the history of architecture in order to assess the perceptual experience in
each of them and grasp the logic behind these experiences. In doing this, the methodology of the paper

*Email: [email protected]
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depends not only on qualitative and configurative measures, but also on quantitative and empirical measures
that will be applied on these lighting programs. An
analytical-comparative study of daylight is attempted
in two folds, using both sun angle charts to study the
different positions of sunbeams inside the buildings under study, and computer analysis by Ecotect software
to study the patterns of daylight distribution in these
buildings. The paper came to the conclusion that the
architects of these buildings employed, actually, very
little amount of light to produce remarkable effects
that depended on the study of the suns altitude and
a deliberate distribution of apertures. Doing this, the
study gives a proof that some carefully designed transitions for the interior daylight may result in a perception of a much higher lighting level than those actually measured. It proves that the visual experiences
in these buildings were not about the amount of light,
but rather about the perceptual effects produced by
this amount of light.

Figure 1. The sanctuary of the Temple of Abu Simbel

The most remarkable lighting scheme in Ancient

Egyptian temples is the solar phenomenon at The
Great Temple of Abu Simbel (Figure 1), where the axis
of the temple was positioned in such a way that on October 21 and February 21 (allegedly the kings birthday
The paper is structured as follows: an introduction, and coronation day), the rays of the sun penetrate the
four main parts, and a conclusion. In the introduction sanctuary and illuminate the sculptures on the back
part, an overall view of the notions of the paper is in- wall, except for that of Ptah, the god of the Undertroduced. The first part brings in a chronological study world, who should always remain in darkness. Due to
of lighting programs in sacred buildings, while in the the displacement of the temple and the accumulated
second part, these programs are classified according to drift of the Tropic of Cancer during 3,280 years, these
lighting source and a particular building is selected to two dates have moved one day closer to the Solstice,
represent each type. In the third part, criteria for eval- occurring now on October 22 and February 20 (Skliar
uating the qualities of daylight in religious building are 2005; Siliotti 2008)
determined and the lighting programs of the selected
buildings are examined against them. The results of
2.2 Classical Temples
this analysis are discussed in part four, and the findings of the research are summarized in the conclusion. As for Greek temples, their roofs have all disappeared,
and with them all the evidences regarding the method
adopted for lighting them have been lost; with one exception (the temple at Agrigentum) there is a general
2 CHRONOLOGICAL STUDY OF
LIGHTING PROGRAMS IN SACRED absence of windows. This has given rise to several theories as to the method of admitting light; a clerestory
BUILDINGS
concealed in the roof is the system favored by Fergusson (1893); while Btticher (1888) suggested skylights.
From the ornamented light of Egyptian architecture
Other researchers hold that light entered solely through
and throughout the distilled light of Classical Architecthe door opening and was occasionally planned to fall
ture, the supernatural light through stained glass winon the statue in the Naos. Others contend that this
dows in Gothic architecture and Mashrabeyah screens
light was supplemented by transparent Parian marble
in Islamic architecture, reaching to the sublime light
or alabaster roofing slabs (Fletcher 1905).
of the Renaissance and Baroque architecture, light
Temples were occasionally hypaethral or partly open
metaphor has always been employed to engender the
to the sky, but this system appears to have been remetaphysical virtue of the heaven and the Divine.
served for the larger temples such as the Olympieion,
Athens. However, the most acceptable system is that of
a row of windows over the internal colonnades (Fletcher
2.1 Ancient Egyptian Temples
1905). In Roman architecture, natural light was a doIn Ancient Egyptian temples light was admitted to the main, to which Vitruvius devoted a whole chapter in
Hypostyle Halls by clerestory, formed by the increased his book De Architectura. Roman space was conheight of the columns in the central aisle, while the cerned with lighting that allows interior decorations to
sanctuary was left dark or only dimly lit. Less promi- be seen clearly. The oculus of the Pantheon is the most
nent, but very common, lighting solutions included cut- prominent treatment from this era, where light comes
ting angled slits or square holes into the roof slabs to only from a round hole in the dome, about 9 meters
allow daylight to enter the space (LaChiusa 2009).
in diameter, alluding to the (circular) perfection of the
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(a)

(b)

(a) Clerestory between two roofs in St Nicolai Church, Stralsund (left)

(b) Clerestory, triforium, and arcade in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire (right)

Figure 2. Openings in Romanesque and early Gothic churches

heaven and placing the emperor-god in direct relation
with the heavens.

2.3 Early
Christian
Churches

and

stained glass, displaying a visual attempt to create a

setting where people could get a taste of heaven (Scott
2003).

