Practice in PHYSICS oF 7 Tl Akrill, Bennet and Millar Gy HODDER EDUCATION £1 HACHETTE UK COMPANYHachette’s policy isto use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and ‘made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are ‘expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin, Orders: please contact Bookpoint Lid, 78 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 48, ‘Telephone: (44) 01236 827720; Fax: (4a) 01235 400454, Lines are open from 9.00-5.00, Monday to Saturday, with # 24 hour message answering service. You can also order through our website ww.hoddereducation.co.uk British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for ths tite is available from the British Library isan 1: 978 0 340 75813 7 First published 2000, Impression number 18 17 16 15 Year 2012 2011 2010 Copyright © 1979, 1994, 2000 Tim Akril, George Bennet, Chris Millar Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form ‘or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Further details of such licences (for reprogrephic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London ECIN &TS, Cover design by Blue Pig Design Co. Mlustrated by Jeff Edwards. ‘Typeset by Multiplex Techniques Ltd, Brook Industrial Park, Mill Brook Road, St, Mary Cray, Kent BRS 3SR., Printed in Great Britain for Hodder Education, an Hachette UK company, 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH by Martins the Printers, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Photo acknowledgments The publishers would lke to thank the following individuals, institutions and companies for permission to reproduce photographs in this book. Evary effort has been made to trace ‘ownership of copyright. The publishers would be happy to make afrangements with any ‘copyright holder whom it has not been possible to contact. Action Plus (14,15, 21, 3, 87}; Andrew Lambert (57); Bl Technologies (59); Corbis (221); Heatrae Sadia (102); Imperial War Museum (202); KWC Watson (129, 193); Melcor (120); Physics Education 7 no. 6, July 1972 (178); PSSC Physics 4th Edition © DC Heath & Co 1978 (174); Private Collection (8, 41); Science Photo Library (84, 134, 162); Techni Measure, TML (241); Vauxhall Motors Lid, (31); The Wellcome Trust (80).OVoanRona W 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 20 21 22 Contents About this book Linear and circular motion Balanced and unbalanced forces Linear momentum Work and energy Electric currents and electrical energy Electrical resistance Circuits and meters Density, pressure and flow Mechanical properties of matter Thermal properties of matter The ideal gas Photons and electrons Radioactivity Nuclear power and nuclear matter Waves Interference patterns Oscillations Capacitance Electromagnetism Inverse square law fields Practising calculations ‘Synoptic questions Answers 12 26 32 56 70 a 38 107 121 130 146 164 174 183 190 200 212 223 239 255ete, About this book... This is a book of questions to help you understand Physics at AS or A Level. None of the questions are from previous examination papers; questions in examination papers are meant to test you at the end of your course or module, What you need during the course is to do questions which will help you to check whether you have understood what you are being taught. ‘That is why we have called this book Practice in Physics. ‘The first edition of this book was originally published in 1979 and it has been in print ever since, We have revised it to take account of the new syllabuses (specifications) for Advanced Level courses from September 2000. Some of the questions test whether you have understood the principles, and a few (very few) should make you think quite hard. These harder questions are indicated by an asterisk (*). At the end of the book there are answers to all the questions (except for one or two where to give the answer would take away any need to think). You will not need to do all the questions! But we hope you enjoy doing most of them because part of the pleasure of doing Physics is to discover that you can get the right answers, showing that you understand the ideas. Chapter 22 contains synoptic questions, i.e. questions which need knowledge and skills from more than one section. Above each question are the numbers of the sections to which the questions relate, These are questions you should attempt near the end of the A Level course. We have also included a chapter of questions (Chapter 21) which will help you elsewhere in the book when you need certain mathematical techniques. Some of these are very general — others will help you with particular chapters. Throughout the book answers are given to the same number (usually 2) of significant figures as the data in the question, but when answers to the later parts of a question depend on the answers to earlier parts, you should use the unrounded figures for the later parts. Tim Ake George Bennet Chris Millar4 1.2 14 15 Linear and circular motion free fall acceleration at the Earth's surface = 9.81 m s® Speed and velocity In this section you will need to use the equation average velocity = AsAr understand that displacement and velocity are vector quantities remember how to measure speed understand that the gradient of a displacement-time graph is the velocity understand that the area between a velocity-time graph and the time axis represents the displacement. Starting from home, a jogger runs 4.0 km (about 2.5 miles). She returns home after 20 minutes. What is (a) her average speed (b) her average velocity? The diagram shows the oil spots left on a road by a motorbike with a leaky sump as the bike travels. — from A to G. Describe the journey, assuming that the drips come at regular time intervals, The diagram shows the movement of a smoke particle in a Brownian motion experiment. {a) Use a ruler to find (i) the total distance moved by the smoke particle in going from A to B the displacement AB. (b) Ifit took 1.20 s to travel from A to B, a calculate (i the average speed the average velocity of the smoke particle. saat ‘What is the change of velocity when fa) +6.0 ms! becomes +15 ms (b) +6.0 ms“ becomes ~15 ms! {e) +6.0 ms becomes — 6.0 ms“! () 5,0 ms east becomes 15 m west? A skier moves at 11.0 ms“! down a 16° slope. What is the skier’s {a) vertical velocity (b) horizontal velocity?"1.6 ww 18 19 1.10 111 B 4.12 ‘The graph shows displacement against time, Describe the motion in as much detail as possible. sim 407 a A swimmer dives in and is timed at various points in a 50 m race. The record is as shown in the table: sim o 5 10 15 20 2 30 35 40 45 50 us 0.0 25 55 11.0 160 220 26.5 320 395 475 560 (a) Plot a graph of s (up) against t (along) and draw a smooth line through the points. {b) Work out the average speed during (i) the first 10 s (i) from 20 s to 35 s (iii) the last 10 s. Suggest why the average speeds are different. {c) Draw a tangent to your curve at t= 20 s and deduce the swimmer’s instantaneous speed then, ‘The diagram has been drawn after studying a stroboscopic photograph of a golf swing, The stroboscope was flashing 50 times per second. (a) Sketch a graph showing how the speed of the head of the golf club varies with time from A to D. (b) Using the scale from the 1.00 m ruler at the bottom of the diagram, ate the speed of the club-head from (i) B to C (ii) P to. Q. (c) Estimate the speed of the golf ball between X and Y. A starting pistol is fired in front of a microphone and the sound is arranged to start an electronic timer which counts in milliseconds. When the sound reaches another ‘microphone 12.0 m away the timer is stopped. Ifthe speed of sound in air is 340 m s~ calculate the time which would be recorded on the timer. In an emergency, you have a reaction time of about 0.6 s. How far would you travel in this time on a bicycle moving at 12 m s“! (ust over 25 m.p-h.)? A speed skier registers an average speed of 233.7 km h™ over a distance of exactly one Kilometre. {a) How long did he take to cover the kilometre? {b) Express his average speed in m How would you use laboratory apparatus to measure the speed of (a) asnail (b) a model train (e) an air rifle pellet?41.13 114 115, 1.16 1 Linear and circular motion Approaching Terminal 3 at Heathrow Airport, passenger P uses the walkway and, having heavy luggage, allows it to take him along. Passenger Q walks alongside the walkway and passenger R walks on it, both walking briskly at 1.2 m s~!, The walkway is 40 m long and moves at 0.80 m s“!. Calculate how long it takes P, Q and R to reach the other end of the walkway. ‘The graph shows the motion of a stone thrown vertically upward. Calculate the ‘maximum height reached by the stone a) by first finding the average velocity of the stone (b) by finding the area under the graph. ums 12 0 2 4 6 8 1 12 Draw a velocity-time graph for a tennis ball which is being volleyed backwards and forwards by two players close to the net. Assume that the ball travels horizontally and perpendicular to the net but that the players hit it so that it travels at a variety of speeds. An ultrasonic displacement sensor is used to study the motion of a trolley sliding down a ramp in the laboratory. The displacement against time data is presented on screen as a graph and then converted to a velocity-time graph as shown. (a) Which graph is stand which is v-t? 2 {b) Explain the relationship between the two graphs. (e) Verify that the computer software has drawn the v-t graph correctly att=2s. 3 mozp40-0 "TE (econ Acceleration along a line In this section you will need to use the equation average acceleration = Av/At understand that the gradient of a velocity-time graph is the acceleration remember how to measure acceleration © understand how to draw graphs for displacement, velocity or acceleration against time when given only one of them use the following equations for uniform accelerat veutat, s=t(utvi/t, s= tat? when 74.17 118, 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 A man, John L. Stapp, travelling in a rocket-powered sledge, accelerated from 0 to 284 ms (about 630 m.p.h.) in 5.0 s and then came to a stop in only 1.5 s. Calculate his acceleration (a) while he is speeding up (b) while he is slowing down. ‘The graph shows, in idealised form, a velocity-time graph for a typical short journey. {a) Calculate the acceleration at each stage of the journey and display your answers on an acceleration-time graph. (b) Sketch a displacement-time graph for this journey. um s* 39) 20 10} 10 20 30 4 te A baby buggy rolls down a ramp which is 15 m long. It starts from rest, accelerates uniformly, and takes 5.0 s to reach the bottom. {a) Calculate its average velocity as it moves down the ramp. {b) What is its velocity at the bottom of the ramp? {c) What is its acceleration down the ramp? One type of aeroplane has a maximum acceleration on the ground of 3.5 ms, (a) For how many seconds must it accelerate along a runway in order to reach its take-off speed of 115 m s-!? (b) What is the minimum length of runway needed to reach this speed? A particle moves in a straight line, Its motion can be described as follows: att=0,0= 0 sox102n 0.609 @ en 2.29 Calculate the extra force, in size and direction, which would need to be added to each of the situations above in order to produce an acceleration of 2.0 m s~ to the right for every object. 2.30 Two women push a car of mass 800 kg to get it started. Each pushes with a force of 300 N and the resistance forces are equivalent to an opposing force of 160 N. What is the acceleration of the car? 2.31 A person is unlikely to be killed in a car crash if, held by a seatbelt, he or she accelerates at -250 m s or less. (a) What is the pull exerted by a seatbelt on (i) a man of mass 84 kg (i) a child of mass 32 kg, at this maximum safe cit acceleration? me {b) Express your answers to (a) as a multiple of the person’s weight. 2.32 A tractor pulls a log of mass 2000 kg. When the tractor is pulling with a force of 1300 N the acceleration of the log is 0.050 m s~®. What resistance force does the ground exert on the log? we2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 Superman slams head-on into a train speeding along at 30 ms“, bringing it to rest in an amazing 0.010 s and saving Lois Lane, who was tied to the tracks ahead of the train. (a) What is the acceleration of the train? (b) If the train’s mass is 200 tonnes (2.0 X 10° kg), what is the push which Superman exerts on the train? Jn one 10 minute interval during the Apollo 11 flight to the Moon the spacecraf’s speed decreased from 5374 m s to 5102 ms"'(with the rocket motors not in use). The mass of the space craft was 4.4 x 10! kg. Calculate the average force exerted on the spacecraft during this time, A free-body force diagram fora rear wheel drive car is shown in the diagram (a) Write a phrase describing each of the forces $ and T. (b) How are S and Trelated when the car is moving (i) ata constant velocity v with constant acceleration a? @ QD (e) Describe what happens to the forces $ and Twhen the driver applies the brakes and P slows the car down. A packing case of mass 50 kg rests on a rough horizontal floor. The surface is such that the maximum frictional force which the floor can exert on the case is 0.40 times the Perpendicular contact force. Describe what happens when someone pushes horizontally on the packing case with a force of (a) 98 N. (b) 196N (ce) 294N. Just after the gun a sprinter of mass 65 kg is pushing against the starting block with a force of 800 N. This force acts at an angle of 65° to the horizontal, Calculate (a) (i) the resultant horizontal force acting on her (ii) the resultant vertical force acting on her (b) Gi) the forward acceleration of her centre of gravity (ii) the upward acceleration of her centre of gravity. An articulated lorry consists of a tractor unit of mass 4.0 tonnes and a trailer of mass. 26 tonnes. The lorry accelerates at 0.20 m s~*, (a) Ignoring all resistive forces calculate (i) the forward push of the road on the driving wheels of the tractor unit ii) the forward pull of the tractor unit on the trailer. (b) Draw separate free-body force diagrams for the tractor and trailer. Which pair of forces are equal because of Newton’s third law? A sprinter of mass 60 kg reaches her top speed of 12 ms“ in the first 15 m of her run. (a) Calculate her average acceleration during this process (b) Hence calculate the horizontal force (assumed to be constant) which the ground has been exerting on her. {e) What size horizontal force has she been exerting on the ground? Explain,2.40 241 2.42 2.43 2.44 2 Balanced and unblanced forces Explain how, in the laboratory, you would demonstrate that the acceleration of a body is inversely proportional to its mass for a fixed resultant force. State how you would process and present any measurements so as to achieve the aim of the demonstration. A javelin thrower accelerates a javelin of mass 0.80 kg from 5.5 m s“! to 31.5 ms“! in 0.30 s. What average pull does he exert on the javelin? The table gives data for a skydiver during the frst phase of the jump: time from start of jump/s o 3.0 60 90 vertical velocity/m s-! 0 28 46 53 vertical acceleration/m s~ 98 79 4.0 1.0 ‘The skydiver has a mass of 85 kg. (a) Calculate at each of these four times (i) the resultant force on the skydiver Gi) the upward push of the air on the skydiver. (b) Draw four free-body force diagrams showing the forces acting on the skydiver at each time, Draw the force arrows (vectors) in proportion to the size of the forces. Add the velocity of the skydiver at each time to your diagrams. (c) Explain why itis not sensible to say that a skydiver isa free-fall parachutist A lift has a mass of 1200 kg. Calculate the tension in the cable supporting the lift when the lift is {a) ascending at a constant velocity (b) ascending with an upward acceleration of 2.0 ms (c)_ descending with a downward acceleration of 3.0 ms? (d) descending with an upward acceleration of 3.0 m 2, The table gives the results of a standing-start acceleration test for a car of mass 1100 kg. Ee San ig sins eccrleration teat for'a.ca ds 0 2 4 6 8 w 12 vms! 0 9 15 195 23 26 29 (a) Draw a graph of its speed v against time t. (b) Estimate the resultant force acting on the car when its speed was (i) 15 m 5! Gi) 25 ms". [Hint: you will have to draw tangents to your graph.] Ba2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 The diagram shows a trampolinist at the bottom of her jump where she is instantaneously stationary. Her mass is 65 kg and her upward acceleration at this instant is 85 ms, Calculate the upward push of the trampoline on her at this instant. The flea in question 1.25 has a mass of 0.50 mg and its take-off acceleration is 800 m s-2. Calculate the average push of the ground on the flea as it jumps, A boy catches a cricket ball of mass 160 g which is moving at 20 m s7! (a) Find the force which he must exert to stop it in (i) 0.10 s (ii) 0.50 s. (b) Describe how he can vary the time in this way, and explain the advantage of lengthening the time in which the ball is stopped. (c) Describe two other situations (as different as possible from this one) in which care is taken to lengthen the time in which a moving object is brought to rest. The diagram shows a block on a horizontal frictionless table. A thread attached to it runs horizontally to a pulley at the edge of the table, passes over the pulley, and supports a load of mass 1.0 kg, The size of the acceleration of both the block and the load is 2.0 m 2 (a) Draw free-body force diagrams for the block (ii) the load, labelling as T the pull of the thread on each of these bodies. (b) Use the free-body force diagram for the load to find the size of T. (e) Now use the free-body force diagram for 1.0kg the block to find the mass of the block. A pendulum bob hangs by a thread from the roof of a railway carriage. Describe and explain, using free-body force diagrams for the pendulum bob, what happens to the bob when the train is (2) accelerating forwatds (b) moving at a constant velocity (¢) slowing down. For (a) make any possible calculations if the train acceleration is 0,80 m s~>. Three boxes in contact are being pushed along a system of rollers. The two outer boxes cach have a mass of 140 kg and the middle box has a mass of 80 kg. The single pushing force is 220 N. By drawing suitable free-body force diagrams, calculate {a) the acceleration of the boxes (b) the push of each of the outer boxes on the middle box. In the diagram the dashed line shows the weight of a parachutist as she falls: her weight is constant. The solid line shows the size of the air resistance (drag) force on her (and her parachute, when open) as she moves downwards. She opens her parachute at time f).2.52 2.53 2.54 2.55 2.56 2.57 2 Balanced and unblanced forces (a) Explain the shape of the graph. (b) Sketch a graph to show the variation of her acceleration with time, ‘A man of mass 65 kg stands on a weighing machine in a lift which has a downwards acceleration of 3.0 m s~, What is the reading on the weighing machine? Make it clear at what stage you need to use Newton's third law and explain why it does not matter whether the lift is moving up or down. Centripetal forces In this section you will need to understand that the resultant force acting on a body moving in a circle at a constant speed is directed towards the centre of the circle draw free-body force diagrams and use Newton's second law in the form mv*{r = Fre, for uniform circular motion. A particle moves in a circular path at a constant speed, Draw a diagram of the path, mark the position of the particle at some point on the path and, for that point, show the direction of {a) its velocity (Ib) its acceleration (e) the resultant force on it. A sprinter of mass 70 kg is cornering at 9.4 m s~! during a 200 m race. (a) Calculate the centripetal force needed to corner at this speed ifthe radius of the bend is 38 m. (b) What provides this centripetal force? Sketch a free-body force diagram for the sprinter seen from the front. Refer to question 1.56 and take the mass of the ball to be 7.3 kg, Calculate the pull of the ball on the wire, assuming that the weight of the ball is negligible. A child of mass 30 kg is playing on a swing, Her centre of mass is 3.2 m below the supports when she moves through the bottom of her swing at 6.0 m s"!, (a) Draw a free-body force diagram for the child at this moment. (b) Calculate (i) her centripetal acceleration (ii) the push of the seat of the swing on her, In the free-body force diagram, over the page, for a bicycle and cyclist seen from the front the push of the road on him has been resolved into two components: N the normal contact push of the ground on him and F the frictional push of the ground on him. (a) The total mass of cyclist plus bicycle is 95 kg. Explain why N= 930 N. (b) He is moving at 18 m sin a circle of radius 50 m. Calculate F. (ce) What is (i) the resultant force acting on the bicycle and cyclist (ii) the resultant push of the ground on him? 232.58 2.59 2.60 2.61 iar The designer of an amusement park ride wants a centripetal acceleration of 19.6 ms? at the top of a loop of radius 7.0 m. (6) Calculate the minimum speed he must ensure the car has at the top of the loop. (b) The free-body force diagram for the car shows the two forces acting on it at the top of the loop. The resultant centripetal force is P + W. (i) Describe the two forces as the push or pull of something on the car. (i) Calculate Wand P for a car of mass 400 kg. a A car of mass 900 kg is driven over a hump-backed bridge at a speed of 18 ms. The road surface of the bridge forms part of a circular arc of radius 50 m. {a) Draw a free-body force diagram for the car when it ison top of the bridge. {b) Calculate the push of the road on the car then. (c) What isthe greatest speed at which the car may be driven over the bridge if its wheels are not to lose contact with the road? Draw a sketch of a man of mass 75.0 kg standing on a weighing machine (a pair of scales calibrated in newtons) at the Earth’s equator where, because the Barth is rotating, he has a centripetal acceleration of 0.034 m s, (a) What is Ue pull of the Earth on him? Take gto be 9.780 N kg", (b) Draw a free-body diagram for the man and add the forces acting on him. {e) Calculate the push of the weighing machine on him. (4) What will the weighing machine record as his weight? Explain in words why this is not equal to mg. ‘A metal bob is whirled on the end of a string once every second as shown in the diagram. A free-body force diageam for the bob is also shown.2.62* 2.63" 2 Balanced and unblanced force: (a) Calculate (i) the radius of the circle in which it is moving (ii) its constant speed vas it moves round the circle the size of its centripetal acceleration a. (b) The bob has a mass of 0.20 kg, Calculate (i) the size of the centripetal force needed to produce the acceleration the pull T of the string on the bob, o20kgf = —pa The free-body force diagram shows a racing car of mass 800 kg moving in a circle of radius 300 m on a track banked at an angle @ = 26°. Pand Frepresent the total perpendicular contact force and the total frictional force of the track on the car. (a) Ata certain speed v, the frictional force Fis zero. For this speed, calculate (i) the size of the force P (ii) the value of v. (b) Explain how the direction of the force F depends on the speed of the car for speeds greater and less than v. An aeroplane of mass 1m is moving at a constant speed v in a horizontal circle of radius r. It does this by banking at an angle 6 to the horizontal. The diagram is a free-body force diagram for the plane. Show that v = v(rgtan@ ). Pe m9 Other exercises on particles moving in circles appear in Chapter 19 on electromagnetism and in Chapter 20 on inverse square law fields. 25Linear momentum Conservation of linear momentum In this section you will need to Fenfember that linear momentum, defined as mass times velocity, isa vector quantity Understand that linear momentum is conserved in collisions and explosions provided no external forces act during the interaction draw sketches when applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum UMbich show what is happening immediately before and after an interneng 3.1 What is the momentum of (a) a boy of mass 50 kg running round a track at constant speed of 3.0 m s~! at the moment when he is () moving to the north (ii) moving to the south (b) a car of mass 800 kg moving east at a speed of 25 ms! (6) an oil tanker of mass 250.000 tonnes which is moving west ata speed of 20ms2 3.2 Explain why, when a stationary object explodes into two pieces, (a) the pieces move off in opposite directions {®) the piece with the smaller mass moves off with the grater speed. 3.3 The unit for momentum, kg m s-1, can also be written as N s, i.e. newton times second. Explain why these units are equivalent. 3-4 Calculate the unknown velocity vin the following collisions between two trolleys seen from above. The diagrams show what is happening before and alter the collision in each case. @ ©) © — 12s" _atrest —>20ms" osmst — >30ms" _atrost 20Kg 10g Gor) 10K] [40%0 — > mst se stmt 20kg 1.0kg 101g .0K9)) 10K] [40Kg 3.5 A woman of mass 60 kg steps out of a canoe of mass 40 kg onto the river bank, (2) Ifshe steps out ata speed of 2.0 ms", what happens to the canoe? (b) Can she step out without the canoe recoiling?3.6 37 38 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3 Linear momentum ‘Two air-track gliders are at rest with a spring compressed between them. A thread tied to each prevents them moving apart. When the thread is burned, one glider moves away with a speed of 0.32 m s“!, and the other moves in the opposite direction with a speed of 0.45 m s“. If the first glider has a mass of 0.40 kg, what is the mass of the other? ‘An army rifle fires an 11 g bullet with a muzzle speed of 880 m s"!. (a) Draw diagrams of the rifle and bullet before and after the explosion. (b) If the rifle has a mass of 3.2 kg, with what speed does it recoil? In the diagram two trolleys are at rest and are then ‘exploded’ by the release of a spring- loaded piston or plunger at the front of one of them. Each trolley has a mass of 1.0 kg, but one carries a block of unknown mass m. The result of the explosion is also shown. Calculate m. A a = cone sts HE A rugby player of mass 70 kg, running south at 6.0 m s“, tackles another player whose mass is 85 kg and who is running directly towards him at a speed of 4.0 ms“. If in the tackle they cling together, what will be their common velocity immediately after the tackle? A loaded supermarket trolley was rolled towards a stationary stack of five empty trolleys. ‘After colliding and linking to them it was noticed that the speed of the six trolleys was half the speed of the loaded trolley. An unloaded trolley has a mass of 8.0 kg, Calculate the mass of the goods in the loaded trolley. A bullet of mass 10 g is fired into a block of wood of mass 200 g and becomes embedded in it. Ifthe speed of the bullet was 500 m s“, what is the speed of the block immediately after the impact? When a bullet hits a ‘baddie’ in the chest in a TV western, he sometimes slumps forward. ‘Asa physics student you know he ought to jerk backwards. Explain why. An a-particle is emitted from a polonium nucleus at a speed of 1.8 X 10’ ms“. The relative masses of the o.-particle and the remaining part of the nucleus are 4.002 and 212.0. Calculate the recoil speed of the nucleus. ‘The graph on the next page shows how the momentum of two colliding railway trucks varies with time, Truck A has a mass of 20 tonnes (20000 kg) and truck B has a mass of 30 tonnes. (a) What is the change of momentum of (i) truck A (ii) truck B? (b) Calculate (i) the initial velocities (i) the final velocities of the two trucks, (e) Calculate the total momentum of the two trucks at #/s = 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and comment on your answers.3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 mmutio? kg ms 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 ts (a) Body A of mass 3.0 kg has a velocity of +4.0 ms" and collides head-on with a body B, which has a mass of 2.0 kg and a velocity of -2.0 ms, After the collision the velocity of B is found to be +3.0 m s“, Find the velocity of A. (b) Sketch a graph to show how the momentum of the two bodies varies with time before and after the collision. A pair of skaters such as those shown in question 2.6 are together moving across the ice at a speed of 6.0 ms“. The man has a mass of 80 kg and the woman a mass of 60 kg. They push each other apart along their line of motion so that after they separate the man is moving in the same direction at 4.0 m s-. What is the woman skater’s new velocity? Explain how you would use air track gliders to demonstrate the validity of the principle of conservation of linear momentum. How would you measure the speeds of the gliders? ‘Two boys stand a few metres apart om a long flat boat — a punt. One throws a heavy ‘medicine ball to the other, who catches it. Describe what happens to a) the speed of the punt (b) the position of the punt on the water during each of the three phases — throwing/ball in air/catching — of the process. Discuss how momentum is conserved when a) a train accelerates from rest (b) a ball falls to the ground and bounces up again. There are some further questions on collisions and explosions in Section 4.4. Force and rate of change of momentum In this section you will need to remember that the impulse of a force is calculated as the average force times the time for which the force acts use the impulse-momentum equation FAt = A(mb) understand that Newton’s third law applies at every instant of an interaction use Newton’s second law in the form rate of change of = resultant force momentum of a body acting on the body3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3 Linear momentum ‘What is the impulse of the forces in the following situatio {a) a man pulling a garden roller to the East with a horizontal force of 300 N for 10 s (b) a rock of weight 20 N. moving vertically downwards for 5.0 5 (c) a hammer hitting a nail with a vertical force of 800 N for 0.60 ms? A tennis ball of mass 58 g is moving horizontally, at right angles to the net, with a speed of 20 ms. A player hits it straight back so that it leaves his racket with a speed of 25 ms, What is (a) the size of the change of momentum of the ball (b) the impulse of the force which the racket exerts on the ball? A stationary snooker ball of mass 0.21 kg is struck by a cue which exerts an average horizontal force of 70 N on it. The cue is in contact with the ball for 8.0 ms. Calculate the speed of the ball after the impact. ‘The graph shows how a varying force acts on a body. {a) Calculate the impulse of the force for the first 2.0 s. (b) Calculate the impulse of the force from 2.0 s to 6.0 s. (c) Estimate the impulse of the force from 6.0 s to 9.0 s. FIN 50 0 3 10 th (a) Calculate the average force exerted by a golf club on a golf ball of mass 46 g, ifthe ball leaves the club at a speed of 80 ms and the contact between the club and the ball lasts for 0.50 ms. Suggest an object which would have a weight approximately equal to this force. (b) Sketch a graph to show how the force on the golf club might vary with time. Add scales to both axes, The diagram shows how the push of a tennis racket on a tennis ball of mass 58 g varies with time. (a) Estimate the change of momentum of the ball. (b) Hence estimate the speed of the ball assuming it was at rest when it was struck, (c) What is the maximum acceleration of the ball? force ‘000 29FN 800 3.26 The diagrams show two strides for a sprinter during a 100 m race together with graphs showing how the horizontal push of the ground on the sprinter varies with time during each stride, (a) Explain why the area under the graph represents the change of momentum of the sprinter during each stride. (b) For stride A estimate this change of momentum and hence deduce the increase in velocity of the sprinter if he has a mass of 80 kg, (c) Describe what is happening to the sprinter during stride B. (4) Sketch a graph of the horizontal push of the ground on the sprinter for a stride after the end of the race during which he is slowing down, fSA |) Ads FN 8007 rE 7 20) 400 3.27 _ Use the impulse-momentum equation to explain why a rubber-headed hammer is not as good for driving nails into a block of wood as a hammer with a head made of metal, even if both hammers have the same mass. 3.28 See question 3.14, (a) What is the physical significance of the slope of these momentum-time graphs? (b)_ Use the graph to calculate (i) the force which truck A exerts on truck B (ii) the force which truck B exerts on truck A. (c) Comment on your answers to (b). 3.29 The diagram shows two free-body force diagrams, one for a man and one for the Earth. ‘The man has just jumped off a wall and landed on the ground. {a) Describe the forces P and P’ (b) Pand P’ vary with time as shown. Explain the shapes of the two graphs and state how they are related. (e) Copy the P-t graph and indicate on it the size of the force W.3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34* 3 Linear momentum A railway wagon of mass 10 tonnes is seen to be moving at a speed of 2.0 m s! to the right. After 3.0 sit collides with another wagon of mass 40 tonnes moving at a speed of 1.0 ms" to the right. They link after the collision and move on to the right at the same velocity. (1 tonne = 1000 kg.) (a) Calculate their common velocity after the collision, {b) Draw a graph of momentum against time for the period 1 =0 to t= 75s if the collision took 1.0 s, i, from 3.0 s to 4.0 s. Assume that during the collision the ‘momentum of each wagon changes uniformly with time. {e) Calculate the gradient, with units, of the two graphs during the collision. The diagram shows a car being used to test seat-belts when crashing into a solid concrete block at 20 m s~!. For a car of mass 1600 kg the average stopping force is 640 kN. Calculate how long it takes for the car to come to rest in this crash, ‘The push F of a horizontal water jet hitting a wall can be calculated as F= v?Ap, where vis the speed of the water, A is the cross-sectional area of the jet and p is the density of water. Show that the unit of the right hand side of the equation is N. 70 kg of air pass through an aircraft jet engine every second. The exhaust speed of the air is 600 m s“! greater than the intake speed. Calculate (a) the change of momentum of the air in one second {(b) the force exerted on the air to change its momentum in this way {e) the thrust produced by four such engines. Gas molecules, each of mass 4.8 X 10-% kg, collide with a flat surface. The average speed of the molecules perpendicular to the surface is 550 ms" both before and after they collide with (a) Calculate the change of momentum of a molecule as a result of one collision. {b) Ifthe force on a square millimetre of the surface is 0.10 N, how many molecules collide with that square millimetre every second? (e) What pressure is produced by this molecular bombardment? 31(A 44 42 43 Work and energy gravitational field strength g = 9.81 N kg Work In this section you will need to remember that work, energy and power are all scalar quantities express units, e.g. the joule, in base units use the equation for work done by a constant force: work done by a force = the force times the distance moved in the direction of the force understand that the work done by a force can, in certain circumstances, be zero or have a negative value understand how to calculate the work done by a variable force by using the average value of the force understand that doing work on a body alters its energy. ‘To cut a lawn, Mum has to push a lawnmower 80 m. (a) Ifher average horizontal push on the mower is 100 N, how much work does she do on the lawnmower? (b) As the mower has no kinetic energy when she has finished the task, how much work is done on the lawnmower by frictional forces? ‘Two tugs pull a large vessel which has lost power: The tension in each cable is 36 KN. {a) Resolve each cable pull into forces parallel to and perpendicular to the motion, {b) How much work is done in pulling the vessel 2.0 km by (i) the forces parallel to the direction of motion (ii) the forces perpendicular to the direction of motion? Sz During the first 0.60 m of the lift, a heavyweight weightlifter produced an upward pull on the barbell of 3800 N. (a) If the mass of the barbell was 240 kg, calculate (i) the work done by the weightlifter on the barbell (ii) the work done by the pull of the Earth on the barbell. {b) Draw an energy flow or Sankey diagram for this lift. What can you deduce about the barbell after it has been raised 0.60 m?44 45 46 a7 48 49 4 Work and energy A dog pulls on a lead with a force of 25 N. Calculate the work done by the dog as it moves 10 m along the pavement when (a) the lead makes an angle of 15° to the horizontal (b) the lead makes an angle of 40° to the horizontal. How much work is done by the person holding the lead in each case? {a) Draw a free-body force diagram for a block of mass 6.0 kg which is being pulled across a rough horizontal table by a horizontal force of 30 N. The maximum frictional force which the table can exert on the block is 20 N. (b) What is the work done by each of the forces in a horizontal displacement of 0.80 m? A skier is being pulled up a 20° slope by a drag lift. The pulling wire is at an angle of 15° to the slope and the forces acting on the skier are: the pull of the drag lift wire, P= 320 N the perpendicular contact push of the snow, N= 620 N the frictional push of the snow, F= 53 N the pull of the Earth, W= 750 .N. (a) Calculate the work done by each force on the skier as she is dragged 30 m up the slope. (b) Hence show that the total work done on the skier is zero, How much work is done by the pull of the Earth on the Moon as the Moon completes one orbit round the Earth? (Pull of Earth on Moon = 2.0 X 10°°N, radius of Moon's orbit = 3.8 X 108 m.) A simple pendulum consists of a thread 700 mm long and a bob of mass 60 g. The bob is Pulled aside until its vertical height above its lowest position is 20 mm, and is then released. (a) What is the size ofthe pull of the Earth on the bob? Draw a free-body force diagram for the bob when it is moving, (b) Calculate the work done by each of the forces on the bob while it moves from its point of release to its lowest point ii) it moves from its lowest point to its extreme position on the other side. A spring of constant stiffness 40 N mr is fixed at one end. A man pulls the other end horizontally.4.10 aa 4.42 4.13 (a) How much work does he do in stretching the spring (i) 0.20 m from its unstretched position (ii) 0.40 m from its unstretched position? {b) Explain why the answer to (i) is not twice the answer to (ti). (a) Draw a sketch graph of the force F required to stretch a simple (Hooke’s law) spring against its extension x for a spring on an exercise machine which stretches 0.80 m with a force of 80 N. (b) Calculate the work done in stretching the spring (i) from 0 to 0.20 m (ii) from 0.20 m to 0.40m (i (iv) from 0.60 m to 0.80 m. from 0.40 m to 0.60 m The graph shows how the Moon’s gravitational pull F on a lunar lander varies with the distance h from the Moon's surface. Estimate the work done by the pull of the Moon on the lunar lander as it approaches the lunar surface from a height of 200 km. Explain how you made your estimate. FAN 3.8 36) 34 aa] 3.0) Power In this section you will need to use the equations for power: P= W/tand P= Fu where Wis the work done or energy transferred understand that although energy is always conserved, the effect of transferring energy is nearly always to produce some which is effectively wasted remember that the efficiency of energy (or power) transfer is defined as the useful energy (or power) output divided by the total energy (or power) input draw energy flow diagrams (Sankey diagrams) to illustrate energy transfer processes. The data give the rate at which energy is used by a typical advanced-level student in some common activities, Sleeping 40w Sitting 80W Standing 120W Walking 250 W Running 600 W Eating 170W Estimate (a) the energy you use in a day (b) the heating power of a class of 15 students. (a) A man digging a trench converts energy at a rate of about 1200 W. He could not keep this up for long, but if he could, how much work would he do in a working day of 8 hours?4.14 4.15 4.16 4.47 4.18 4.19 4.20 421 4 Work and energy (b) Electrical energy is available at a cost of about 10 p per KW h (kilowatt-hour). {i)_ Show that a kilowatt-hour is equivalent to 3.6 MJ. (ii) Calculate the cost of the electrical energy equal to the work done by the man and discuss the result of your calculation, ‘Write the units of these expressions in terms of base units: (a) work ~ time (b) force x speed. Calculate the average power of (a) Mum in question 4.1, if she cuts the lawn in 5 minutes (b) the weightlifter in question 4.3, if he achieves the first 0.60 m of his lift in 0.32 s, A motor drives a pulley which lifts a box of mass 5.0 kg at a steady speed of 2.0 m ‘What is the power output of the motor? A piano of mass 300 kg is being lifted to a window 12 m above the ground using a system of pulleys and a diesel motor. (a) If the motor has a power output of 800 W, how long will it take to raise the piano to the window? {b) How much chemical energy is converted by the motor during the lift if its efficiency is 20%? (c) The diagram is an unlabelled Sankey diagram for this process. Copy the diagram and label it to describe the lifting of the piano. 2S ‘A man does 20 press-ups (ie. lying on his front, he straightens his arms to lift his shoulders from the ground while keeping his body straight) in 50 s, Estimate the power output of the muscles he is using, A hang glider and pilot have a combined mass of 92 kg. In flight, the glider moves forward at 20 ms“ and sinks, ie. moves vertically downwards, at 1.2 m s!, {a) Calculate the work done by the pull of the Earth on the hang glider in one minute. (b) Explain what happens to this energy. (c) What rate of working would be needed to maintain level flight? ‘The world reserves of geothermal energy are estimated to be about 4.5 X 1025 J, Of these reserves only 2% is hot enough for use in the generation of electricity and a maximum of a quarter of this is expected to be recoverable using existing methods of extraction, The conversion efficiency would be as low as 3% ‘The present consumption of energy in the world is about 2 x 10?° J per year. Discuss whether geothermal energy could make a significant contribution to this consumption. ‘The power of the electric motor of a locomotive unit pulling a train at a constant speed of 50 m sis 2.5 MW. What is the total resistance force on the train? 354.22 4.23 424° 4.25 ‘The diagram, a Sankey diagram, shows the power transfers ina car moving at a steady speed of 18 ms along a level road. (2) What percentage of the energy available from the petrol is transferred (i) to internal energy in the engine (ii) to internal energy overall? (6) Calculate the effective frictional force opposing the motion of the car produced by (i) the air (i) the wheels. 