Byzantine

Light was treated in Byzantine Architecture as the materialized representation of the Divine. In the bright
climate of the Eastern Roman Empire, small openings sufficed to admit the necessary light, and the
employment of mosaic rendered the use of large windows quite inadmissible. Light was sometimes filtered
through thin sheets of alabaster to create even softer
illumination. Early Christian, and some Byzantine,
churches maintained the form of the Roman Basilica
with central nave flanked by lower aisles and a wall
pierced by clerestory windows in-between. But the
most preferable system was a ring of windows at the
base of the dome, and/or openings grouped in the gable
ends or within the semicircular arch beneath the dome
(Fletcher 1905).

2.4 Medieval Cathedrals

In Romanesque Architecture, interiors were heavy and
had dim lighting. The nave was usually of two levels;
arcade and clerestory (some churches have only barrel
vaulted ceilings with no clerestory). A third level was
later inserted between them, a gallery called the triforium, which opened into the space beneath the sloping
Figure 3. Scamozzis scheme of architectural
roof of the aisle (Figure 2).
illumination (Scamozzi, 1615)
Unlike this, Gothic Architecture was characterized
by lightness and soaring spaces and buildings were de2.5 Renaissance and Baroque Cathedrals
signed around light (Swaan 1988), where cathedrals
used different methods to capture light and bring it into In Renaissance Architecture, pure light from nature
the spaces. Gothic churches employed vast expanses of was the ideal tool and no more diffusion of light was
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(a) The nave

(b) The dome

(c) The throne

Figure 4. Basilica Di San Pietro

(a) Sheikh Lotfollah mosque

(b) Suleymaniye mosque

Figure 5. Islamic Architecture

used. The return to Classical Architecture produced a

turn back to oculi, this time in the form of the lantern,
which was a cupola-like structure mounted on top of a
dome.
Studies of different shapes of windows marked the architecture of this era. In his earliest recorded project in
Venice, Vincenzo Scamozzi proposed a systematic typology of architectural illumination that was differentiated into six kinds of light within a construction and
traced them on a typical plan and section of a paradigmatic central-plan model (Figure 3), which had later
dominated the illumination schemes of the period. In
this model, the theme of altar illumination was explicitly raised, where the quadro, or the pala (the ornate
front of the altar), receive double light shafts from two
openings on both sides (Davis 2002). Light shafts were
used to create three major phenomena: first, to fall
onto the altar in the morning; second, to fall on certain icons in certain dates; and third, to pore light on
Jesus image in the domes interior.

In Baroque style, light was used dramatically with

high contrasts of light and shadow. Chiaroscuro effect
was the term that has been used to describe this contrast, which means light-dark in Italian. The supreme
example of this period was that of The Basilica Di
San Pietro (Figure 4), where the sunbeams from the
clerestories reflect from the polished surfaces, bathing
them in ethereal glow. Michelangelos dome, weightless and serene, floats above a circle of light from the
windows beneath it flooding the medallions of the pendentives with light. The climax of this spatial journey
is Berninis throne of St. Peter, which beckons amidst
a blaze of heavenly light from a circular opening.

2.6 Islamic Mosques

The notion of light was also remarkable in Islamic Architecture (Figure 5). Where little furniture is traditionally used and there are no pictures or statues,
light is used to accentuate the space and increase the

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complexity of visual effects. Typical devices of Islamic

architectural decoration, such as muqarnas, were used
to trap light and diffuse it, so that it reflects and refracts light (Jones 1984). It is for the same purpose
that the Muslim architects transformed other surfaces,
such as Mashrabeyah screens, into perforated relief to
filter the light (Omer 2011).
From the 16th century onwards ottoman mosques
employed the Byzantine program of lighting with a
ring of openings at the base of the dome and maximum reflection of light by intensively using shiny tiles
and glossy surfaces. Sidewall-windows contributed to
the general lighting and create a diffuse lighting, while
windows at the wall of the niche Keblah provided accentuation and local illumination at it (Goodwin 1993).

3 CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHTING
PROGRAMS IN SACRED
BUILDINGS
In this part, lighting programs in sacred buildings,
which had been historically overviewed in the previous part, are classified according to the position of the
apertures. One building, mostly the earliest appearance of the lighting scheme, is appointed to represent
each category.