66.0 kW ESSSSSEFWY ay input road friction 4skW transmission al irletion losses35kW 6.0KW engine losses The power output P of a windmill can be expressed as P= kApv? uyhere A isthe area swept out by the windmill blades (sails), p is the density of at, vis the wind speed and kis a dimensionless constant, (a) Show that the units on both sides of this expression are the same. {b) Sketch a graph to show how the power increases with wind speed as v rises from zero to 15 ms“, A:student looks up a formula for the power P in a sea wave. He finds P/= khpgu qfhere Kis a dimensionless constant, pis the density of sea water, his the amplitude of Re wave (its height), ¢ the Earth’s gravitational field strength, v the wave speed and the length of the wave being considered. Show that the student must have copied the equation down wrongly and guess what the correct equation, which differs only in that one of the terms on the right must be squared, would look like The radiation received from the Sun at the Earth’s surface in Great Britain is about 600 W m’? averaged over 8 hours in the absence of cloud. (a) What area of solar panel would be needed to replace a power station of 2.0 GW utp i the solar panels used could convert solar radiation to electrical energy at an efficiency of 20%2 (b) What percentage is this area of the total area of Great Britain (which is ahout 3 10" m?)z {c) Ifthe total power station capacity is about 140 GW, what percentage of the surface of Great Britain would be covered by solar panels if all the power stations were replaced?4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4 Work and energy Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy In this section you will need to use the kinetic energy (Ke) of a body calculated as 4nrv? use the work-energy equation Fs = A(4mu2) understand that changes in gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.) close to the Earth’s surface are calculated as mgh where his the vertical displacement use A(+mv") = mgh in the simplified form v? = 2gh for bodies released from rest in the Earth's gravitational field. {a) The lift in one of the world’s tallest buildings rises 400 m from ground level to the observatory on top of the building. What is the gain in g.p.e. of a passenger in the lift who has a mass of 80 kg? {b) The speed of the lift is about 6.5 ms“. Calculate his k.e. while rising up the building, Estimate the kinetic energy of (2) a tennis ball which has just been served [Tennis balls have a mass of 8 g.] (b) a rifle bullet [The speed will be less than the speed of sound.] {e) a world class sprinter (d) a family car on a motorway. (70 m.p.h, isa little more than 30 ms") A hockey ball is held 2.0 m above the ground and has 3.2 J of g.p.. It is then dropped. (a) How much ke. does it have just before it hits the ground? (b) Te bounces off the ground and is found to have 0.5 J of ke. as it leaves the ground. ‘How much internal energy has been transferred in the bounce? (c) When it was momentarily at rest on the ground it had no ke. and no g.p.e, yet a moment later it had 0.5 J of k.e. Where did this energy come from? (d) How much g.p.. will it have when it is at the top of its first bounce? The energy for a ‘grandfather’ clock is stored in a heavy cylinder. The cylinder, of mass 4.8 kg, gradually transfers gp. to keep the pendulum of the clock swinging as the cylinder descends 1.2 m in seven days. Calculate the power transfer during the descent. The gradient of a road is 1 in 6, ie. it rises vertically 1.0 m for every 6.0 m along the road. During a mountain stage of the Tour de France a cyclist travels 1200 m along the road at an average speed of 6.5 ms“. The mass of the cyclist and bicycle is 78 kg. (a) Calculate the gain of g.p.e. of the cyclist and bicycle. {b) What is the average output power of the cyclist? To push-start a car on a winter's morning (its battery is flat), two people each push with a force of 300 N. After pushing for 15 m the car’s engine starts. Ifat that moment the car’s kinetic energy is 7500 J, calculate a) the work done by the push of the people on the car (b) the work done by frictional forces on the car. Draw an energy flow or Sankey diagram for this process. 374.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 The figure shows experiments to compare the power outputs of different sets of muscles in the body. Suppose that the bodyweight of both the boy and the girl is 600 N. Her step-up distance is 25 cm and his pull-up lifts his centre of mass 35 cm. She does 24 step-ups in 50 s and could go on easily; he does 8 pull-ups in 30 s and is exhausted. ‘What are the power outputs of (a) the girl and (b) the boy in these exercises? (a) A car of mass 800 kg reaches a speed of 20 m s“ ina distance of 100 m, as a result of the pistons in the engine doing internal work. What constant external force would have been needed to do the same amount of work? {b) If the motor is then switched off, and frictional forces equivalent to a constant horizontal force of 200 N act on it, in what distance will it come to rest? A.car which has a mass of 1200 kg is moving at a speed of 18 ms“ (ie. about 40 mp.h.). On a dry day the maximum braking force is 8500 N. (a) In what distance can it stop? (b) On a wet day the braking force is halved. In what distance can it then stop? (e) If the car is travelling at 27 ms! (ie. about 60 m.p.h.) on a wet day, in what distance can it stop? A climber of mass 70 kg falls vertically off a cliff. She is attached to a rope which allows her to fll freely for 20 m. Then it becomes taut, but stretches, bringing her to rest in a farther 4.0 m. An energy flow diagram for this accident would show g.p.e. being converted to ke. while she is falling freely and, while she is being slowed down, the ke. plus some more g,p.., being converted to internal energy in the rope. Assume there is no elastic energy stored in the rope at the end of her fall. {a) Draw an energy flow or Sankey diagram for this fall, attaching numerical values for changes in ke. and g,p.. (b) Calculate the added internal energy in the rope, and the average force exerted on the climber by the rope. The figure shows an energy flow diagram. Suggest a process to which it might refer, giving numerical information where possible. (Remember g = 9.81 N kg“) a es tone Lael oy 3.82) Teg 8 [ete, internal Q) energy 29434.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 441 4.42 4 Work and ergy A cticket ball, of mass 0.16 kg, is thrown from the boundary to the wicket keeper. The thrower gives it $0 J of kinetic energy and it reaches a maximum height of 12 m above his arm. Calculate (a) the speed at which the ball was thrown (b) the ke, of the ball at its maximum height (6) the speed of the ball at its maximum height. During a human heart beat, 20 g of blood are pushed into the main arteries, This blood is accelerated from a speed of 0.20 m sto 0.34 m s“ For a heart pulsing at 70 beats per minute, calculate the average power of the heart pump. In order to demonstrate the principle of conservation of energy, a teacher attaches a trolley of mass 1.0 kg to a 50 g mass with a piece of string. Using a pulley attached to the edge of the laboratory bench, as shown in the diagram, he allows the 50 g mass to accelerate the trolley along the bench and measures both the gain of ke. of the trolley and the loss of g.p.e. of the 50 g mass. (a) Explain how you would measure the two energies. It is found that the loss of g.p.e. is 10% greater than the gain of ke. measured. (b) Suggest why this is so and draw an energy flow or Sankey diagram for the experiment. trolley 150g mass TITTTITIITTT: TTOTTTTTTT TTT An object of mass 300 g falls from rest for 2.5 m in a vacuum. (a) Calculate its final speed. ‘When it fell in air its final speed was 6.8 m =“, (b) How much work was then done on it by air resistance? (6) Calculate the average resistive force. A baby drops a glass from a high chair onto a vinyl covered floor. The glass will probably break if t hits the floor at a speed of more than 3 ms", Suppose the glass has a mass of 160 g and the chair’ tray is 1.0 m above the ground. Calculate (a) the loss of g.p.e. of the glass in falling to the ground b) the ke. of the glass as it hits the ground. {c) Hence decide whether the glass will break and discuss whether it ‘matters what the mass of the glass is. A trampolinist falls vertically from a height of 3.0 ms on the rebound she rises to a height of 3.5 m. (a) Discuss the energy changes and draw an energy flow ot Sankey diagram for the process. (b) Calculate her speeds (i) as she reaches the trampoline mat on the way down (ii) as she leaves the trampoline mat on the way up. ag4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.49 Describe in detail how you would measure the percentage of elastic energy stored in a catapult which is transferred to the ke. of a stone when the catapult is fired. A high-jumper of mass 80 kg reaches the end of his run-up with 2100 J of ke. At take-off he drives off the ground, adding 800 J to his ke. Stating any assumptions you make, estimate a) the speed of the high-jumper at the end of his run-up (b) the height of the bar which he could clear if his ke. atthe top of his jump is 1700 J. A skydiver of mass 70 kg reaches a speed of 45 m s~! after falling 150 m. By finding the loss of gp.e and the gain of ke. determine the work done on the skydiver by the push of the air and hence find the average vertical push of the air on him during the first 150 m of his fall. A supermarket trolley of total mass 22 kg is pushed up a ramp with a force of 14 N. The ramp is 5.5 m long and rises 0.35 m. Take g = 10 N Kg", (2) Calculate (i) the work done by the shopper (ii) the gain in g.p.. of the trolley. (b) Ifthe speed ofthe trolley was 1.0 ms at the bottom of the ramp, what is its speed at the top? During the night, when power to the grid is not required, 250 MW of electrical energy are used to pump water from a reservoir up to a lake 300 m higher: The efficiency of the pumping system is 95%, {a) Calculate the mass of water which can be pumped to the lake in two hours (b) What volume of water is this? Express this volume as an increase in depth of a lake which measures 300 m by 1200 m. The diagram shows part of a roller-coaster ride at an adventure park. The carriages are pulled from A to B at a steady speed by an electric motor of power output 52 kW. At B they have effectively no kinetic energy and they then run freely down to C. The carriage and passengers have a mass of 3400 kg, (a) How long do the carriages take to rise from A to B? (b) Calculate the speed of the carriages at C. (e} The actual speed at C is found to be 33 ms“. If the track from B to C is 95 m long, calculate the average resistive force acting on this part of the ride, In this question, use g= 10 N kg". A lump of weight 4.0 N is held stationary at the bottom of a vertical spring of stiffness 20 N m to which it is attached, Initially the spring is taut but unstretched. The lump is then released. After it has fallen 0.20 m, find the changes in4.50° 4 Work and e ray (a) the g.pe. of the lump (b) the elastic potential energy of the spring [Remember to use average force.] (c) the ke. of the lump. ‘The lump passes through this position. When it has fallen a total distance of 0.40 m, find the change (from the initial values) (d) in the g.pe of the lump e) in the elastic potential energy of the spring, What can you deduce from these figures? The diagram shows a projectile photographed every Ls. The horizontal lines are 152 mm apart. (a) By measuring the distances between the centres of adjacent images determine the speed of the ball at the mid-point between each pair of images and the height of. each mid-point above the bottom edge of the photograph. [You should try to estimate the distances to the nearest 0.1 mm in the photograph before scaling up.] {b) The mass of the ball is 0.10 kg. Calculate the ke. and g.p.e. of the ball at each mid-point. Take the bottom of the photograph as the zero for g.p.e. (c) Draw graphs of ke. and g.p.e. against time, and add a graph of ke. + g.p.e. against time ~ all three graphs on the same axes, Collisions and explosions In this section you will need to use the principles of conservation of momentum and mechanical energy to analyse collisions and explosions in one dimension understand that in an elastic collision no kinetic energy (ke.) is transferred to internal energy understand that a totally inelastic collision is one in which the colliding bodies stick together. ‘There are a number of questions on momentum conservation in collisions and explosions in Section 3.1 a4.52 4.53 4.54 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58" A railway wagon of mass 15 tonnes (15000 kg) which has a velocity of 5.0 m s“' north collides with a wagon of mass 10 tonnes which has a velocity of 2.0 m s+ south. They couple together on impact. (a) Find their velocity after the collision, (b) Calculate the k.e. transformed to other forms in the collision, Refer to question 3.8. (a) How much energy does the spring release in this explosion? [Look up the value of m if necessary.} (b) If the piston moves 5.0 cm before the two trolleys separate, calculate the average force between them. Refer to question 3.16, How much energy is transferred to ke. as the skaters push each other apart? A trolley of mass 2.0 kg moving to the right at 0.3 m s~ collides with a trolley of mass 4.0 kg which is at rest. The 4.0 kg trolley moves off to the right at 0.7 ms, {a) Show that the 2.0 kg trolley rebounds and moves off to the left at 1.1 ms“! {b) How much energy was added to the kinetic energy of the trolleys as a result of the collision? A bullet of mass 16 g is fired into a block of wood of mass 4.0 kg which is supported by vertical threads. After the bullet has become embedded in the block, the block swings and rises (vertically) 50 mm. (a) Draw an energy flow or Sankey diagram for this event. (b) Calculate the speed of the block and bullet immediately after the collision. (c) What was the speed of the bullet before the collision? A 950 kg car is stopped on an icy road at the bottom of a hill which rises 1 m for every 12 malong the road. The car is hit from behind by a truck of mass 7600 kg which is moving at 50 km h”!. The collision is totally inelastic. Calculate the distance up the bill which the combined wreckage slides. A Newton's cradle consists of five steel balls suspended by threads so that the balls lie in @ horizontal line, almost touching one another. When one ball is pulled back and released so that it strikes head-on the row of the remaining four balls, the ball stops on impact, and the ball at the far end moves off with the velocity which the first ball had, the others now being stationary. Clearly both linear momentum and energy are conserved. Suppose now that two balls are pulled back together and then released. Show that it is not possible for one ball to move off from the other end of the row without contradicting one of the conservation principles. dy Ud atveet A particle, travelling along a straight line with velocity v, explodes into two equal parts. The explosion causes the kee. of the system to be doubled. Assuming that the forces of the explosion act along the initial line of travel, determine the velocities of the two parts of the body after the explosion.5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Electric currents and electrical energy gravitational field strength ¢= 9.81 N kg electronic charge e= 1.60 X 107° C number of conduction electrons per m® for copper, tigy = 1.0 X 102 m3 Electric current In this section you will need to remember that the current is the rate of flow of electric charge and use the equation Q=It remember that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current ente it remember that an ammeter can be used to measure current. A door bell is powered by a battery and is to be operated by a push-switch at the front door and also by a push-switch at the back door. Draw the circuit. (a) Is the current in the circuit shown in the diagram clockwise or anti-clockwise? (b) Do the electrons in this circuit flow clockwise or anti-clockwise? {e) Your answers to (a) and (b) should be different. Explain how this difference arises, and say whether you think it matters. Suppose you are supplied with a battery, three identical bulbs A, B and C and only two switches. The bulbs are lit properly when each is connected separately to the battery. Draw a diagram ofa circuit which would enable you to have no bulbs lit or bulb A lit or bulbs B and C lit or all three bulbs lit. You are allowed to press both switches at the same time, but the bulbs must all be properly lit In the circuit shown the bulbs are identical. The current at P is 0.20 A. What are the currents at (a) Q (b) R (e) $ (4) T? Fi 5 ORORO5.6 5.7 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 In the circuit shown the three bulbs are identical and reach full brightness when the current is 0.20 A. Bulb B is observed to be at full brightness. Which (if any) of the other bulbs will be at full brightness, and what is the current in C and D? Oe a Yr ————— ‘What is the average electric current in a wire when a charge of 150 C passes in 30 s? 0154 ‘The current in a small torch bulb is 0.20 A. {a) What is the total electric charge which passes a point in the circuit in 12 minutes? (b) How many electrons pass this point in this time? [Use data.] How long will it take 1.0 x 10"8 electrons to enter the filament of a torch bulb which carries a current of 0.15 A? [Use data.] Ina television tube the picture is formed by streams of electrons hitting the screen. current is 20 mA. How much electric charge hits the screen in 30 minutes? he Ina camera flash lamp a charge of 5.0 C passes through the lamp in 10 ms, What is the average current? Ina lightning flash a typical amount of charge which reaches the Earth is 10 C, If the flash lasts for 0.50 ms, what is the average current? A car battery sends a current of 5.0 A through each of two headlamps and a current of 0.50 A through each of two sidelamps. (a) Draw a circuit diagram for the battery and the lamps. {b) In 20 minutes how much charge passes through (i) each headlamp ( side-lamp (ii) the battery? each ‘The graphs show how the current through an ammeter varies with time in three different situations. Calculate the amount of electric charge passing through the ammeter in (a) 15 s (b) 10s (c) 6.0 s.(a) 5 Electric currents and electrical energy 5.14 5.15 () ima { i) 3 : waco _ ae | 10] — - 1G pee Oheeeeberrape reece 1 | we 19) i - 4 i L PEPE E t A new electric cell was joined in series with a bulb and an ammeter. The initial current was 0.30 A. At subsequent intervals of 1 hour the readings on the ammeter were: 0.27 A, 0.27 A, 0.26 A, 0.25 A, 0.23 A, 0.19 A, 0.09 A, 0.03 A and at 9 hours the ammeter reading had become negligibly small. {a) Plot a graph of current against time. (b) What does the area under the graph represent? (c) How much electric charge passes through the circuit when a current of 0.10 A passes for I hour? (d) What is the total electric charge which passes through the cell in the 9 hours? Currents in solids, liquids and gases In this section you will need to use the equation I= Agi for the current in a conductor remember that there isa difference between the drift speed of the charge carriers and the speed of transmission of the electric field understand that the current in liquids and gases is caused by the movement of electrically charged particles such as ions and electrons. The equation I= Aqnv shows how the current Jin a conductor depends on the Quantities A, q, n and v, where these symbols have their usual meanings. Write down the units of each of these four quantities, multiply the units together (showing your working), and leave your answer in its simplest form, Some copper fuse wire has a diameter of 0.22 mm and is designed to carry currents of up to 5.0 A. What is the mean drift speed of the electrons in the fuse wire when it carries a current of 5.0 A? (Use data.] Fuse wire which is labelled ‘15 A’ will melt when it carries a current of 1.5 times that current. Its diameter is 0.51 mm. What is the maximum drift speed of the electrons in this wire? (Use data.] =5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 A copper wire joins a car battery to one of the tail lamps and carries a current of 1.8 A. ‘The wire has a cross-sectional area of 1.0 mm? and is 6.0 m long. Calculate how long it takes an electron to travel along this length of wire. [Use data] ‘Tm sure the answer to the last question must be wrong, It can’t possibly take 15 hours for the tail lamps to come on!’ What would you say to this? ‘Two copper wires of diameter 2.0 mm and 1.0 mm are joined end to end. {a) What is the ratio of the average drift speeds of the electrons in the two wires when a steady current passes through them? (b) In which wire are the electrons moving faster? A shallow trough has the shape shown in the diagram and contains a liquid with positive and negative ions. Electrodes are fixed to the ends of the trough as shown, and connected toa battery. The width of the trough at A is twice the width of the trough at D. (a) What is the direction of the current in the liquid? (b) In which direction do (i) the positive ions move (ii) the negative ions move? (c) If the speed of the positive ions is 1.2 X 10-7 ms“! between A and B, what is their speed when they are moving between C and D? (d) Draw a graph of current against distance from A, to show how the average speed of the positive ions varies along the line ABCD. 8 3 te A piece of n-type germanium is 2.0 mm wide and 0.25 mm thick. Ata certain temperature the number of conduction electrons per cubic metre is 6.0 X 1070 m-3, What is the average drift speed of the electrons when a current of 1.5 mA flows? (Use data.] In an electroplating process to deposit silver on the surface of another metal an electric current of 10.0 A passes for 30 minutes through an electrolytic tank. A thickness of 0.10 mm of silver is deposited on an area of 192 cm?, fa) How much charge reaches the silvered surface? (b) The density of silver is 1.05 X 10" kg m->. What is the mass of silver deposited? (c) The mass of a silver ion is 1.79 x 10 kg. How many ions are deposited? {d) What is the charge on each silver ion?5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 Hh 5.28 5 Electric currents and Electric cells and e.m.f. In this see: In you will need to understand that the e.m.f. € ofa cell is defined by the equation £ = W/q where Wis the energy transferred to electrical energy from some other form of energy, and q is the charge passing through the cell understand that for cells in series the total e.m.f. is the sum of the separate e.m.fs understand that for cells of e.m.f. € in parallel the total e.m.f.is £ (but that the cells can now supply a larger current) remember that a voltmeter can be used to measure e.m.f, understand what is meant by the capacity of a battery draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell may be recharged, How much chemical energy is transferred to electrical energy when fa) a charge of 10 C flows through a cell of emf. 1.5 V (b) a charge of 30 C flows through a cell of em‘. 1.5 V (e) a charge of 10 C flows through two cells, each of e.m.f. 1.5 V, connected in series? A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.50 V. (a) How much energy is transferred when an electric charge of 100 C flows through the cell? (b) Which form of energy is there less of afterwards, and which form of energy is there more off The diagram shows a circuit with four 1.5 V cells (A, B, C and D) in it, How much energy is gained when a charge of 3.0 C flows through fa) A (b) Aand B {e) A,B, Cand De >oog x= ae - Five identical cells each provide an e.m.f. of 1.5 V. What does a voltmeter read when connected between A and B when the cells are arranged as shown in the diagram? A radio cassette recorder might need six 1.5 V cells to make it work. The diagram shows What one cell would look like, Draw a diagram to show how they would be arranged if (a) they were all connected side by side (b) they were in two side-by-side ‘columns’ each q of which consisted of three connected cells. In each diagram show the points between which you could connect a voltmeter so that it would read 4.5 V. 475.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 {a) How many cells each of e.m.f. 1.2 V are needed to provide a 6.0 V battery for a calculator? (b) In fitting these cells the user puts one of the cells in the wrong way round by mistake. What is the em. of the battery now? The top of a 12 V car battery, which consists of six 2 V cells, might look like the diagram. The six cells are connected by thick metal strips, as shown. The battery terminals are labelled ‘¥ and ABE F {a) Copy the diagram and mark the | | terminals of each of the cells + or -. (b) What would a voltmeter read if it was connected between AandB BandC (iii) D and E I. 5 (iv) E and F? co ‘Two cells of e.m.f. 2.0 V are connected (i) in series and (ii) in parallel to a resistor of resistance 10 Q. The cells may be assumed to have negligible resistance. (a) What is the total e.m.f. of the cells, and the current in the resistor (i) when. connected in series (ii) when connected in parallel? (b) What are the answers to these questions if one of the cells is replaced by a rechargeable nicad cell of e.m.f. 1.2 V in series with a 1.0 Q resistor? Acll has an em. of 1.2 V. {a) How much energy is transferred to a charge of 10 C which passes through it? (b) A second cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V. How much energy is transferred to a charge of 10 C which passes through it? (c) What is the total energy transferred to the charge of 10 C when it passes through the ‘two cells in succession? Prove that the combined emf. of two cells of e.m.. &; and £5 is &; + £5 when they are connected in series, Explain why the combined em. of two cells each of e.m.f.€ is still & when they are connected in parallel. A battery of emf How much energ, V passes a current of 0.30 A through a torch bulb for 5 minutes ransferred from the cell? A lead-acid cell of e.m-f. 2.0 V can drive a current of 0.50 A round a circuit for 10 hours. {a) How much chemical energy is transferred to electrical energy in this time? {b) How long would you expect the same cell to maintain a current of 0.20 A? A cell is said to have an e.m-f. of 1.5 V and a ‘capacity’ of 10 Ah, eg, it can pass a current of 1.0 A for 10 hours, (a) How much charge would pass? (b) How much chemical energy is stored in the cell?5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 5 Electric currents and electrical energy The exm4. of a small cell is 1.5 V and it can pass a current of 20 mA for 9 hours before its chemical energy is completely transferred, (a) How much chemical energy does the cell have? (b) How much energy would be transferred if the same total charge were passed by three such cells connected in (i) series (it) parallel? A battery manufacturer makes three different D-size 1.5 V cells. Their capacities are 5.2 Ah, 7.9 Ah and 16 Ah. (a) Calculate the energy stored in each of these cells, assuming that the cells provide an em. of 1.5 V throughout their lives. (b) If the total masses of the cells are 79 g, 100 g and 131 g, respectively, calculate the energy per unit mass for each of the cells. A secondary cell, such as a lead-acid battery, can be recharged if a source of higher e.m.f is connected to it (a) Why would it be more correct to say that the battery can be ‘re-energised’? (b) A simple circuit for recharging a battery is shown in the diagram. The resistor is there to limit the current that flows to a safe value. Write down the type of energy transfer that takes place in co A, the battery of higher e.mcf eons) higher La. 8 tower mt (iii) B, the battery of lower emf. emt | Electrical energy and potential difference In this section you will need to understand the meaning of potential difference Vand use the equation W= VQ understand that when two components are connected in series, the total p.d. is equal to the sum of the separate p.ds understand that when two components are connected in parallel, the p.d. between the ends of each of them is the same ® understand that we can assign values of potential to points in a circuit if we decide to fix the value of the potential at some point (usually calling the cell’s negative terminal zero). When you connect a voltmeter between two points in a circuit it tells you how much energy is transferred per coulomb of charge passing between those points. You can assume that in the circuit shown on the following page, the connecting wire and the ammeters have negligible resistance. Between which of the following pairs of points would a voltmeter read zero (or nearly zero): A and B, B and C, C and D, D and E, E and 3 Fand G, G and H, H and A? Explain your answers 49He Me 2) R e 5.42 When 1.0 C passes through each of the lamps in the circuit 4.0 J of electric p.e. is transferred to internal energy in the lamp. What is (a) the p.d. across each bulb (b) the charge which passes through the battery {c) the energy supplied by the battery =~ O {d) the p.d. across the battery If it took 20 s for this to happen, calculate (e) the current in each bulb (f) the current in the battery (g) the rate at which energy is supplied by the battery. 5.43 A teacher wants her students to understand what potential difference means, so she connects up the circuit shown in the diagram. Before the switch is closed, the joulemeter reads 66 100 J. She closes the switch and while the lamp is lit the ammeter reads 2.0 A. After 5 minutes she opens the switch and notes that the joulemeter reading is now 73 300 J. (a) How much charge passed through the lamp in this experiment? {b) How much energy was transferred? (c) What was the potential difference across the bulb? (d) How would you use this experiment to explain to someone what potential difference means? look 5.44 _ In the circuit shown in the figure a voltmeter reads 1.46 V when connected across the cell and 0.67 V when connected across the bulb. The wires have negligible resistance. {a) What will the voltmeter read when connected cry (b) What will the voltmeter read when connected across the resistor?5.45 5.46 5.47 5.48 5.49 5.50 The point F in the circuit (see previous figure) is earthed, i.e. its potential is taken to be zero, (a) What are the potentials of the other labelled points? (b) Where are the points which have potentials of (i) 1.30 V (ii) 0.70 V (iii) 0.64 V2 The diagram shows a battery connected to a length AB of ‘resistance’ wire (i.e. wire Which has much more resistance than the other wires or the battery). The length of the jwite is 0.50 m. The battery maintains a p.d. of 6.0 V between A and B. IfB is earthed, how far from B is the point on the wire which has a potential of (a) 1.8 V tb) 3.4 V? A B In this circuit the battery p.d. is 6.0 V and the p.d.s across A and B are measured to be 2.0 V and 4.0 V. What are the potentials of X, Y and Z if (a) Z is earthed x (b) X is earthed (ec) Y is earthed Al a y 8 z Draw circuit diagrams to show four lamps connected to a 12 V battery so that (a) each has a p.d. of 12 V across it (b) each has a p.d. of 6.0 V across it {e) each has a p.d. of 3.0 V across it, ‘The circuit shows a bulb, a resistor and a motor connected in parallel across a battery. A voltmeter connected across the battery reads 2.89 V. What does it read when connected across ) fa) the bulb (b) the resistor (c) the motor. In the circuit the pd. across the battery is 5.86 V, and the p.d. across the bulb is 2.45 V. If the wires have negligible resistance, what is the p.d. across {a) resistor Ry {b) resistor R,? 815.51 5.52 5.53 @ Five resistors are connected to a cell as shown, The p.d.s across R, and R, are 0.60 V and 0.75 V respectively, and the other three resistors are identical. The potential at point A is 2er0. (a) What are the potentials at ( point G point E? (b) State the p.d. between fi) BandE (ii) B and B, in each case saying which point has the higher potential, ‘Two identical cells of e.m.f, 1.50 V are connected to two identical resistors in the circuits shown. In each case point C is earthed. (a) What are the potentials at A, B and D in circuit (i) and in circuit (iy (b) In each case, what would be the effect of connecting a wire between C and D? 8 8 ct Oy @ a A uniform sheet of conducting paper is cut into a rectangular shape as shown in part (a) of the diagram. The more heavily shaded areas show where strips of conducting paint have been painted on to the paper. The paint is thick enough for its resistance to be negligible. A battery is connected to the lines of paint and maintains a p.d. of 6.0 V between A and C. Cis earthed. Copy the diagram and draw on ita line which joins all the points which have a potential of 4.0 V, and another line which joins all the points which have a potential of 2.0 V. vA ® A © Us5.54 5.55 5.57 5.58 5.59 5.60 5.61 5 Electric currents and electrical energy Refer to question 5.53. This time the piece of paper tapers as shown in part (b) of the diagram, (a) Copy this part of the diagram. (b) Explain whether the potential at B, which is the mid-point of AC, is more or less. than 3.0 V. (c) Mark on your diagram the approximate positions of the lines joining points which have a potential of 4.0 V, and the points which have a potential of 2.0 V. (d) Hence sketch a rough graph of how the potential varies with distance along the line ABC. Refer to question 5.53. This time, in part (e) of the diagram, the piece of paper has a circular shape. One strip of conducting paint runs round the edge of the circle, The other forms a smaller circle near the centre of the shape. (a) Copy this part of the diagram. (b) Mark on your diagram the approximate positions of the lines joining points which have a potential of 4.0 V, and the points which have a potential of 2.0 V. (a) It is estimated that the average electric charge carried in a lightning flash is 5 C. If the p.d. between the cloud and the ground is about 800 MV, approximately how much energy is transferred in the flash? (b) Ina typical thunderstorm lightning flashes strike the ground at intervals of about 3 minutes. Over the whole surface of the Earth the total current carried in this way between the atmosphere and the ground averages 1800 A. Estimate the average number of thunderstorms taking place at any instant over the whole Earth. Electrical power In this section you will need to use the equations W= Prand P= Wit use the equations P= €1and P= Vito calculate the power of a cell or the power of another circuit component. A lead-acid battery of e.m.f. 12 V is supplying a current of 10 A to some car headlamps. What is the rate of transfer of chemical energy to electrical energy? ‘The power rating of a portable tape recorder is 2.4 W and the current it needs is 0.4 A. How many 1.5 V cells would be needed, and would they be connected in series or in parallel? A hand-held vacuum cleaner uses 4 nicad cells, each of which has an e.m.f of 1.2 V, in series. If the current drawn is 20 A, what is the power of the vacuum cleaner? An electric toaster is labelled 800 W. How much energy is transferred in it in 3 minutes? The current in a small immersion heater is 3.8 A and the p.d. across its terminals is 11.9 V, How much electrical energy is transferred to internal energy in 20 minutes? 535.62 5.63 5.64 5.65 An electric light bulb is labelled 100 W and is designed to be used with a p.d. of 240 V. ‘What current flows in it, and how much energy is transferred in 1 hour? ‘Two lamp bulbs are labelled ‘240 V 100 W" and ‘240 V 60 W’. What do these markings ‘mean, and what is the current in each of them when it is working normally? ‘The energy of a single flash of light from a stroboscopic lamp is 0.60 J. The p.d. across the bulb is 240 V. (a) How much charge passes through the lamp during the flash? (b) If the flash lasts for 10 is, what is the average current? {e) What is the average power? The circuit shown in the diagram contains four lamps. The powers of the lamps are shown. The supply provides a p.d. of 240 V. Calculate (a) the current at A (b) the current at BB (e) the p.d. across the 60 W lamps {d) the current atC (e) the current drawn from the supply (f) the total power provided by the supply. 240 w Pair aeel 100 w 150 c A car has two headlamps, two side-lamps and two tail-lamps. The electrical circuit for these lamps is shown in the diagram. The earthing signs to the bottom show that the ‘metal frame of the car acts as the return wire to complete the circuit. (a) Copy the diagram and label the switches and lamps. (b) Explain why the headlamps cannot be on unless the side-lamps and tail-lamps are on. {c) What will happen if, with the headlamps on, one of the side-lamps fails? (d) If each side- and tail-lamp carries a current of 0.50 A, what is the power transfer from the battery with only the side- and tail-lamps on? (e) The headlamps are known to have a power of 48 W each. What total current passes through the battery when all the lamps are on? (f) A caralso has a heater for the rear window. Add this to your circuit diagram. ai |5.67 5 Electric currents and electrical energy A power station generates electrical energy at a p.d, of 25 kV and an average rate of 500 MW. (a) What is the current in the cables leaving the power station? (b) How much energy is generated in one day? (c) If the efficiency of the power station is 409%, how much internal energy is delivered to the surroundings in one day? 3861 62 63 64 Electrical resistance gravitational field strength g= 9.81 N kg electronic charge e = 1.60 X 10-9. copper aluminium steel nichrome resistivity/10-% Om 17 32 “4 130 Resistance In this section you will need to use the equation R = V/I understand that Ohm's law states that the resistance of a metallic conductor is constant if physical conditions are constant describe how to check on whether Ohm's law is obeyed for a particular circuit component describe how to plot characteristics (i.e. graphs of current against pd, V) for circuit components draw the characteristics for a lamp filament, a thermistor and a silicon diode use the equations Rig = Ry + Ry and a RE use the equations P= I7R and P= V?/R to calculate the power transfer in a resistor explain why the resistance of two resistors in parallel is always less than the resistance of the smaller of the two. There is a current of 0.20 A in a wire when the potential difference between its ends is 5.0 V. What is its resistance? The opposite faces of a sheet of polythene are covered with metal foil. When the Potential difference between the two layers of fol is 12 V, the current through the Polythene is 1.4 10-19 A. What is the resistance of the polythene? ‘What potential difference must be applied to a resistor of resistance of 10 MQ to drive a current of 5.0 uA through it? The current Fin a resistor was measured for various values of the applied p.d. Vand the values shown below were obtaine Sea vv 50 100 200 300400 UmA 060 152.20 3.15 4.0466 67 6 Electrical resistance (a) Plot a graph of against V. (b) Was the resistor made from metal or from carbon? (c) What was the resistance of the resistor at an applied p.d. of 200 V? {d) What was the resistance of the resistor at an applied p.d. of 400 V? {e) Estimate the value of the resistance for a very small applied p.d. A lamp bulb is connected to the mains supply by cable, each wire of which has a resistance of 0.025 Q per metre. If the length of the cable between the supply and the lamp is 8.0 m, what is (a) the resistance of each wire (b) the p.d. between the ends of each wire when the current ir (c) the power in the cable then? is 0.60.4 ‘The heating element of one kind of toaster consists of a ribbon of nichrome wire which is wound round an insulating support. A girl finds that it is broken and decides to mend it by twisting the two broken ends together (thus making the ribbon shorter). Explain whether the power of the toaster will be larger or smaller than before. ‘The diagram shows the kind of rheostat, or variable resistor, often found in laboratories. The slider makes contact with the wire beneath it. The wires which are wound round the ‘former’ (ie. the supporting cylinder) are insulated from each other. Suppose the slider stays in the position shown. Which terminals would you connect to a circuit if you wanted (a) the least resistance (b) the most resistance (e) a resistance between the values in (a) and (bY? Refer to the previous diagram, and suppose that the total resistance of the resistance wire is 100 ©. Complete the table to show the value of resistance between the different terminals as the slider is moved away from C: resistance resistance resistance Cees between A and C_| between Band C | between A and B slider at end, next to C slider moved one-quarter of the length of the bar slider moved one-half of the length of the bar slider moved to the end of the bar (next to A) 97cir 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 A theostat consists of resistance wire uniformly wound on a former of length 300 mm. The resistance of the wire is 100 Q. Initially the slider is at the centre of the rheostat (so that its resistance is 50 2), and the rheostat is connected in series with a battery which provides a constant p.d. of 6.0 V across the rheostat. (a) What is the current in the circuit initially? (b) The slider is now moved 30 mm so as to reduce the resistance of the rheostat. What is now the resistance of the theostat, and the current in the circuit? {c) The slider is now moved 30 mm on three more occasions, each time in the direction which reduces the resistance. What are the new resistances, and the currents? (d) Comment on the suitability of the rheostat for adjusting the current in the circuit, When the current through a resistor is 2.0 A its power is 10 W. Assuming that the resistance is unchanged, what does the power become when the current is increased to 6.0.82 ‘Two resistors R, and Rp, of constant resistance 10 Q and 15 Q, respectively, are each in turn connected to a power supply which provides a constant p.d. of 6.0 V. Which resistor provides the greater power, and what is that power? ‘Two resistors, of resistance 3.3 Q and 4.7 Q are connected first in series and then in parallel to a power supply which provides a constant p.d. of 6.0 V. Which resistor has the greater power, and what is that power, when the resistors are (2) in series (b) in parallel? A car headlamp bulb has a power of 60 W when itis connected to a potential difference of 2V. (a) What is the resistance of the filament? (b) Ifits resistance remained constant, what would be the power if a p.d. of 6.0 V were connected across it? (c) Its resistance will not remain constant: how will it change, and will the power of the bulb be larger or smaller than the power calculated in (b)? The resistance of some wire is 14 ohms per metre, What length is needed to provide a power of 20 W when a p.d, of 12 V is available? A set of Christmas tree lights consists of 20 lamps in series, and is designed to be connected to a 240 V supply. Each bulb is rated at 1.2 W. {a) Draw a circuit diagram showing the lamps connected to the supply. What is the main disadvantage of this way of connecting the lamps? Can you think of any advantage? (b) Calculate (i) the pad. across each bulb drawn from the supply. {e) When one lamp fails the others do not go out. How might this result be achieved? Assuming that your solution is correct, what would happen if several lamps failed? ) the current in each lamp (iii) the current Resistances of 10 Q and 15 Q are joined (a) in series (b) in parallel, What is the total resistance in each case?6.17 Calculate the combined resistance of each of the arrangements of resistors shown in the figure. o wy 6.18 The diagram shows fifteen 100 © resistors mounted in a small package. The pins are 6.19 6.20 labelled 1 to 16. What is the resistance between these pins (the ‘&” sign means that the pins are connected together)? (a) 1 &2and 16 (b) 1&2 and 15 (e) 1&2 and 15 & 16 (d) 1&2&3&4and 16 (e) 1&2&3 &Aand 15 (f) 1& 2&3 & 4and 15 & 16 ‘The manufacturer sets a limit of 0.125 W as the power which may be transferred in each resistor from question 6.18, A circuit designer wishes to use a resistor of resistance 100 © but needs to pass a current of 60 mA. (a) Show that a current of 60 mA which enters at pin 1 and leaves at pin 16 will transfer energy at a rate of 0.36 W, which is too great, (b) Explain how to use the set of resistors so as to obtain a resistance of 100 Q and allow a current of 60 mA to pass without overheating, ‘What is the current in each of the resistors shown in the diagram? 3006.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 n Physi Each of the arrangements of resistors in question 6.17 is joined to a power supply, so that P is earthed and Q is at a potential of 6.0 V. (a) What is the potential at X in each case? (b) In (ii) and (iii) what are the potential differences between X and Y? A connecting lead of length 1.0 m used in a laboratory consists of 55 strands of wire. Each strand has a resistance of 2.3 ©. What is the resistance of the complete wire? ‘What is the total resistance when (a) two (b) ten 10 Q resistors are connected in parallel? In the two arrangements (a) and (b) of resistors shown in the figure, is the combined resistance about 100 Q, between 1 Q and 100 Q, or less than 1 % What general rule could you state for calculating a rough value of the resistance of resistors connected in lel? parallel ‘adhd two S toa [— i “as | | con Calculate the combined resistance of each of the arrangements of resistors in the figure for question 6.24, In the first circuit in the diagram a power supply maintains a p.d. Vacross two resistors Ry and Ry in parallel. The currents which flow in the circuit are J, I, and Jy. In the second circuit the two resistors have been replaced by a single resistor which draws the same current Ifrom the power supply. (a) What is the relationship between J, I, and I? (b) Write down equations connecting 1 t V, hand Ry V, Ipand Ry (iii) V, and R, al |» a (c) Hence show that 1 ae y R R, , ‘ You are given a box in which there are three 10 © resistors connected in series, as shown in the diagram. Connections can be made to the ends of any resistor, but they cannot be removed from the box. You are asked to obtain a resistance of | fa) 30 Q (b) 5 Q (e) 15.Q. ‘Make three copies of the diagram and add any connections you would need to do this. Label X and ¥, the points between which the network has the required resistance,6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6 Electrical resistance ‘What is the smallest number of resistors you need to provide a resistance of (a) 5 Q, given a supply of 3 Q resistors (b) 7.9, given a supply of 4 Q resistors? In each case draw a diagram to show how you would connect them. The diagram shows a resistor used as a shunt for an ammeter. The resistor consists of a metal film mounted on a plastic base. It is difficult to make the film of exactly the required thickness, so the resistance is adjusted by cutting through the film at points like A, Bete. Explain whether this will make the resistance larger or smaller, 8 A oe ‘A manufacturer makes a series of 0.25 W resistors. That means that the maximum power transfer in one of these resistors is 0.25 W. Calculate the maximum p.d. which may be applied to one of these resistors which has a resistance of (a) 22 Q(t) 220 Q (e) 2.2 kQ. The ring on an electric stove contains two heating elements. They are controlled bya switch on which the three settings are Off, Low, Medium and High, The circuit for the switches and heating elements (R, and R,) is shown in the diagram. What must be the positions of the two-way switches in order to obtain (a) Off {b) Low a (c) Medium © (a) High? ' A ——-—_ +4 A small clothes iron (for use when travelling) is bought in Britain and has a power of 600 W when connected to a p.d. of 240 V. Ifit is taken to the USA, and used on a mains power supply whose p.d, is 110 V, what is its power? Assume that its resistance is constant. The maximum current in a particular light-emitting diode (Lee.d.) is 30 mA. The maximum power which can be transferred in this type of Le.d. is 100 mW. (a) Show that the Le.d. cannot be connected by itself to a 5.0 V power supply. (b)_ Which of the following resistors would you place in series with the Led. to limit the current to a safe value: 33 Q, 47 ©, 68 ©, 82 02 (a) What is the resistance, at full brightness, of i) a 240 V 60 W bulb (ii) a 12 V 60 W bulb? {b) How many 12 V 60 W bulbs must be connected in series across a 240 V supply if each is to work at full brightness? (c) What will happen if two 240 V 60 W bulbs are connected in series across a 240 V supply? (d) What will happen if a 240 V 60 W bulb and a 12 V 60 W bulb are connected in series across a 240 V supply? 616.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 ‘Why is it not possible to calculate the current in the bulbs in part (e) of the previous question? ‘The graph in the diagram shows the result of an experiment to study the conducting properties of a thin nichrome wire. [Nichrome is a metal alloy often used to make resistors.) {a) Use the graph to find the resistance R of the wire for I/mA = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. (b) Plot a graph of R against V. {e) Describe how R varies as V increases (i) from 0 to 1.0 V (ii) above 1.0 V. (d) What do you think is happening to the nichrome wite above 1.0 V2 ma, 00S 10S A tungsten filament bulb is connected to a variable power supply, and the current, measured as the p.d. is varied. The table shows the readings obtained: viv 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 mA 0 36 37 2 84 94 102 (a) Plot a graph to show how current varies with p.d. for this bulb. {b) On the same axes plot the graph which would be obtained if the same p.d.s were applied to a resistor of resistance 100 Q. {e) Use your graphs to find the current which would flow if p.d. of 6.0 V were applied to the bulb and the resistor in parallel. (d) The bulb and the resistor are now connected in series, and a p.d. of 12 to them. Explain why the current which flows is 67 mA. (e) With the bulb and the resistor again connected in series, what p.d. is needed to send a current of 50 mA through them? (f). The bulb and the resistor are now connected in parallel again. Explain why the applied p.d. must be 10 V if the current threugh the resistor is to be 100 ma. applied ‘A variable power supply is connected to two tungsten filament lamps A and B separately and the current is measured for different values of p.d. The results are shown in the table: pv 0 20 40 «60 80a TIA for lamp A 0 180-284 3.66 4.28472 5.00 JIA for lamp B 0 077 «145-204-257 2.86 3.006.39 6.40 6.41 jectrical resistance (a) On the same axes plot graphs of current (on the y-axis) against p.d. (on the x-axis) for both lamps. (b) Describe how the current varies with p.d. for each lamp. What happens to the resistance of each lamp as the pad. increases? How do you account for this change of resistance? The bulbs are connected in parallel across a 12 V supply. (c) Explain which bulb is brighter. (d) What is the combined resistance of the two bulbs? The two bulbs are now connected in series to a variable power supply. (e) What p.d. is needed to pass a current of 2.5 A through the bulbs? (8) The pad. is steadily increased beyond this value. Which bulb burns out first? A tungsten filament bulb, and a carbon filament bulb, are connected (separately) to a variable power supply, and the current measured as the p.d. is varied. The table shows the readings obtained: viv 0 50 100 150 200 250 tungsten A. 0 oul 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.26 carbon A 0 0.07 0.16 0.26 037 051 {a) Plot graphs to show how current varies with p.d. for each of these filaments, (b)_ What is the power of each lamp when the p.d. across it is 240 V? (c) When the bulbs are connected in parallel (i) what is the current drawn from the supply when the p.d. is set at 250 V (ii) what pad. is needed to draw a current of 0.50 A from the supply? (4) When the bulbs are connected in series (i) what is the current drawn from the supply when the pad. is set at 250 V (ii) what p.d. is needed to draw a current of 0.25 A from the supply? The diagram shows a graph of p.d. across a silicon diode against the current in it, (a) What is the resistance of the diode when the p.d. across it is (i) 0.25V. i) 0.64. V 0.74. V2 (b) Estimate the resistance of the diode when the p.d. across it is @) 0V (ii) LO V. (c) Draw a graph of resistance against p.d. for values of V between 0.55 V and 0.75 V. 025 0 1025 4050 30.75 WV A.silicon diode is connected to two resistors as shown in the figure overleaf, (a) First assume that the silicon diode has zero resistance in the forward direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction. The p.d. between A and B is varied from ~3.0 V to +3.0 V. Draw a graph to show how the current between A and B varies with pd. (b) Now assume that the diode behaves as a ‘real’ diode, like the diode in question 6.40. Sketch (no detailed calculations required) on the same axes how the current between A and B varies with pd.6.42 6.43 6.44 6.45 6.46 6.47 300 Ao—] All the bulbs in the circuit in the diagram are identical. The battery has negligible internal resistance. (a) Explain which will be brightest. (b) The pad. across C becomes 2.0 V when one of the bulbs fails. Explain which bulb failed. VI * £=60V-—- B Resistivity In this section you will need to use the equation R = pl/A which defines resistivity p remember that the resistivity of metals increases with temperature but the resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature remember that the resistivity of all metals and alloys falls to zero at their transition temperature, and they are then superconducting, Use the equation R = pl/A to show that the unit of p is the Q:m. Each of the copper wires in a three-core power cable has a cross-sectional area of 0.50 mm?, What is the resistance of a 10 m length of one of these wires? [Use data.] ‘The filament of a 240 V 60 W lamp is made from 600 mm of tungsten wire. At its working temperature the resistivity of tungsten is 7.0 X 10°? © m. What is the diameter of the wire? Consider two pieces of copper wire. The first one has a length of 200 mm and a diameter of 0.50 mm, The second one has a length of 100 mm and a diameter of 0.25 mm. Do they have the same resistance? If not, which has the larger resistance? Conducting putty is a material which is similar to Plasticine but it is an electrical conductor, A student rolls some of the putty into a cylindrical shape which is 60 mm. Jong and has a diameter of 20 mm, He then rolls it into a new cylindrical shape which has a diameter of 10 mm. (a) What is the new length? (b) What is the ratio (new resistance)/(old resistance)?6.48 6.49 6.50 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.54 6 Electrical resistance A wire has a resistance of 6.0 ©. Itis then doubled back on itself, What is now the resistance between the ends of the doubled wire? A Bower cable (for the grid system) consists of six aluminium wires enclosing a central steel wire. The purpose of the steel wire is to give the cable strength: the current in ie may be assumed to be negligible. If each of the aluminium wires has a diameter of 4.0 mm, calculate fa) the cross-sectional area of. each wire, in mm? (b) the resistance of 1.0 km of one of the aluminium wires (c) the resistance per km of the whole cable. [Use data.) ‘The table gives the values of resistance per metre of manganin wire of different diameters. Manganin is a metal alloy used for making resistors, diameter/mm resistance per metre/Q ny 1.63 0.204 914 0.645 0.559 173 0.376 3.82 0.315 5.45 0.234 9.90 (a) Draw a graph of resistance R against area A. (b) Draw a second graph to show that Ris inversely proportional to A. {The heating element of an electric toaster consists ofa ribbon of nichrome which is rao ride and 0.050 mm thick. What length of ribbon is needed to provide a power of 800 W when the element is connected to a p.d. of 240 V? [Use data.] (a) What is the resistance of a copper wire of length 1.2 m and diameter 0.50 mm? [Use data.] (b) A power supply is connected to a 12 V 36 W lamp using two of these wires. If the lamp is working normally what is the current in each wire? (c) What is the pad. across each wire? (4) What isthe p.d. supplied by the power supply? ‘can which has a ‘lat’ battery, can be started ifjump leads are connected from the pattery tothe battery in another car whose battery has enough energy. The curren used by.a starter motor may be as high as 800 A. Suppose the jump leads must beat leet Tp longs and that 20 strands of copper wire are used in each lead to make it flexible, ‘The exm.f of each battery is 12 V and the potential difference across exch of the wane themselves must be less than 1.0 V. (a) Calculate the diameter of each of the 20 strands of wire, [Use data] (b) What isthe rate of transfer of electrical energy to internal energy in each wite? A slice of silicon which measures 30 mm by 30 mm and which is 0.50 mm thick, as shown in the diagram overleaf, has conducting strips fitted to two apposite edges AB and CD, (a) If the resistivity of silicon is 4.0 10° Q m, calculate the resistance of the sheet measured between AB and CD. 65Gece man 6.55 6.56 6.57 6.59 6.60 (b) What would be the resistance of a similar sheet, measuring 15 mm by 15 mm, of the same thickness? 8, c ‘The resistance of the heating element of an electric fire is measured at 0°C and found to be 50 ©. When itis connected to a 240 V supply the power delivered is 1.0 KW. Ifthe resistivity of the metal increases by 0.000 17 of its resistance at 0°C for each degree rise in temperature, calculate the temperature of the heating element when itis working normally. ‘The resistance of the tungsten filament of an electric lamp is found to be 27 9 at 0°C (= 275 K). Ifthe resistivity of tungsten increases by 0.0056 of its resistivity at 0°C, for each degree rise in temperature, calculate (a) the resistance of the filament at its working temperature of 2400 K (b) the ratio power of lamp when first switched on ‘power of lamp at working temperature Explain why the power ofa filament lamp falls during the first few milliseconds after it is switched on. ‘A copper wire and an iron wire have the same length and diameter. The resistivity of iron is about 8 times that of copper. They are connected to a variable power supply (a) in parallel (b) in series. The p.d. provided by the power supply is gradually increased from zero. Explain which wire glows first in each situation. Internal resistance understand what is meant by the internal resistance r of a cell use the equations & = I(R + r) and £ = V+ Irto analyse circuits in which the internal resistance r of the cell has to he taken into account describe how to measure the internal resistance of a cell explain that a cell delivers maximum power when the resistance of the external circuit is equal to the cell’s internal resistance, A bulb is connected to a battery, of e.m-f. 1.50 V, which has some internal resistance. What can you say about the p.d. across the battery and the pad. across the bulb? A bulb of resistance 14.0 is connected to a dry cell of e.m.f. 1.50 V and internal resistance 0.80 Q. Calculate a) the current in the circuit (b) the p.d. across the bulb {e) the pid. across the cell.6.61 6.62 6.63 6.64 6.65 6.66 6 Electrical resistance GFelimeter of resistance 100.0 Q is used in an attempt to measure the emf ofa cell. (4) If the cell has an e.mé of 1.500 V and its internal resistance is 0.802, whet reading does the voltmeter give for the e.m.£? (b) What would be the reading if the voltmeter had a Tesistance of 10000 Q? Iwo cells, each of e.m-f. 1.50 V and internal resistance 0.50 , are connected (a) in series (b) in parallel. In each case what is the combined e.m.f. and internal resistance? @ student sets up the circuit shown in the diagram. He expects the ammeter to read 0.25 A but finds that it reads 0.20 A. (6) Explain (i) his expected reading (i) why the actual reading is lower {o) Calculate the internal resistance ofthe cell assuming thatthe ammeter and the leads have negligible resistance. {e) Calculate the rate at which (i) the cell is transferring chemical energy to electrical potential energy (ii) the esistor is transferring electrical €=15¥ == Fano Potential energy to internal energy (ii) the cell is transferring electrical Potential energy to internal energy. battery hasan exmct of 3.0 V and is connected toa bulb. The current inthe bul is 0.30 A and the potential difference between its ends is 28 V. (a) In 5 minutes how much chemical energy is transferred to electrical energy in the battery? (b) In the same time how much electrical energy is transferred to internal energy in the bulb? (¢) How do you account for the fact that these two answers are not the same? ‘The diagram shows a circuit containing a cell of e.m.f. 6.0 V and two resistors of resistance 15 © and 10 Q. In parts (a) and (b) assume that the cell hes negligible internal resistance, x {a) What is the p.d. actoss the 10.Q resistor? (b) A second 15 Q resistor is now connected between the points X and ¥. What is now ee the pad, across the 10.0 resistor? e-60v (c) What would your answers to (a) and (b) ln become if the cell had an internal resistance of 1.0.9? A battery is connected to an electric motor which is used to raise a load. An ammeter shows thatthe current in the motor is 2.6 A when the motor raises a load of 32 kgata steady speed of 0.43 ms“. Assuming that there are no transfers of energy into internal energy; what is the e.m.f of the battery? [use data.) Explain whether the actual exm.f of the battery would be greater or less than this calculated value if transfers of energy into internal energy cannot be neglected. 676.67 6.69 6.70 6.71 6.72 6.72 A cell of e.m-f. 1.55 V and internal resistance 0.500 Q is connected to a resistor of resistance 22.0 Q. What is (a) the current in the circuit (b) the p.d. across the resistor (¢) the p.d. across the cell {d) the rate of transfer of chemical energy to electrical energy in the cell (e) the power transfer in the resistor? Your answers to (d) and (e) should not be the same: explain why. A small torch bulb is marked °2.5 V0.3 A. (a) What isits resistance at its normal working temperature? (b) What resistance would you put in series with it to run it from a 6 V battery? (c) When the torch bulb is run directly from a battery of e.m.£. 