3.1 Clerestory

The technology of clerestory appears to originate in the

temples of ancient Egypt, where lighting was admitted
to the Hypostyle Hall over the stone roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical slabs of
2.7 Modern Churches
stone. Clerestory appeared in Egypt as early as the
Masters of the Modern Architecture like Le Corbusier, Amarna period or even earlier (University of Memphis
Alvar Aalto and Louis Khan also believed in the impor- 2013) and had different versions in Roman basilica and
tance of bringing the natural light into divine spaces. the naves of Romanesque and Gothic churches.
In his asymmetric and fascinating lighting scheme in
Ronchamp Chapel (Figure 6), Le Corbusier created a
series of spatial dramas in which light animates the
space by creating different moods at different times of
the day and in different seasons.

Figure 7. Clerestory in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak

The example that was chosen to represent this category is The Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Karnak
in Luxor, as one of the earliest and the most original
Figure 6. Ronchamp Chapel: South wall
treatments of this type. Here, the raised central nave
Rays of light pierce through a thin gap between the
was lined with grilled windows of clerestory (Figure 7)
wall and the massive roof, making the roof appears to
24 meters above the floor, which allowed sunlight to
hover. The size of the windows, as well as the depth
enter the hall, while maintaining the privacy and seand the direction of the splays, varies from one opencrecy of the space. The grills were composed of two
ing to another, thus sunlight is admitted at different
sections, one stacked atop the other, and secured in
angles and with varying degree of brightness. The colplace by being fitted tightly into grooves in the side
ored glass in the splayed windows softens the incoming
of the bordering piers (University of Memphis 2013).
light and creates colored shadows in delicate hues on
Sunrays coming through this clearstory were further
the roughly plastered surface (Lau 2008).
obstructed by the projection of the gorge cornice, so
Santiago Calatrava, who is known for combining arthat the hall is mostly kept in shadows.
chitecture and engineering to broaden the potential of
a wall, frequently uses motion techniques to adjust the
3.2 Screened Windows at Eye-level
intensity of natural light on his interiors and create
dynamic space (Attmann 2012). Treatments like these Windows are the most common way to admit daylight
are seen in his recent project of the Cathedral of St. into a space. They usually take vertical direction, so
John the Divine and the new St. Nicholas Church on that they selectively admit sunlight and diffuse daythe Zero Ground, both are to be built in New York.
light at different times of the day and year. Screens,
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such as alabaster panels, stained glass or Mashrabeyah

screens, were usually used in sacred architecture to filter the direct light and give it special effects by casting
intricate patterns and colors.
St Denis Chapel in Paris (Figure 8), as the earliest
representation of Gothic style, is the best example to
represent this category. Abbot Suger (1081-1151), the
abbot of St Denis Chapel, had strong views about the
value and meaning of light (Boorstin 1992). His radiant masterpiece soars as weightlessly as any modern
glass edifice, where bright and glittering stained glass
filters daylight in the most subtle ways like standing

in a crystal (Swaan 1988).

To achieve his vision, his masons drew on several new
elements, which evolved or had been introduced to Romanesque architecture to enable the insertion of large
windows (Boorstin 1992). They used slender ribs of
stone to separate the nine adjoining chapels lit by sixteen stained-glass windows, beaming multicolored light
to be reflected on the polished mosaic floor and on the
dazzling altar of gold and gems (Boorstin 1992). Another striking feature in the church was the rose window of stained glass, which was placed over the middle
of the three portals on the western side.

Figure 8. Soaring stained glass windows in St Denis Chapel in Paris

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3.3 Dome-lighting
Though domes usually tend to be heavy and somewhat
portentous, some inspiring treatments made them look
graceful, colorful and even lightly floating despite their
bulk. In these treatments light that is admitted
through these domes became the most important characteristic of the space, adding brightness and transparency to the interior. These treatments might be
categorized into the following two types:

cavernous space, reflecting back up from the polished

marble floors and transforming the attitude of sunlight/daylight from natural into spiritual.