3.0 V, the correct p.d. of 2.5 V is produced across it. What is the internal resistance of the battery? A car battery has an e.m-f. of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 5.0 mQ. ‘What is the pad. across its terminals when it supplies (a) a current of 0.50 A to each of two side-lamps and two tail-lamps (b) a current of 0.50 A to each of these four lamps and a current of 5.0 A to each of two headlamps (c) a current of 800 A to a starter motor? A car driver switches on the cats side-lamps and headlamps before starting the engine. Explain why the headlamps dim when he operates the starter switch. A car battery has an e.m-f. of 12 V, negligible internal resistance and a capacity of 70 A h. It is connected, through a series resistor of 1.2 ©, to a battery charger, also of negligible internal resistance, which provides a p.d. of 16.5 V. (a) What is the current in the circuit? (b) If the battery initially has no energy stored in it, how long will it take to fill it with chemical energy? {c) How much energy is converted in the resistor in this time? (d) Express this as a percentage of the total energy supplied by the battery charger. Accel of e.m.f. € and internal resistance r is connected to a resistor of resistance R, and there is then a current Jin the circuit and a p.d. V across the resistor (and the cell). The power of the cell is £1, the power of the resistor is VE these measure rates of conversion of energy from one form to another form. fa) For the rate of conversion £1, what are the two forms? {b) For the rate of conversion Vi, what are the two forms? (c) Explain why £7 > VIin this situation. Using the symbols given in the question, write down an expression for X in the equation €1= VI-+ X. When you buy a resistor from a manufacturer you are told not only its resistance but also the maximum power which can be transferred in it without it overheating. A laboratory technician is designing a circuit which contains a 6 V battery and wants to limit the current by putting a 100 0 resistor in the circuit. He has available only 100 Q resistors which have a power rating of 0.25 W. (a) Check that a p.d. of 6.0 V connected across a 100 Q resistor will develop a power of more than 0.25 W. (b) What is the least number of identical resistors which he can use in order to provide the same total resistance without exceeding the power limit for each? {c} Draw a circuit to show how they would be connected to the battery.6.74 6.75 6.76 6.77 6.78" 6 Electrical resistance A laboratory power supply is designed to provide p.d.s of up to 6.0 kV; it s provided with an internal resistance of 50 MQ. Suppose the power supply is set at 6.0 KV. (a) What will be the current if the power supply is connected to a resistor of resistance 100 MQ? (b) What will be the current if the terminals are short-circuited? {6} What willbe the current ifan ammeter of resistance 5,0 Q is connected directly across the power supply’s terminals, with no other resistance in the circuit? High-voltage power supplies in schools and colleges can provide up to 6.0 kV. This is much higher than the mains voltage, yet they are considered safe to use, (a) Describe what is done to make them ‘safe’ (b) Under what circumstances might they not be safe? (c) ‘I don’t see the point of providing such a big voltage if you're going to stop it Providing a big current? Does it matter that the current they can provide is very small? The battery manufacturer in question 5.39 made a D-size cell with a capacity of 16 Ah and a mass of 131 g. He makes other cells using the same materials. The C, AA and AAA size cells have capacities of 72 A h, 2.2 Ah and 1.0 Ah, and their masses are 64 g 22 8 and 11 g, respectively. Making the same assumptions as in question 5.39, calculate the energy stored per unit mass for these four cells, and comment on your answers, A student uses the circuit shown in the diagram, Ris a resistance box which gives known Values of resistance. For various values ofits resistance R the current is measured, and the table gives the results: RQ 80 60 40 20 12 10 080 0.60 mA, 167214300 500.82 750 833.938 a) Calculate the power of the resistor for each value of R {b) Predict the power ofthe resistor when R is zero and when Ris infinitely large. {c) Plot a graph of power against resistance. (4) For what value of R is the power a maximum? (6) The internal resistance ofthe cellis known to be 1.0 8. Comment on the shape of the graph, A student wants to measure the internal resistance of a cell and uses the circuit shown in the diagram for the previous question, He obtains the following readings: A viv 143 141 139 133 1.20 mA 143. 176 231 333 600 Plot a graph of V against and deduce (a) the internal resistance (b) the eam. of the cell.7A 72 73 7A 78 76 Circuits and meters Circuit calculations In this section you will need to use what you have learnt in Chapters 5 and 6. A circuit contains a battery, a bulb, a 15 Q resistor, and an ammeter in series, The ammeter reads 0.23 A. A voltmeter, connected across the battery terminals, reads 5.7 V: when connected across the bulb it reads 2.4 V. {a) What is the p.d. across the bulb? (b) What is the resistance of the bulb? A catalogue states that when a particular light-emitting diode is used with a 5.0 V supply a 270 Q resistor must be connected in series with it to limit the current to 10 mA, Calculate {a) the p.d. across the resistor (b) the resistance of the Led, in these conditions. A power supply which provides a constant p.d, of 6.0 V is connected in series with a resistor of constant resistance 100 Q and a thermistor. The resistance of the thermistor is 380 Q at 25°C but falls to 28 Q at 100°C. Calculate the p.d. between the ends of the resistor at (a) 25°C (b) 100°C. The figure shows a circuit in which a battery provides a p.d. of 2.9 V. The p.d. across the 22.9 resistor is found to be 1.2 V. (a) What is the p.d. across @ bulb A (ii) bulb B? {b) What is the current in the resistor? (c) Ifthe bulbs have the same resistance, how many times greater is the current in B than the current in A (leave your answer as a fraction)? (d) What is the current in the battery? 220 In the circuit in the previous figure the fixed resistor is replaced by a rheostat of maximum resistance 22 Q, Explain what happens to the brightness of each bulb as the resistance of the rheostat is reduced from 22 Q to zero. Three resistors, of resistance 4.7 , 10 @ and 15 Q, respectively, are connected to a battery as shown in the figure. A voltmeter connected across the battery reads 5.7 V.TA} 78 79 7AM 7 Circuits and meters {a) Calculate the resistance of the circuit between Band C, (b) Calculate the p.d. between Aand B Band C, {e) Calculate the current through (the 4.7 Q resistor the 10 Q resistor ) the 15 Q resistor, 160 A bulb which is labelled ‘2.5 V 0.2 A is connected in series with a rheostat of maximum resistance 50 Q and a battery. Assume that the battery has a constant pad. of 3.0 V between its terminals. {a) Calculate the resistance of the bulb when it is working normally. (b) Assume that the resistance of the bulb is constant, and calculate the minimum, current which may be obtained by adjusting the theostat. (6) The resistance of the bulb is not constant: is the actual minimum current larger or smaller than your answer to (b)? A power supply which provides a constant p.d. of 12 V is connected across two resistors R, and R, in series. Calculate the p.d. across each when fa) the resistances of Ry and R, are both 120 Q (b) the resistances of R; and R, are both 470 Q (c) the resistance of R, is 120.0 and the resistance of R, is 470 Q (d) the resistance of R; is 680 and the resistance of Ry is 470 2 {e) the resistance of Rj is 1.5 kQ and the resistance of Ry is 470 Q. If the negative terminal of the power supply in the previous question is connected to Ry and earthed, what is the potential of the point between the resistors for each of the five cases? Refer to question 7.8, part (a) A third resistor R; of resistance 120 Q is available. (a) When R; is connected in parallel with Rj, what is the p.d. across @ Ry i) Re (b) When R; is connected in parallel with R,, what is the p.d. across @ RK, Gi) RP ‘The diagram shows two identical resistors connected to the same cell in two different ways. In which case, (a) or (b), is the total power greater, and how many times greater is it? Assume that the cell has no internal resistance, and that the resistors have constant resistance, n7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 TAT When connected to a 240 V mains supply the current in an electric lamp is 0.25 A. The current in an electric heating element connected in parallel to the same mains supply has a current in it of 5.0 A. (a) Calculate the resistances of the devices when connected in this way (i.e, at their normal working temperatures), (b) Assuming, in this part of the question, that the resistance of the devices remains constant, what will be the current in them when they are connected in series to the same supply, and what will be their powers? (c) What will be the appearance of the two devices in these conditions? (d) In practice the resistances will not have remained the same, Will they be greater or smaller when the devices are connected in series? Which device will have the greater change of resistance? ‘A mains lamp labelled ‘240V GOW" and a car headlamp bulb labelled ‘12 V 60 W’ are connected in series to a 240 V supply. What will happen? (Hint: calculate the resistances of the lamp filaments when the lamps are in normal use.) A mains lamp labelled ‘240 V 60 W” and a torch bulb labelled ‘1.25 V 250 ma’ are connected in series to a 240 V supply. What will happen? ‘Your electric fan heater is not working and you need to draw a circuit diagram to help you find out what is wrong. All you know is that there are three simple on-off switches, One switches on the fan without heating, and the other two provide different powers ‘You assume that the circuit is arranged so that the heating cannot be switched on if the fan is not on, and that there are two separate heating elements. (a) Draw a possible circuit diagram. (b) The maximum power of the heater is stated to be 1.0 kW when it is connected to a 240 V supply. What is the resistance of each heater, assuming they are the same? The diagram shows a circuit containing two cells C, and C) of emf. 1.5 V, two resistors of resistance 15 9 and two ammeters A, and A. The cells, the ammeters and the leads all have negligible resistance. What are the readings on ammeters A; and Ay (a) in the circuit as drawn (b) if a wire of negligible resistance is connected between X and Y (c) if C, is reversed, with the wir still in place ot {d) if the wire is removed, with C; still reversed? oa The diagram shows a cubical wire framework, made of resistance wire. The sides all have the same length, so each side has the same resistance. A current of 6 A enters at A, and leaves at H. In answering the questions remember that the circuit is symmetrical, (a) What is the current in AB, AC, AD? (b) What is the current in BE, BE CR, CG, DE, DG?7 Ci (ec) What is the current in EH, FH, GH? Ifthe potential at A is 5 V, and H is earthed, what are the potentials at (a) B,C, D? (e) ERG? Circuits for measurement and sensing In this section you will need to know how to connect an ammeter and a voltmeter in a circuit to measure current and pa. describe how to measure the resistance and power of a resistor understand how a rheostat can be used as a current limiter, using two terminals understand how a rheostat can be used as a potential divider, using three terminals, and what the advantage of this is understand that thermistors and light-dependent resistors (L.d.rs) are sensors which can be used to control other devices understand how potential dividers can be used with sensors. 7.18 The diagram shows a circuit in which a rheostat is connected to a battery. A voltmeter is also connected ae to the theostat. The slider bar is moved from end A — to end B of the rheostat. Explain why the voltmeter mel, records a range of p.d.s from a value slightly less v than the e.mcf. of the battery down to zero. A theostat of maximum resistance 100 Q is connected as a potential divider, as shown in the diagram, to a power supply which provides a constant p.d. of 12 V. The slider is moved until the voltmeter (of very high resistance) reads 3.0 V. (a) Copy the diagram and show the position of the slider. (b) A 47 Q resistor is now connected across the output of the potential divider, ie. in parallel with the voltmeter. The voltmeter reading jy changes. Explain whether it rises or falls. {c) What is the new voltmeter reading? {d) Calculate the current in the power supply. (e) What is then the current in (i) the 47 @ resistor (ii the part of the rheostat in parallel with the 47 Q resistor? 737.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 A rheostat of maximum resistance 50 Qs connected as a potential divider to a battery ‘which provides a constant p.d. of 3.0 V. A student adjusts the slider on the rheostat until the p.d. available, as measured by a voltmeter, is 2.5 V. He then connects a 2.5 V0.2 A bulb in parallel with the voltmeter result The diagram shows two ways of connecting an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure the resistance of a bulb. Someone mig! that in (a) the ammeter measures total current through the bulb and the voltmeter, and in (b) the voltmeter but finds that the bulb does not light. Explain this, ht say the + v measures the pad. across the bulb and the ammeter, (i) Explain whether this matters, Suppose that the bulb has a resista and the voltmeter a resistance of 1 Oo) ® ince of 20 Q, the ammeter has a resistance of 0.10 2 100 kO, (ii) Explain which method you would choose to measure the bulb’s resistance. (No detailed calculations are requit The diagram shows a circuit contai resistance, and four resistors P, Q, earthed, so the potential at that pai (a) What are the potentials at X ar f) P=Q=R=S=10Q2 P=Q=10Q,R 20 2.Q the same? (ce) What circuit component would you need to add in order to test whether the potentials at X and Y were the same? (d) Suppose P= 20 2, Q= 109, of unknown size, and Sis a va Ifthe potentials at X and Y are the same, what is Rif S= 23 92 109,58 (b) What can you say about the values of P, QR and Sif the potentials at X and Y are to be ired.) ining a battery of e.m.f 6.0 V and negligible internal Rand S. The negative terminal of the battery is irt of the circuit is zero. ind Y if 2 2092 Risa resistor riable resistor. The circuit in the previous diagram was once used as a method of measuring resistance. Itis called a bridge network. The bridge is said to be ‘balanced’ when the potentials at X and Y are the same. (a) The resistances of P, Rand Sare 15 Q, 33 Q and 22 ©. Show that the resistance of Q must be 10 Q if the bridge is to be balanced. (b) Explain why, if Pand Rare unchanged, and Qand $ are increased to 100 © and 220 Q, the bridge is still balan (e) If the re: iced. ance of Qis now increased slightly from 100 ©, explain in which direction the current will flow in an ammeter connected between X and Y.7 Circuits and meters 7.24 A light-dependent resistor and a fixed resistor (of resistance pay 10 kQ) are connected as shown in series between the » terminals of a power supply which provides a constant p.d. of 5.0 V. The negative terminal of the power supply is earthed, ic. may be taken to be 0 V, In the dark the potential x of the point X is 0.21 V; when more light falls on the Ld. the potential of X rises to 4.2 V. Calculate the resistance 10K0 of the Ld. in these two situations. ov 7.25 — The diagram shows a circuit in which an L.d.t. is being used as a sensor. A lead at X is connected to a device called a transistor (not shown). When the potential at this point rises above about 0.7 V, the transistor ‘turns on’ and operates a relay which switches on a lamp. (a) On a dull day, the resistance of the Ld.r. is 500 KO, and the theostat is set to provide maximum resistance in series with the fixed resistor of 300 Q. (i) What is the potential at X? Gi) Is the transistor ‘on’? vtew (b) What happens to the resistance of the I.dat. as the day brightens? (ce) Calculate the resistance of the I.d.r. x to transistor when the transistor first turns on, {d) Why is the rheostat included in the 300.0 circuit? 5K ov 7.26 The diagram shows a circuit in which a thermistor is connected, and a graph of how its resistance varies with temperature. Draw a graph to show how the p.d. measured by the voltmeter varies with temperature, PKA 8.007 6.00] 7.27% The table shows how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature. temperature 6/°C 0 30 60 90 120 temperature T/K 273 303 333 363 393 RQ 16.3 5.00 1.24 0457 0.195 78(a) Plot a graph of lg(R/k©) (on the y-axis) against 1/(T/K) (on the seaxis). 10) Why is this thermistor called a negative temperature coeficent (NTC) thermistor? (6) One of these thermistors is connected as shown in the circuit in the diagram. The Point X is connected to a device called a transistor. When the potential at X rises pbove about 0.7 V, the transistor ‘turns on’ and operates a relay which eich ona lamp is to come on when the temperature reaches 50°C. (d) What should be the value of the variable resistor ifthe lamp is to come on when the temperature reaches 80°C. fe) What might be the purpose of the constant resistance of 15 ©? (8) What isthe highest temperature which could be set in this cicuit? +12V to transistor 2200 Meters and osci loscopes In this section you will need to understand why an ammeter must have a much lower resistance than the eiscuit in which it is placed understand why a voltmeter must have a much higher resistance than the component across which it is measuring the p.d. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of light-beamm meters, digital meters, data loggers and electronic meters describe how to use an oscilloscope to measure pad.s and how the sensitivity (or gain) control is used describe how to use an oscilloscope to measure the frequency of an alternating p.d. and how the time-base control is used 7-28 An analogue meter contains a coil which has a resistance of 100 0. ‘The scale reads from Oto 1.0 mA, as shown in the diagram, (a) Ap.d. of 50 mV is connected across the meter, What does the pointer Point to on the scale? () ‘The mete is connected toa different pd, The scale reading i 0.76 mA. What is the size of the p.d.? {c) The scale is marked in mA, so the meter seems to be an ammeter, But itcan also be aed to measure p.ds, as you have seen. Copy the diagram and adapt itso that oon be used to measure p.d.s.7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 An analogue meter can measure currents of up to 100 4A when connected in a circuit. It can measure p.d.s of up to 100 mV when connected across part ofa circuit. What i itg resistance? A student measures the pd, between the terminals ofa battery of negligible internal resistance and finds that it is 6.0 V. He then connects the battery to two 100 kQ resistors as shown in the diagram, and uses a voltmeter to measure the pad. across each of them ya turn, He expects the voltmeter to record a pad. of 3.0 V actoss each of them, but to hie Suprise the recorded p.d.s are each only 2.0 V. His teacher tells him that ‘this is because the voltmeter has a resistance of only 100 KO. Why does this remark explain the readings? 10040 é-60v—- 1000 A cell of e.m.. 1.5 V is connected in series with two resistors of resistance 47 kQ and 68 kQ, respectively. The p.d. actoss the 68 kO re each meter record when fa) the analogue meter is used by itself (b) the digital meter is used by itself (6) both meters are used simultaneously, both being connected in parallel across the resistor? ana, we Extsv— eka. ‘A student wants to find the resistance ofa bulb which is known to be about 20 0. He has available a battery which has negligible internal resistance and an erat of 6 Van ammeter which has a resistance of 10 and a voltmeter which has a resistance of 100 KO. His first three attempts at connecting up a circuit, shown in the diagram, are wrong. In each case what do the meters read? ® v) Vv) 1 + 1 O® ale oL@t « 77.33 7.34 e=60V—= 7.35 The diagram shows a circuit containing two resistors of resistance 10 ©, connected in series with a cell whose e.m-f. is 1.5 V and internal resistance is 0.5 Q. A voltmeter is connected across one of the resistors, as shown. The two resistors are then replaced by two 100 Q resistors, two 1000 kQ resistors and two 10000 kQ resistors, and in each case the voltmeter readings are recorded, as shown: resistance 10-100 1000-—10000 palm 72 74874674 (a) Account qualitatively for the variation in the voltmeter readings. (b) Show that the measurements are consistent with the voltmeter having a resistance of 100 kQ, E=1.500v. A student wishes to investigate how the current varies with time when a filament bulb is switched on. Its resistance, when operating normally, is about 100 Q. He decides to use a data logger with a circuit which includes a 0.47 resistor, as shown in the diagram. (a) Why is it sensible to choose a resistor with such a small resistance? (b) The graph shows the trace he obtains from the data logger. When the bulb is operating normally, what is the pd. across the resistor? (c) What is the current in the bulb 1.0 ms after switching on? Vimy 100, 50] “ + to data t logger | switch on 0.47 9 2 3 4 5 time An oscilloscope has its sensitivity control set to 2.0 V div~! and its time base switched off. Initially the spot is at the centre of the screen, What is the size and direction of the movement of the spot when the oscilloscope is connected to the following points in the circuit shown in the diagram (in each case the positive terminal of the oscilloscope is connected to the first-named point)? The battery has an e.m.f. of 6.0 V and negligible internal resistance, and all the resistors are identical. Indicate upward and downward ‘movements with + and — signs respectively.(a) AandB (b) Band (c) BandD (a) A and E {e) EandF (f) BandP (g) Cand F 7-36 The diagram shows some traces on an oscilloscope screen. What is the frequency of the alternating p.d. if in each case the time base speed is 5.0 m s div? (a) (o) cc) 7-37 The diagram shows a trace on an oscillosco The sensitivity is set to 100 mV div! (a) Describe the variation of the p.d. across which the oscilloscope is connected, (b) The time base is now altered to 5.0 ms div~! and the sensitivity is set to 200 mV div", Sketch the new ‘appearance of the trace, 7-88 With the time base switched off, the vertical movement of the spot on an oscilloscope (a) The fixed resistor R has a known resistance of 10.0 ©, Why is it necessary to include this fixed, known resistance in the circuit? 79ean (b) (c) (a) te) ) What is the p.d. across it when the variable resistor is set to its maximum resistance? Which sensitivity would you use on the oscilloscope: 100 mV div-!, 20 mV div", 5 mV div, | mV div ‘What would be your answers for (b) and (¢) if the variable resistor’s resistance is reduced to 50.92 Later, the oscilloscope spot is found to move 6.3 divisions with the sensitivity set to 10 mV div”, What was the p.d. across the 10 Q resistor? ‘What was the current in the circuit? to oscilloscopea1 8.2 83 Density, pressure si and flow §=981Nkg? atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa substance air water seawater steel_—_ mercury density/kg m-3 129 1.00 10? 1.02 X 10? 7.70 10? 13.6 X 103 —_— Density and pressure In this section you will need to use the equation p = m/V, which defines density p use the equation p = F/A, which defines pressure p understand that atmospheric pressure is caused by the layer of air which is attracted to the Earth by gravitational forces understand that the pressure in a fluid exerts a force at right angles to any surface with which the fluid is in contact use the equation Ap = pg(Ah) calculate pressure differences in manometers and barometers understand how Archimedes’ principle can be used to calculate the upthrust on a body immersed in a fluid, Copy and complete the following table: material mass/kg volume/m? density/kg m aluminium, 160 0.060 lead 0.032 11x 108 steel 60 7.7 X 103 ‘The average radius of the Earth is 6.4 X 10° m, Its mass is 6.0 X 10 kg, What is its average density? A scaffolding pole has an external diameter of 40 mm and an internal diameter of 32mm. It is made of steel. What is the mass of a 5-mette length of pole? (Use data.] 3184 85 86 87 a8 8.9 8.10 8.11 B12 8.13 Copy and complete this table, Each object is in equilibrium on a horizontal surface. object weight/N contact area/m? pressure/N m7 (a) elephant 5.5 x 10! od (b) skier 69X10 25% 10 fe) tractor 15 X 108 1.2 X 108 (tray 8.0 0.20 (e) pavement slab 0.50 8.0 X 10? Express these pressures in (i) Pa (ii) kPa, giving the numbers in standard form, to two significant figures: (a) 1592 N m™ (b) 234000 N mr (e) 56300 N m= A building brick has a mass of 2.8 kg and measures 230 mm by 110 mm by 75 mm. What pressure does it exert when stood, in turn, on each of its three faces on a horizontal surface? Refer to question 8.3. Suppose that one of these scaffolding poles rests vertically on the ground, and the contact force is 12 KN. {a) What pressure would the pole exert on the ground? (b) In practice a horizontal steel plate is placed between the pole and the surface it is resting on. If the plate measures 15 cm by 15 cm, what is the new pressure on the ground? (Ignore the weight of the plate.) {c) When the ground is particularly soft, the plate may rest on a scaffolding board. If the board measures 3.0 m by 0.25 m, what is the pressure between the board and the ground? (Ignore the weight of the board and the plate.) Referring to the pressure which the objects produce when they are used correctly, explain the construction of (a) skis (b) drawing pins (e) football boots. How far would you have to go below the surface of the sea to experience double the pressure at the surface, on a day when the atmospheric pressure was 102 kPa? [Use data.) Explain why the equation Ap = pg(Ah) cannot be used to calculate differences of pressure in the atmosphere when A/t is large. Ifair were not easily compressible, the atmosphere would consist of a uniformly-dense (1.29 kg m*) layer of air which ended abruptiy at a certain height above the Earth's surface. What height would this be on a day when the atmospheric pressure was 101 kPa? Pressures, and pressure differences, are sometimes given in heights of a stated liquid. For example, it might be said that ‘atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of mercury’ or ‘760 mmHg. (a) Explain how it is possible to express a pressure in terms of a h (b)_ Express 760 mm of mercury as a pressure in kPa. [Use data,] ht of liquid, Airliners coming into land at an airport may have to circle round above the airport in a ‘stack’ while they wait for an empty runway. The usual difference in height between aircraft in the stack is 500 feet. The pilots work out their height by using an instrument to measure the atmospheric pressure. What is the difference in pressure which corresponds to this difference in height? (1 foot = 0.31 m]8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8 Density, pressure and flow A rectangular swimming pool which measures 20 m by 15 m contains water to a depth of 1.6 m. Calculate the push caused by the water on {a) the bottom of the pool [Use data.] (b) the larger of the two sides [remember that the pressure increases uniformly with depth] {c) the smaller of the two sides. Show that the units of both sides of the equation Ap = pg(Ah) are the same. {a) Calculate the force exerted by the atmosphere on the upper surface of a window in a sloping roof, ifthe window measures 90 cm by 60 cm, and the roof makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal, on a day when the atmospheric pressure is 103 kPa. {b) Is it possible to calculate the force on the lower surface? If so, what is its size? The diagram shows a U-tube manometer which can be used to measure differences in pressure (e.g. doctors use similar manometers to measure differences in blood pressure: see question 8.19). It contains oil of density 780 kg m™ and has one side (A) connected to a gas supply. The other side (B) is open to the atmosphere. The difference in levels in the tube is 230 mm. {a) On which side is the pressure greater? (b) What is the pressure of the gas supply, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.2 kPa? {c) What would have been the difference in levels if water had been used instead of A eB the oil? [Use data,] (d) What is the advantage of using oil in the tube, rather than water? ‘Pressure decreases exponentially with height in the atmosphere, but increases linearly with depth in the oceans? (a) Explain the meaning of the terms in italics, (b) Explain why there is this difference in behaviour. The heart pumps blood through our arteries. As it does so, the pressure in the arteries rises and falls. The usual method of measuring the pressure of the blood in the arteries is ‘o wrap a rubber cuff round the patient’s upper arm and increase the pressure in it until the blood flow stops (as indicated by the pulse in the wrist). This gives the maximum. blood pressure (the systolic pressure), which is recorded as a difference in levels (in mm) ona mercury manometer; the air in the cuff is then released until the blood begins to flow again, and the pressure (the diastolic pressure) when this happens is again recorded. (All these pressures are relative to atmospheric pressure.) {a) Ifyour blood pressure measurements are ‘120/80’, what are these pressures in kPa? [Use data.] (b) What is your mean arterial blood pressure in mmHg? {e) Copy the diagram of a human being shown on the following page. Assume that his ‘mean arterial blood pressure is the same as yours and on the pressure scale mark the mean arterial blood pressures at the four heights shown on the height scale. The density of blood may be assumed to be the same as that of water. a8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 Mant {d) What is the mean systolic pressure in this person’s feet? (e) Why is blood pressure usually measured on your upper arm? +060 height relative to heart in m ‘mean pressure in arteries in mmiig ~1.20) The blood in the human body flows through capillaries (very narrow paths) from the arteries to the veins. The blood in the veins is therefore at a lower pressure than the blood in the arteries, In hospitals many fluids (e.g, blood, saline solution, drugs) are given to patients by ‘means of an intravenous drip, ie. the liquid is passed into the blood stream by means of aneedle. (a) Why would the needle be inserted in a vein, rather than an artery? (b) Ifthe mean blood pressure in a patient's vein is 20 mmHg (above atmospheric pressure) what is the minimum height at which the bag of liquid must be placed above the patient’s arm? Assume that the density of the liquid is the same as that of water, [Use data,] A capsule, containing air at a pressure of 150 kPa, is sealed by a valve which can withstand a pressure difference of 650 kPa. How deep in sea water, of density 1020 kg m™, can the capsule be lowered if no water is to enter? [Pressure at surface of sea = 101 kPa.) Oak has a density of about 700 kg m’®, Draw a free-body diagram for a piece of oak floating in water, and explain fully why 0.70 of its total volume is submerged. The airship R101 (which burst into flames in 1930 when the hydrogen in it ignited after a crash) had a volume of 1.38 X 10° m3. Using data given above, calculate {a) the upthrust on it (b) the weight of the gas in it if it was filled with (i) hydrogen (density 0.0880 kg m~) (ii) helium (density 0.176 kg m7) (c) the differences between the upthrust and these two weights (a) What is the Archimedean upthrust on a body of volume 0.20 m? when itis suspended, completely immersed, in a tank of water? (b) Why is the upthrust exactly the same when it rests on the bottom of the tank? A mixture of ice and water is poured into a beaker until it is completely fll. Explain whether there will be an overflow when the ice melts.8 Density, pressure and flow 8.26 A manufacturer wishes to use expanded polystyrene, which has a density of 15 kg m-, to make buoyancy aids for children learning to swim, What volume of material is needed to produce an upthrust of 20 N? 8.27 _ Ina misguided attempt to measure the density of air a student found the mass of a deflated balloon, blew it up (making sure that the air in it was at atmospheric pressure) and found the new mass. He found that the two masses were identical. Why was this? 8.28 The masses of a table tennis ball and a squash ball were found by placing them on a top pan balance. The readings were 2.39 g and 23.82 g, respectively, and the balls’ diameters were 38.6 mm and 40.6 mm. (a) Using data given above, calculate (i) the upthrust of the air on the table tennis ball its true mass, {b) Repeat (a) for the squash ball. (c) In each case what is the percentage error in the mass? (a) In what type of situation is it necessary to consider the upthrust of the air on a body? 8.29 The diagram shows the Plimsoll lines which are painted on the sides of ships. They show where the water line should be for different situations. a) If the water is at level F for a ship in dock, and then changes to TR, has the ship been loaded or unloaded? Explain. (b) TF stands for ‘tropical fresh water, T stands for ‘tropical sea water’ Why is TF higher than T {e) S stands for ‘summer’, W stands for ‘winter Why is § higher than W? {d) Why is the weight of a ship often called its displacement? 8.30 An aqueduct is a bridge which carries a canal or a river. Is the downward force on the aqueduct greater when a barge is passing over it? Explain, Flow need to In this section you wi understand what it means to say that a fluid is viscous understand the difference between frictional and viscous forces understand the difference between streamline and turbulent flow, and the conditions under which each may occur 858.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 8.38 be able to use the drag force equation F= 4ACpp v? where the symbols have their usual meaning understand that in a pipe fluid flows faster where the pipe is narrower, and that the pressure there is less understand how the Bernoulli effect is used in situations where air lows over a curved surface (aerofoils, hydrofois, sails, windsurfing, paragliding) be able to use the lift force equation F= +SC,pu? where the symbols have their usual meanings. A horizontal pipe A of cross-sectional area 4.0 X 10~ m? narrows into a second horizontal pipe B of cross-sectional area 1.0 X 10“ m?. The pipes are full of water, and the speed of the water in pipe A is 0.20 m s, (a) What is the rate of flow of volume in (i) pipe A ( (b) What is the speed of the water in pipe B? (e) Explain how the water in pipe B has been able to be accelerated. pipe B? Suppose your kitchen tap delivers 500 cm? of water in 2.5 5, and at the tap the diameter of the stream of water is 1.2 em, (a) At what speed does the water emerge from the tap? {b) How fast is it moving when it has fallen 0.20 m2 (c) Calculate the diameter of the stream of water when it has fallen that distance, Why is a pump needed to keep liquid flowing along a horizontal pipe? When you stir a cup of cofiee, the circular motion of the coffee ceases after a short time. Why is this? Explain the difference between streamline and turbulent flow. Which is more likely to occur when the fluid has a low speed? Why would you use viscous, and not frictional, forces to reduce the size of the unwanted oscillations of a body? A prototype car is placed in a wind tunnel (a) Describe what would be done to enable the designer to tell where the flow of air over the car was streamline and where it was turbulent, {b) Why is it important that turbulence should be reduced as much as possible? (c) For a particular car the frontal area is 3.0 m2, the drag coefficient Cp is 0.30. What is the drag force at speeds of (i) 25 m s~ (ii) 35 m sl Water flows along a horizontal tube whose cross-section varies as shown. Sketch a graph to show how the pressure varies with distance along the tube, assuming that the water is viscous.8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.43 8 Density, pressure and flow Photographs of windsurfers often show the sail with a curved shape, but the wind is blowing across the surface of the sail, not into it, as might have been expected: see the photo. Explain why the sail is curved in this way. A table tennis ball may be supported on an upward jet of air produced by a hair drier. ‘The molecules of air which hit the ball are pushed downwards, and by Newton's third Jaw, the ball is pushed upwards. But why does the ball return to the centre of the jet if it is pushed sideways slightly? Explain why (a) a long high-sided lorry being overtaken by a similar lorry may be pulled towards each other, especially if there is a large difference in speed (b) a strong wind blowing along the outside of a garden wall may cause the wall to fall outwards {c) two table tennis balls, which are hanging side by side and near each other, move closer together when you blow into the space between them, (a) Draw a diagram which shows a cross-sectional view of an aerofoil, and draw streamlines to show the flow of air past it when itis placed in a wind tunnel. {b) Hence explain why there is an upward push on the aerofoil. (c) How does the upward push depend on the area of the surface of the aerofoil, the density of the air, and the speed of the ait? ‘Use the equation F=}SCp v? to calculate the upward push of the air flowing past the wings of an air liner which has a total wing area of 500 m? and a speed of 280 ms ina region where the density of air is 0.025 kg m™. Take C, to be 0.50.91 9.2 9.4 Mechanical properties “Hiof matter 9.81 N kg Materials in tension and compression In this section you will need to understand what is meant by the tension in a stretched wire, spring or rod and that it is the same throughout use the equation F = kx, which defines the stiffness k of a spring calculate the stiffness of two identical springs of stiffness k when arranged in series or in parallel use the equation o= FIA, which defines tensile stress & use the equation €= All, which defines tensile strain € understand what is meant by saying that a wire or spring obeys Hooke’s law understand what is meant by the limit of proportionality, and the elastic limit of a material use the equation E= ofe, which defines the Young modulus E understand what is meant by stiffness, and how it differs from strength understand what is meant by elastic and plastic behaviour explain where tension and compression occur in a beam or cantilever draw stress-strain graphs for typical ductile and brittle metals, rubber and other polymers describe how to measure the Young modulus for a material in the form of a wire. ‘Two tug-of-war teams each pull on a rope with a force of 5000 N. The rope is horizontal. What is the tension in the rope at its mid-point? ‘A mass of 6.0 kg is placed at the lower end of a vertical wire; the upper end is fixed to a ceiling. What is the tension in the wire (a) at its lower end (b) at its upper end? ‘What assumption do you have to inake to be able to answer (b)? The mass of 6.0 kg referred to in the previous question is now supported by a uniform rope which has a mass of 1.0 kg. What is the tension in the rope (a) atitslower end (b) atits upper end (e) at its mid-point? ‘The graphs in the diagram show how the force Fneeded to produce an extension x varies for three different springs A, B and C, {a) Calculate the gradient of each line and hence find the stiffness of each spring,9 Mechanical properties of matter {b) Use your graph to find the force needed to produce an extension of 0.12 m in (A Gi) B GNC. (c) Use your graph to find the extension produced by a force of 16 N in (i) A (i B. FIN 20 10] 0 0.10 020 0.30 0.40 050 xl 9.5 A spring has a stiffness of 60 N m~1, Assuming that Hooke's law is obeyed, find the force needed to stretch it (a) 10 cm (b) 50 cm. 9.6 A spring has an unstretched length of 12 cm and a stiffness of 50 N m=. What force is needed to (a) double its length (b) treble its length? 9.7 A load of weight 20 N was hung from a ver fa) What was the extension? {b) A second identical spring was hung side by side with the first spring to help support the load, ic. in parallel. What was then the extension? What was the stiffness of this system of two springs? (c) This second spring was removed, and instead placed between the first spring and the load, ie. in series. What was then the extension? What was the stiffness of this system of two springs? (d) For springs of stiffness k, write down the stiffness, in terms of k, of two springs (i) in parallel (ii) in series, 1 spring of stiffness 100 N m7, 9.8 The common ‘expendable’ springs often found in laboratories have a stiffness of 30 N mr. What is the stiffness of {a) three of these springs connected end-to-end (b) two of these springs connected side-by-side (e) a spring made by cutting one of these springs into two equal lengths? 9.9 Ifa wire of a particular material (e.g. copper) is stretched with a particular force, will its extension be greater if (a) it is made thinner (b) it is made longer? 9.10 Ifa particular wire is stretched with a steadily increasing force, will the force at which it breaks depend on the original length of the wire? 9.11 Express these stresses in N m™, giving the number in standard form: (a) 101 kPa (b) 0.27 MPa (e) 35 MPa (d) 2.8 GPa (e) 235 GPa.9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 aan Copy and complete the following table: force cross-sectional area stress (a) 6.0N 0.10 mm? (b) 12 kN 2.0 mm? (e) 34cm? 6.0 X 10° N m2 (a) (0.50 mm)? 6.4 MPa fe) 0.11 kN 0.22 GPa ‘A steel wire has a diameter of 0.36 mm. {a) What is its radius? (b) What is its cross-sectional area, in m2? {e) Itis pulled by a force of 3.5 N. What is the tensile stress in the wire? The maximum stress in high-tensile steel is about 340 MPa A particular wire made from this steel has to support a load of 60 kg. (a) What is the maximum stress, in N my (b) What force does the load produce? [Use data.) (c) What is the minimum cross-sectional area of the wire? {d) What is the minimum diameter of the wire? What is the tensile stress in (a) one of the supporting cables of a suspension bridge which has a diameter of 40 mm and which pulls up on the roadway with a force of 30 kN (b) a nylon fishing line of diameter 0.35 mm which a fish is pulling with a force of 15 N (e) a tow rope of diameter 6.0 mm which is giving a car of mass 800 kg an acceleration 0F 0.40 m s* (other horizontal forces on the car being negligible)? Copy and complete the following tabl length strain fa) 2.0m (b) 20cm. (ce) 10m 3.0 X 10° (d) 34m 5.2 X 103 te) 1.6 X 10-4 What is the tensile strain when {a} a copper wire of length 2.0 m has an extension of 0.10 mm (b) a rubber band of length 50 mm is stretched to a length of 150 mm? A rectangular strip of polythene is 0.10 mm thick and 10 mm wide (and several centimetres long). When it is stretched it deforms so that the ends still have their original width and thickness, but there isa central section which is still 0.10 mm thick but only 5.0 mm wide. If the force with which each end is being pulled is then 50 N, find the tensions and the tensile stresses in (a) the wide (b) the narrow part of the str2 Mechanical properties of matter 9.19 Copy and complete the following table: stress strain Young modulus E (a) 50 MPa 60 x 104 (b) 0.10 GPa 5.0 X 107 (o) 0.054 0.22.GPa (a) 0.30.GPa 300 GPa (e) 18GPa 180 GPa 9.20 The table below gives the corresponding values of load and extension when masses were hung on a wire of length 2.0 m and diameter 0.40 mm, loadikg 0 020 040 060 080 1.00 110 112 extension/mm o 10 21 31 42 54 73 9.0 {a) Plot a graph of load (on the y-axis) against extension (on the a-axis). {b) From the straight part of the graph, where Hooke’ law is obeyed, calculate the gradient of the graph (which will have kg/mm as the unit). (c) From the gradient calculate the ratio of force to extension (which will have Nimm as, the unit). [Use data,] (a) What is this ratio in N/m? (e) What is the cross-sectional area of the wire, in m2? (8) In the equation E= Fed you now have the ratio Fe (from the graph), and the values of /and A. Calculate the value of £, the Young modulus, for this material. (g) What is the advantage of drawing a graph and calculating the gradient, rather than calculating the value of E from one or more pairs of values of load and extension? (h) Estimate the probable final extension of the wire after the load of 1.12 kg is removed, [Note: keep your answers for question 9.50.] 