B - Around the base

This treatment was characteristic for both Byzantine

and Ottoman Architecture and was still further embellished in the Renaissance with the addition of a high
drum encircled by peristyle or colonnade. In this treatment, light is introduced through a ring of small winA - At the apex (oculus or lantern)
dows piercing the lower portion of the dome, creating
dazzling interior light-effects that make the dome looks
Oculus is the Latin word for eye and it was the Romans
like as if floating upon a wave of light and suggesting
who first realized its architectural potential. Oculi apan upward appeal by attracting the believers eyes topeared also in some Renaissance churches in the form of
wards the light to feel the presence of God (Falahat
lantern, which became even more popular in Baroque
and Zare 2011).
Architecture. The oculus at the apex of the dome alThe Church of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul is the earlilows a single shaft of sunlight to fall and travel across
est application of this technique and is, therefore, apthe interior of the building, generating a great visual
pointed to represent it. Lighting here is mainly proeffect and giving a unifying sense of harmony and conduced by forty small windows that pierced the dome
stant sense of uplift.
at its base. Procopius describes this dome as standing
The Pantheon in Rome is the earliest and the most
upon the interior circle as if suspended from heaven
significant building, in which this lighting scheme oc(Lethabv and Swainson 2005). Additional light is incurred (Figure 9). The lighting that is admitted to
troduced through twelve windows in each of the spanthe building is actually very little that only three basedrel walls, north and south, under the great arches that
niches and only three windows (with their symmetric
support the dome (Figure 10) (Fletcher 1905). The
ones, of course) are ever illuminated; all others remain
brilliant natural light of the East is tamed by the posiin dark for the whole year, as the sun fails to be at a
tion of the windows, their relatively small size and their
sufficient altitude to illuminate them (Magli 2011).
large number. It enters the space at a slant and turns
back on itself to be diffused everywhere (Ousterhout
1999). This mystic light gains an overwhelming character because of the naves gloomy lighting level; the
daylight reflecting from the golden mosaics was taken
as a solution for illuminating the interior space and
gave further support to the spiritual effect.

Figure 9. The oculus in the Pantheon

Nevertheless, this magical light assures that daylight
diffuses gently in the entire space while the shaft of
sunlight directly falls inside and moves along the coffers of the inner dome surface and slashes across the
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Figure 10. The dome in Hagia Sophia

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(a) From outside

(b) From inside

Figure 11. Light scoops in Jubilee Church

3.4 Light Scoops

Thereby, they act as both light scoops and shading

devices. In this church, Meier allows rays of light to
The typology of divine light and its pattern had largely bounce through gaps between billowing concrete sails,
changed in Modern Architecture in order to cope with reflecting from travertine plaza into interior and around
the contemporary requirements for todays and futures corners from unseen sources and illuminating travermaterials and forms. New forms of apertures, where tine walls with a mystical light (Archnewsnow 2003).
large areas of glass blend into the walls or the roofs
in different innovative forms, is now the most common
option to introduce ambient light into contemporary 4 EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF
religious buildings.
LIGHTING SCHEMES
Richard Meiers Jubilee Church (Dio Padre Misericordioso) is an outstanding example of these new forms
(Figure 11). Instead of admitting light through an
oculus or lantern, light slips through intervals between
free-standing, vertical planes that do not quite meet.

In this part, the criteria for evaluating the lighting programs in the five buildings are determined, and a double fold analysis is performed on the five buildings to
assess their performance concerning these criteria.

Figure 12. Perspective-sections in the five buildings

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4.1 Criteria of Evaluation

of visual stimulation encourage participation and increase enjoyment, while low levels help a person to feel
The characteristics of light in sacred architecture are
contented, comfortable, focused, and relaxed.
mostly related to the creation of an environment, where
Accordingly, it could be said that the feelings of rethe worshipper needs to feel the essence of the religion,
laxation, quietness, contentment, and owe, which are
rather than to regular visual comfort objectives. In his
most desirable in sacred architecture, are related to the
study of subjective responses to low energy and nonunifollowing criteria of light:
form lighting systems, John Flynn developed criteria of
1. Non-uniform distribution
lighting modes that might reinforce certain subjective
impressions (Flynn 1977). From the modes that he
2. Low levels of illumination
included in his study, the most plausible impressions
to be associated with religious buildings are probably
3. Seen but not immediate
these of relaxation and pleasure, which he related to
4. Peripheral (or wall) lighting
non-uniform distribution and low level of light as well
as peripheral (wall) emphasis, rather than overhead
5. Avoid deep shadows
lighting. In a study by Sanders et al. (1974), it was
6. Dynamic quality of light
also found that by measuring the level of noise produced by groups of people in an assembly room, low,
uneven illumination pattern was associated with less 4.2 Application of Criteria on the Five
Buildings
noise and less activity and vice versa.
In another attempt, an experimental study by Loe To examine the fulfillment of the aforementioned criet al. (1994), shows that people like to face or see teria in each of the selected five buildings (Figure 12),
brightness, but do not like to sit in brightness. In the a computer analysis of lighting levels throughout the
same direction, Antonakaki (2006) came to a similar year was performed by Autodesk Ecotect software in
conclusion that people gravitate towards bright areas concern of the first two criteria. The results of the
but rather than moving into them, they choose to sit analysis are illustrated in Figure 13.
facing them. The employment of natural light was alTo evaluate the buildings performance in concern of
ways crucial to show off a rooms potential; shadows the other three criteria, the different positions of sun
could be used to dramatic effect in apses and sculptural and the expected behavior of sunrays inside the buildniches. But, while the mysteriousness of shadow is ings throughout the year were analyzed as illustrated
closely linked to evoking silence and awe, deep shadows in (Figures 15-19). To achieve this, a simplified twoare related to darkness and may evoke uncertainty and dimensional model for each building was employed, fixa potential of danger (Schielke 2013). This concept was ing the time at local noon in the course of the year
emphasizes by J. Michael Gillet in his book Design- (at this time of the day, light comes always from the
ing with Light, where he says that a non-continuous southern direction) and studying the position of sunluminance gradient across a surface may create confu- beams in four specific dates: summer solstice, the two
sion, miss-information, or the perception of darkness equinoxes, and winter solstice. The latitudes of the four
and gloom (Gillette 1998). He adds that high levels cities, in which the five monuments are located, are:

(a)

(b)

(d)

(c)

(e)

Figure 13. Average distribution of light in the five buildings throughout the year
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Aswan (Egypt) on 30 N, both Rome (Italy) and Istanbul (Turkey) on 41 N, and Paris (France) on 48 N. The
solar altitudes at the five buildings in the four specified
dates are obtained using sun angles charts (Figure 14).
From these analyses, as illustrated in the six figures
(Figure 13 and Figures 15-19), the performance of daylight in the five buildings can be traced as in the following:

enter the middle area during the equinoxes.

B - The Pantheon, Rome

In the Pantheon, the differences in orientation and position of apertures resulted in a totally reversed movement (Figure 16). At the autumn equinox, a spot of
sunlight starts to touch the interior springing of the upper hemisphere and starts to move up until it reaches
a maximum height in the roof over the entrance at
A - The Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple
winter solstice. Thereafter, it moves down, touching
Looking at the average distribution of light in the Hy- again the base of the dome at the spring equinox. So,
postyle Hall of the Karnak temple (Figure 13(a)), an the sun spends the winter and the two equinoxes in
uneven distribution of light is immediately realized, the hemisphere of the dome. In the subsequent days,
with a daylight factor of about 50% in the middle area the beam moves down, illuminating the entrance from
inside. Around 21 April, this midday spot starts to
and about 10% on the side aisles.
The diagram at (Figure 15) shows that at summer enter the building and starts moving on the floor tosolstice, the projection of the Gorge blocks the sun- wards the centre of the building (which it, of course,
beam until February. At the autumn equinox, a spot never reaches, as the sun never crosses the zenith at
of sunlight starts to touch the interior. This spot starts the latitude of Rome). From the summer solstice the
to move down at winter solstices to illuminate the side beam turns back, re-crossing the entrance between the
aisles and the sun spends winter in the aisles until the end of August and the autumn equinox (Magli 2011).
Accordingly, it is normal to see that the average disspring equinox, when the beam starts to move back on
the floor towards the central area until it disappears tribution of light (Figure 13(b)) indicates that the area
again in summer. So, only the subtle sun of winter is that receives the highest amount of light at eye-level
fully allowed to enter the space, while the summer sun throughout the year is the area in front of the enis almost fully blocked and only a thin sunbeam can trance. During the course of the day, the sunbeam

Figure 14. Sun angle charts: Northern Hemisphere summer solstice (left), Northern Hemisphere winter solstice
(middle), and Equinoxes (right) (Based on the charts in NASA Goddard Training Manual, 2003)

(a)
(a) Winter solstice (sun at altitude

(b)
23.5 )

(b) Equinoxes (sun at altitude

(c)
47 )

(c) Summer solstice (sun at altitude 70.5 )

Figure 15. The fall of the noon sunlight on the Hypostyle Hall in Karnak Temple in different dates of the year

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) Winter solstice (sun at altitude 24 ) (b) Equinoxes (sun at altitude 48 ) (c) Summer solstice (sun at altitude 72 )

Figure 16. The fall of the noon sunlight on the Pantheon in different dates of the year
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depicts an arc from west to east, which remains on the

upper hemisphere during autumn and winter, touches
the base of the entrance around 31 March then reaches
the floor and wanders across it in the central hours
of the day from the end of April to the end of August. Therefore, the analysis shows that a fair amount
of light reaches other areas of the building throughout
the year, especially the side apses, as the sun moves
from the east to the west during the day.

duced and it is not allowed to touch the ground until

it is completely blocked in summer, where its diffusion
is kept floating around the dome.
The average distribution of light, as shown in (Figure
13(c)), is in support of this analysis. It shows that, at
eye-level, the least lit area is the area under the dome
with an average daylight factor of less than 10%, as
light in this area is always kept suspended higher than
eye-level. The overall lighting level is very low, but
some spots of light were produced by small openings
arranged in zones on sidewalls, with two light zones
C - The Church of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
at the northwest and southeast corners of the church.
In the church of Hagia Sophia (Figure 17), patterns of Special emphasis was given to lighting the apse, where
daylight are similar to these at Karnak, except for that the highest daylight factor at the building (60%), is
they never reach the ground. At the autumn equinox, measured.
a thread of sunlight penetrates to the interior and falls
on the rims of the northern aisles arches. At winter D - St Denis Chapel, Paris
solstice, this spot of sunlight gets wider as it moves
up on the walls of the nave towards the dome and At St Denis Chapel (Figure 18), the patterns of dayreaches its maximum area around the end of Febru- light are, again, similar to these at Hagia Sophia and
ary. Thereafter, it moves down, touching the rim of the the Karnak temple, except for that windows are ararches again at the spring equinox, but never reaches ranged on two levels, the lower one of which is almost
the ground. Starting from the summer solstice, the at eye-level. At the summer solstice, the sunbeam fails
beam is blocked by the wall-thickness at the base of to enter the nave from the upper windows until the bethe dome until the autumn equinox (Magli 2011). So, ginning of August, but a thread of light penetrates the
only the sublime sunbeam of winter sun is allowed to interior through the lower row. At the autumn equinox,
enter the building in its full brightness to be kept sus- two beams of sunlight start to appear on the floor at
pended in the upper part of the nave for the first half the aisles and starts to move up at winter solstice, to
of the year. During the equinoxes its brightness is re- be kept suspended in the upper part of the nave un-

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) Winter solstice (sun at altitude 24 ) (b) Equinoxes (sun at altitude 48 ) (c) Summer solstice (sun at altitude 72 )

Figure 17. The fall of the noon sunlight on Hagia Sophia in different dates of the year

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) Winter solstice (sun at altitude 24 ) (b) Equinoxes (sun at altitude 48 ) (c) Summer solstice (sun at altitude 72 )

Figure 18. The fall of the noon sunlight on St Denis Chapel in different dates of the year
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til the spring equinox, when they move back down to

the floor and start crawling towards the central area,
but only one of them can reach it around the end of
November. So, again, only the subtle sun of winter is
fully allowed to enter the space to be kept suspended in
the upper area of the nave, while most of the summer
sun and part of the equinoxes sun are blocked, leaving
a chance to the other part to spend the equinoxes in
the aisles.
The average distribution of light, as shown in (Figure 13(d)), shows a homogeneous distribution of light
with average daylight factor of about 50%, which is
relatively high ratio. This is especially significant in
the late afternoon when the sun sets. Special emphasis
was given to the apse, where the daylight factor reaches
90% alongside the walls of the apse.

5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results of the analysis, as performed in part 4-2,
are summarized in Table 1. Considering these results
in relation to the criteria in part 4.1, the following conclusions are to be found:

5.1 Distribution of Light

The luminous environments inside the five buildings

can be distinguished into the following categories: (a)
bright spaces with homogenous light; (b) bright spaces
with instant or local lights; and (c) half-dark areas
around instant or local light. Instant light here refers
to the beam of light or a light shaft that produces a
spot of light, where the downpour of light falls as in
(Figure 9), while local light refers to a more uniformly
lit zone produced by a group of openings that illumiE - The Jubilee Church, Rome
nate a whole zone as in (Figure 6). In both cases the
luminous environment is characterized by uneven disAs for the Jubilee Church (Figure 19), as the sun moves
tribution of light. In (Figure 10) the two types coexist
through the year, it is first partially blocked by the sails
side by side; instant light is introduced into the area
in the winter solstice and only the upper part of the
under the dome by the openings at its base, where in
first sail is touched by sunrays. In the spring equinox
the corners zones of local lights are produced by groups
it starts to slide in from the gaps between the sails, but
of small windows.
it does not reach the floor of the nave and part of it
is kept suspended in its upper part, where the other
part reaches the -only- northern aisle. Towards sum- 5.2 Lighting Level
mer solstice, the sun is admitted over and around the The Ecotect analysis in (Figure 13) shows that the avaltar platform and penetrates through a large punched erage daylight factor in the three buildings with topopening on the sides, splayed to reduce the glare. To- apertures is generally lower than that in the other
wards autumn equinox, the sun beam moves back to two buildings with peripheral-apertures. However, in
the aisle and is kept suspended in the nave until next a study by Triantafyllides (Antonakaki 2007), it was
summer.
found that by comparing the lighting levels in basiliThe average distribution of light in (Figure 13-e) can churches and domed churches, the lighting levels
shows that the northern area is the brightest zone produced at the centre of the basilica had been proven
with a distinctive luminous environment. Most of the to be higher than that under the dome in a domed
daylight is captured through the south-facing sails, al- church. Yet, there is a misleading impression that the
though the light source is concealed by their blades. In lighting levels are higher under the dome than at the
this area, average daylight factor is around 40%. The centre of basilica. The reason for this phenomenon is
light intensity is gradually reduced towards the central that the concentrated (instant) light shaft under the
dome appears stronger to the eye than the general honave, where the daylight factor is around 1- 10%.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) Winter solstice (sun at altitude 24 ) (b) Equinoxes (sun at altitude 48 ) (c) Summer solstice (sun at altitude 72 )

Figure 19. The fall of the noon sunlight on The Jubilee Church in different dates of the year
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Table 1. The lighting distribution patterns in the five buildings

Building
Karnak Temple

The Pantheon

Hagia Sophia

St Denis Chapel

Jubilee Church

Season
Summer
Winter
Equinoxes
Summer
Winter
Equinoxes
Summer
Winter
Equinoxes
Summer
Winter
Equinoxes
Summer
Winter
Equinoxes

Level
25%

15%

15%

40%

20%

Distribution
Local (suspended)
Local
Local
Instant (on the ground)
Instant (suspended)
Instant (suspended)
Local (suspended)
Instant (suspended )
Instant ( suspended )
Local (suspended )
Local
Local
General
Local (suspended)
General

Diffusions
Homogeneous
Bright/ Dark
Bright/ Dark
Bright/ Half dark
Bright/ Dark
Bright/ Half dark
Half Dark
Bright / Half dark
Homogeneous
Half Dark
Bright / Half dark
Bright / Half dark
Homogeneous
Bright / Half dark
Homogeneous

Visual Simulation
Heavy shadows

Shadowless - Dynamic light shafts

Shadowless - Dynamic light shafts

Shadows on sides

Shadow on one side

Table 2. The fulfillment of the evaluating criteria in the five buildings

Non-uniform distribution of light

Low levels of illumination
Seen but not immediate.
Peripheral (or wall) lighting
Avoid deep shadows
Dynamic light shafts

St Denis Chapel

Jubilee Church
X

mogenous light that is evenly distributed through the

windows of the basilica due to the high contrast between this bright light shaft and the area around it.

5.3 Relationship with the User (Seen but

not Immediate)
In all the five buildings -except for St. Denis Chapel,
where stained glass is used to partially fulfill this issuethe visual relationship between the interior and the exterior is minimized by keeping the openings higher than
eye-level. Thick walls and small size of openings result
in a further obstruction of daylight. Off the centre
of the buildings, sunlight is allowed to penetrate into
some spaces, constituting the liaison with the outside
world.
The results in (Figure 13) show that peripheralopenings result in a distribution of light that is more
even and closer to the eye level than that created by
top-openings. Such immediate light, as previously explained, is less preferable by people, especially for this
kind of buildings.

Karnak Temple
X
X

Pantheon
X
X
X

X
X

Hagia Sophia
X
X
X

X
X

and very heavy shadows will be produced, as in El

Karnak temple. But by re-considering the concept of
peripheral light that Flynn defined as wall light, it
might be suggested that the light that inters the building through the openings around the base of the dome,
as that at Hagia Sophia, is rather peripheral, despite
not a wall light.

5.5 Visual Simulation (Avoid Deep Shadows)

Except for in the Jubilee Church, the brightest zone
at eye-level in all the other buildings is the visual focus that is related to the main ritual area (the apse or
the main Naos) and not the main activity area, where
people sit. This guiding quality of light was employed
in longitudinal buildings to emphasize the visual axes.
In centralized buildings, daylight is concentrated above
the eye-level at the central area, where people sit, and
is kept relatively shadowless. Direct front light was
avoided in this area to reduce the flat silhouette effect.

5.6 Dynamic Quality of Light

5.4 Position of Lighting (Peripheral-Top)
From the results in (Figure 13), it is also to be observed that to produce light through peripheral openings that is unevenly distributed and not immediate,
lighting level should be very low (as explained in 5.2)

The analysis in part 4.2 shows that light shafts created

by top-openings are more dynamic than those created
by openings on the wall. The reason behind this is
that during the day top-apertures, especially these at
the dome, have better chances to trap the sunlight at

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different angles as it moves around it. In the course

of the day, the sunbeams from these openings depict
an arc from west to east lighting different angles in the
space, which is unattainable for peripheral- openings.
They also add visual interest and create a feeling of uplift, where light can be kept suspended for the most
part of the year (and/or the day) and barely touches
the ground.

provided us with conclusive evidences that the architects of these buildings employed, actually, very little
amount of light to produce remarkable effects that depended on: the study of the suns altitude, the interplay between shadows and lights, the dynamic quality
of daylight, and a deliberate distribution of openings.
Windows were generally small or covered with screening materials or perforated elements to minimize the
relationship between interior and exterior, while the
brightest zone was used to appoint the visual focus that
5.7 Fulfillment of the Evaluating Criteria
is related to the main ritual area, which had to be kept
By comparing the lighting schemes in the five buildings shadowless and not immediate to worshipers. Carein terms of their fulfillment of the evaluating criteria, fully designed transitions of interior lighting resulted
the five building are to be arranged in ascending order in the perception of a much higher levels of lighting
from left to right as shown in Table 2.
than those actually measured. The symmetrical balThe comparison shows that the lighting programs in ance of light and keeping the sunrays suspended above
both the Pantheon and Hagia Sophia have the best eye-level were used to reduce the uncomfortable brightqualities according to these criteria. But the light that ness associated with a single opening in dimly lit space
enters the building through the openings around the and to give this spiritual feeling of uplift.
base of the dome, as that at Hagia Sophia, is someLighting in these buildings was, hence, not about
how more peripheral. Actually, it could be said that
the
amount of light, but rather about the treatment of
this particular lighting scheme has better qualities that
this
little amount of light that made it able to produce
overcome the negative sides of lighting from the walls:
such
dramatic effects with accentuating qualities. The
first, it produces strong lighting patterns that are unanalysis
in the previous chapter shows that the lighteven (instant) and more dynamic than that introduced
ing
levels
produced by peripheral-apertures are usually
from wall-openings; secondly, by keeping sunrays sushigher
than
these produced by top-apertures. But, the
pended in the upper area of the nave, glare is avoided
instant
light
shaft from top-apertures appears stronger
at eye level and people see the brightness but do not
to
the
eye
than
the general homogenous light that is
get into it. Furthermore, in contrast with the two other
evenly
distributed
through the windows due to the high
forms of top-aperture, lighting produced by this scheme
contrast
between
this
bright light shafts and the area
is more constant, as the windows all around the dome
around
it.
have more chances to capture sunlight all along the
day. The comparison shows also that the lighting patIt has been also found that these instant light shafts
terns that appear in Jubilee Church are closer in na- have a dynamic nature that allows them, in the course
ture to that at St. Denis Chapel than it is to the other of the day, to depict an arc from east to west as it falls
two buildings with top-apertures. This means that the on different areas in the building and in the course of
quality of the lighting from the base of the dome is the year, to move from one spot to another accordnot only about its position as top-apertures, but rather ing to the height of the sun in the sky. Local light
about the round form of the dome itself, which allows is more static during the day, but is however, still dyit to trap the sun at different angles as the sun moves namic around the year. Such dramatic characteristic of
around it throughout the year and in the course of the instant light plays a very important rule in the visual
day.
interest and the accentuation of the space..
In todays religious building, natural lighting is no
longer
playing any role. The gloomy, but overwhelm6 CONCLUSION
ing, spiritual lighting of the Pantheon and the ByzanThroughout the history, light had a vivid role in reli- tium cathedrals was replaced now with the bright unigious architecture. Spatial structures constructed the form artificial lights. Bringing back the spirit of space
religious environment, while light constructs the spir- through natural light, with its ever-changing qualities
itual experience. The chronological study at the first of intensity, color, shape, location and scenes, as shown
part of this study shows how natural light can be used in this study, is what is needed to bring the spirit back
to cue attention, orientation and modes and how its to religious buildings.
directional characteristic was employed to turn the viStudying the daylight programs at these building,
sual axes from upwards towards the central dome, as as in this paper, provides us with valuable insights,
if heavenward, to frontward towards the sanctuary at which can be applied to contemporary architecture.
the end of the naves.
Among other things, the notion of energy efficient
The study of lighting levels and patterns of sunlight buildings, were lighting effect is maximized to enhance
movements inside the five selected buildings, which the buildings aesthetic schemes, without the need of
are well known for their unique visual experiences, extra brightness or energy exhaustion.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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don, United Kingdom.
produce the light distribution models presented in this LaChiusa, C. (2009). Architecture around the
study (Figure 13).
World. Available at <http://buffaloah.com/
a/virtual/egypt/karnak/hall/index.html> (accessed
03/08/2013).
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