9.21 The diagram shows stress-strain graphs for three metals. (a) The label on the strain axis is €/10™°. What is the strain at the point on the strain axis which is labelled ‘0.5°? (b) Why does strain not have a unit? {c) Which of the three metals has the greatest Young modulus? (d) For each metal calculate the Young modulus. MPa 200 100 o" 05 : To o19.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 in Physics A copper wire of length 1.2 m and cross-sectional area 0.10 mm: is hung vertically; for copper E= 130 GPa. A steadily increasing force is applied to its lower end to stretch it. ‘When the force has reached a valueof 10 N (a) what is the stress in the wire (b) what is the strain in the wire (c) what is the extension of the wire? {a) What would be the strain in a wire if a stress equal to its Young modulus were applied to it? (b) Could this ever occur in practice? ‘What is meant by the ultimate tensile stress for (a) a brittle material such as cast iron (b) a ductile material such as copper? ‘The diagram shows force-extension graphs for two wires A and B, made from the same material, {a) Is it possible for A, compared with force B, to be (i) thinner and longer A 8 Gi) thinner and shorter (iii) thicker and shorter (iv) thicker and longer? (b) What quantities should be plotted to get the same graph for both wires? ‘extension A garage intends to tow a lorry, using a steel wire. Explain to what extent the garage need consider each of the following factors: the Young modulus of the steel, the ultimate tensile stress of the steel, the length of the wire, the cross-sectional area of the wire. Human beings have evolved so that their bones are strong enough to withstand the forces met in normal everyday life, e.g. the cross-sectional area of a leg bone is great enough to be able to support the weight of the body and also the increased forces when walking, running or jumping. Imagine a human being whose dimensions were all twice as great as those of a normal human being. (a) How many times greater would be (i) its volume and its weight (ii) the compressive force in a leg bone when it was standing still (iii) the cross-sectional area of a leg bone (iv) the compressive stress in a leg bone when it was standing still? (b) What problems would this human being encounter? {c) Explain why large animals such as elephants and rhinoceroses have very thick legs. (a) What is the minimum radius of a nylon fishing line which is required to lift a fish of ‘mass 5.0 kg vertically ata steady speed? (b) If the fish struggles (and therefore accelerates) the force may be increased by a factor of 10. What minimum radius is now required? (Ultimate tensile stress of nylon filament = 60 MPa.]9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 9 Mechanical properties of matter A lift of mass 3000 kg is supported by a steel cable of diameter 20 mm. The maximum acceleration of the lift is 2.5 m s~. Calculate {a) the maximum tension in the cable ~ (b) the maximum stress in the cable {c) the maximum strain in the cable. [Z for steel = 200 GPa] ‘Two wires A and B are made from the same material. A is twice as long as B and has half B’s diameter, When the same load is hung from each wire, what is the ratio fa) (stress in A)/(stress in B) (b) (strain of A)/(strain of B) (e) (extension of A)/(extension of B)? Wire A is aluminium; wire B is chromium. B is twice as long as A but has only one-third the cross-sectional area. The Young modulus of aluminium is + that of chromium. (a) When the same mass is hung from each wire, which will have the larger extension, and how many times larger is it? (b) Each material has the same ultimate tensile stress, When increasing loads are applied, which wire will break first? {a) Two wires of the same material but of different lengths and diameters are joined end-to-end and hung vertically to support a load. Explain which of the following quantities must be the same for both wires: tensile force, tensile stress, strain, extension, (b) Two wires of the same material and of the same length are now hung vertically side- by-side with their ends joined together. Explain which of the following quantities must now be the same for both wires: tensile force, tensile stress, strain, extension. A copper wire and a tungsten wire of the same length are hung vertically. The cross- sectional areas of the wires are 0.10 mm? and 0.15 mm?, respectively. Equal steadily increasing forces are applied to each wire. The Young modulus E and ultimate tensile stress 0, are given in the table: ee EIGPa oy/MPa copper 130 220 tungsten 410 120 Which of the wires will (a) break first (b) have the larger extension at that time? ‘Two students A and B perform experiments on copper wire. Both wires have the same Jength, but B's has twice the diameter of A's. Explain which of the following statements are true: {a) when they apply the same stress they get the same strain (b) when they apply the same load A's strain is 4 times B’s (c) when they apply the same load A's extension is four times B's ‘There isa risk that thermal expansion might cause railway track to buckle ifthe temperature rises sufficiently. So the track is stretched before itis laid so that it is in tension. Then, if the temperature rises, all that happens is that the tension in the track is reduced. Suppose a 100 m length of rail is to be laid, The expansivity of the steel is 1.1 X 10°C" ie. the length increases by this fraction of its original length for each Celsius degree rise in temperature. (a) What would be the expansion of this length for a 25°C rise in temperature? (b) The Young modulus for the steel is 200 GPa. What stress would be needed to push the rail back to its original length?() “The cross-sectional area of stel rail is 75 cm?. What force would be needed to push the rail back to its original length, so that a later rise in temperature of 25°C does not put it into compression? 9-36 The diagram shows an experiment in which a copper wire was stretched using increasing loads. The length of the wire was 4.35 m, and its diameter was 0.46 mm. The wire was loaded and unloaded for three cycles, and some of the results are shown in the table. first cycle second cycle third cycle load/g _e/mm load/g ef load/g elm 0 0 0 0 0 43 3001.0 600 19 6006.0 60019 1200 40 120079 900 3.0 1800 79 1800 10.0 1200 40 2100109 2100 114 9003.0 1800103 2400 15.9 60019 1200 85 2500 18.8 3001.0 600 63 0 0 0 43 (a) Why was such a long wire used? (b) What instrument would you have used to measure the diameter of the wire, and what precautions would you have taken? (6) What safety precautions would you have taken in this experiment? (d) For which cycle did the wire behave completely elastically? Explain, (e) Plot a graph of load against extension for the cycle you chose in (dl), find its gradient, and hence calculate the Young modulus of copper. (A) At the end of the second cycle, the wire is 4.3 mm longer than it was. What has happened to the atoms in the copper? {g) How do the readings in the third cycle show that the copper has been work hardened? (h) What was the ultimate tensile stress for the copper in this wire? In fact the final extension of the wire was not 18.8 mm, because without any further increase in load, the wire stretched toa final extension of 21.8 mm. How was it Possible for the wire to continue to stretch without the load being increased? orignal tenth clamped Polley here mass ruler 9.37 The diagram shows stress-strain graphs for a glass rod and copper wire, (a) Which material is stronger? (b) Why are there two graphs for copper wire? {c) Does copper obey Hooke’s law? If so, to what extent? (d) Explain which material has the larger Young modulus. (e) What is meant by the term nominal stress?‘nominal stress/10° Pa, (f) In (b) why does the graph slope downwards, apparently showing the wire continuing to stretch with decreasing loads? (g) What feature of the graph for the glass rod shows that glass is brittle? (h) Make a copy of (e) and add it to a line which shows what you would expect to happen if the load was gradually removed when a strain of 0.0015 had been reached. 07 . | g80 = g 80 2 |e t 0.50| sles 704 yea (920) conperate 5 5 ; oash LI B10 Bio fee € é i oO! eo 2 0! o 00005 001 0.10 0.20 030 0° 0.007 0002 0008 strain (b) strain (e) strain 9.38 Wires of many ductile materials form a neck just before they break, ie. the wire narrows at one point of the wire. Explain, using terms like force, stress and strain, why the wire ‘must inevitably break where the neck frst forms. Sketch stress-strain and force-extension graphs describing the behaviour ofthe wire before and after the neck forms, and explain why these graphs differ in shape. 9.39 ‘The diagram shows a stress-strain graph for a specimen of polythene (such as you might find holding together a four-can pack of beer or coke). (a) Describe what the graph shows € 2 about the behaviour of the polythene S when itis londed and unloaded. 3 (b) What is the approximate value of the g Young modulus of the polythene? 4 € 10} % 0.25 0.50 stan 9.40 Describe how you would measure the Young modulus for copper, assuming that you have a choice of copper wires of different diameters and lengths. You should say which instruments you would use to make the measurements, and explain which measurements would have the greatest uncertainty in them. 9.41 A successfully-designed road bridge will be strong, stifand elastic. Explain why it needs to have each of these properties, making clear the meaning of each of the words in italics. 9.42 In many practical situations the bending of a piece of material (e.g. a concrete beam) produces tension in the material. Draw a diagram of a concrete beam which is supported only at its ends, and mark on it the parts of the beam which have tensile stress in them, and the parts which have compressive stress in them. The ultimate tensile stress of concrete is about ten times less than the ultimate compressive stress. Mark on your diagram where you would place steel reinforcing bars. 23ct 9.43 9.44 9.45 9.46 ip Physic: ‘The Young moduli of copper and aluminium are 130 GPa and 70 GPa, respectively. Bars of the same length and diameter are made from each material. Explain which bar would be the easier to bend. ‘The diagram shows the two bones in a human leg and a graph of compressive or tensile stress against strain for the bones of a 30-year old person. The bone breaks at point X. (a) Use the graph to calculate the Young modulus for the bone (use only the straight part of the graph). {b) What is the maximum compressive or tensile stress for the bone? (c) What is the maximum strain for the bone? (d) In fact bones break more often because they are bent than because of simple compression or tension, Draw a diagram of a bent bone and mark on it the regions where tension and compression would occur. oiMPa 160 fibula 20 tibia ° 04 08 12 6 eno? Energy stored in stretched materials In this section you will need to use the equation W= 7 kx? to calculate the elastic potential energy W stored in a spring which obeys Hooke's law use the equation elastic pe. per unit volume = 4(stress) X (strain) to calculate the elastic pee. stored per unit volume in a wire which obeys Hooke’s law estimate the energy stored in a spring or wire when the force-extension graph is not straight understand that the toughness of a material is related to the work that must be done to break it, and that toughness is often a desirable property. How much work must be done to stretch a spring of stiffness 30 N m7! by (a) 10 cm (b) 20 cm (e) 30 cm? Assume that the spring obeys Hooke’s law. Explain why your answer to (b) is not double your answer to (a). {a) Sketch a graph of force F (on the y-axis) against extension x (on the x-axis) for a spring of stiffness 50 Nm" for values of x from 0 to 1.0 m, Assume that the spring obeys Hooke’s law.9.47 9.48 9.49 9.50 9.51 9.52 9.53 9 Mechanical properties of matter {b) Use your graph to find the increase in energy stored in the spring when its extension increases from (i) 0 to 0.20 m (ii) 0.20 m to 0.40 m (ili) 0.80 m to 1.0 m. A steel wire of initial length 1.5 m and diameter 0.50 mm is pulled with a force of 45 N. (a) What is its extension? {b) How much energy is stored in it? Assume that Hooke’s law is obeyed: E for the steel = 200 GPa. Show that the units of both sides of the equation Wi= 4 k2 are the same, A copper wire is stretched with a steadily increasing force: Hooke's law ceases to be obeyed when the force reaches 80 N. The extension is 5.0 mm when the force is 20 N. How much elastic potential energy is stored in the wire when the force is (a) 20 N (b) 40 N (e) 60. N? Refer to question 9.20. (a) Estimate the work which has been done in stretching the wire up to the point where it carries a load of 1.12 kg. (b) Estimate how much of this energy has become internal energy, and how much is stored as elastic p.e. (and therefore recoverable). The graph shows how the extension varies with the force when a rubber band is stretched, Estimate the work done in stretching it. Hint: the area of each square represents work done equal to 2,0 N X 100 mm = 0.20 J.] FIN T 1 1 + 1 | xtmm 100 200 300 400 00 Consider a wire of length and cross-sectional area A, whose, material has a Young modulus B, which is being pulled by a force F. Its extension is x, and the energy stored, if Hooke’s law is obeyed, is given by W= +Fx. (a) Express Fin terms of E, |, A and x, and hence show that W = (EAx")/21. (b) Hence show that the energy stored per unit volume in the wire is equal to +(stress) X (strain) for a wire which obeys Hooke’s law. ‘The diagram shows idealised forms of the force-extension curve for specimens (of the same shape) of high tensile steel and mild steel up to the point where each specimen breaks. {a) Explain which is the stronger material. (b) By considering, in each case, the area between the graph and the extension axis, find the work which must be done to <0 break each specimen. (c) Explain which is the tougher material. igh tenia seo I pid steel 5 26 979.54 9.55 9.56 9.57 9.58" ‘The diagram shows a force-extension graph for a length of rubber cord which is loaded and then unloaded. {a) Which curve, the lower or the fess upper, describes the loading? (b) What name is given to the fact that the two curves do not coincide? (ce) Explain how this effect causes heating in motor car tyres. s ™ eran A locomotive of mass 65 tonnes just fails to stop in a siding and runs into the buffers at a speed of 0.50 ms If the buffers can be thought of as consisting of two compression, springs in parallel which obey Hooke's law, what must the stiffness of each spring be if the locomotive is to be stopped in a distance of 10 cm? A rubber band was supported so that it hung vertically. The extensions of the band for various loads, when the band was loaded and unloaded, are shown in the table: loadig 0 200 400 600 800.1000 1200 extension (when loading) /mm 0 70 245 410 530 600650 extension (when unloading) /mm 0 190 550 610 630 650 650 (a) Plot a graph of load (on the y-axis) against extension (on the a-axis) for loading and unloading. (b) Estimate the area beneath each graph. {e) Hence find (i) the work done in stretching the rubber band (ii) the internal energy generated in the rubber band. A puck of mass 0.10 kg rests in equilibrium at point O on an air table. Frictional forces can be assumed to be negligible. The puck is connected by two springs of stiffness 5.0 N m~ to two posts A and B. Initially the springs are taut but unstretched. The puck is moved a distance of 20 cm towards A and then released. {a)_ At what speed does it pass through its original position? (b) At what point does it first stop? {e) Sketch a graph to show how the elastic potential energy E, in the springs varies with distance x from O for values of x from —20 em to +20 cm, (d) On the same axes sketch a graph of the kinetic energy Ej of the puck for these values of x Laboratory experiments involving the oscillations of masses supported by springs are common, but similar experiments using masses supported by rubber bands are rarely attempted. (a) Why is this? {b) Sketch a graph to show how the amplitude might vary with time for a mass. supported by a rubber band,10.1 10.2 10.3 Thermal properties «2 of matter g= 981 Ng? density of water = 1.0 X 10° kg m? specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg"! K? specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 0.334 MJ kg"! specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2.26 MJ kg! Measu ig temperature In this section you will need to understand the principle of measuring a temperature on the centigrade or Celsi scale describe several types of thermometer and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each, understand that temperature scales based on the properties of actual substances will agree only at the fixed points understand that the thermodynamic scale of temperature does not depend on the properties of any substance understand that 0 K -273.16°C (though 0 K may be taken as equal to 273°C for most purposes). iS Ina mercury thermometer why is (a) the bore narrow (b) the bulb relatively large (e) the glass of the bulb thin (d) mercury preferred to other liquids (e) the inside evacuated? (a) Does a thermometer read its own temperature or the temperature of its surroundings? (b) Suppose a mercury thermometer was put in a place shaded from direct sunlight, and reached a steady temperature. Another identical thermometer placed in direct ;ht would give a higher steady temperature, What are these two thermometers measuring? Explain, making reference to the rates of emission and absorption of energy by the bulbs, why the readings are different. (a) The length of a mercury column in a mercury thermometer is 15.3 mm at the ice point and 47.8 mm at the steam point. What is the temperature on the centigrade scale of this thermometer when the length of the column is 21.6 mm? (b) The resistance of a piece of platinum is 3.254 Q at the ice point and 4.517 Q at the steam point. It is used to measure the same temperature as in (a) and its resistance is then 3.494 Q. What is then the temperature on the centigrade scale of this thermometer? {c) Comment on the discrepancy between your two answers.10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 ‘What type of thermometer would you use to measure each of the following? In each case explain the reasons for your choice. {a) The boiling point of water on a mountain, (b) The temperature just after ignition in a cylinder of an internal-combustion engine. (c) The temperature of the filament of an electric lamp. (d) The normal melting point of zinc. (a) What is meant by the triple point of water? {b) Why is this used in defining the thermodynamic scale of temperature rather than, for example, the boiling point of water? (c) What value is assigned to it, in K? What is meant by absolute zero? ‘The equation T/K = (pV) r/(pV)_y X 273.16 is used to define the thermodynamic scale of, temperature, using a constant-volume gas thermometer. Since the volume of the gas in the thermometer is constant the equation can be simplified to TIK = PrP X 273.16. ‘To be precise, the limiting value, as the pressure p,, tends to zero, of the ratio py! py, is used. ‘To measure the temperature T of a substance, the following measurements of the pressure of a gas, kept at the same temperature as the substance, were made: Pr/mmHg 1621.5 12176 812.75 406.88 Pro/mmEg. 1000.0 750.00 500.00 250.00 (a) Calculate the ratio pz/py, for each of these pairs of values, to 5 significant figures. (b) What do you notice about the value of the ratio as pj, decreases? (c) Deduce the value which the ratio would have if p,, were zero. (d) Hence find the value of T, the temperature of the substance. Internal energy In this section you will need to understand what is meant by internal energy understand the difference between heating and working = use the equation AU= AQ + AW where AU is the change of internal energy of a body when energy AW is supplied to the body by working and energy AQ is supplied to the body by heating. (a) Explain what is meant by internal energy. {b) Does a block of ice have any internal energy? {c) Could a lump of iron at 20°C have more internal energy than another lump of iron at 80°C? ‘Two copper blocks, placed together in good thermal contact, will soon reach the same temperature. Explain whether the blocks necessarily have the same amount of internal energy.10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10 Thermal properties of matter What is meant by the internal energy of a body? Ifa car is stopped by being braked, in what sense is the increase of energy of the molecules of the brake drums, tyres, road, etc, different from the original kinetic energy of the car? Write down a statement of the first law of thermodynamics, using the symbols AU, AQ and AW, and explain what each symbol means. Would you describe the following energy exchanges as heating case (i) the body losing the energy, and the kind of energy lost ( energy, and the kind of energy gained. {a) A can of beer is taken from a refrigerator and put in a warm room. (b) A man sandpapers a block of wood: its temperature rises. {e) A night storage heater cools down during the day. {d) A tennis ball is dropped and after several bounces comes to rest. (e) The coffee in a mug has just been stirred, and is rotating: later it comes to rest. (fA girl pumps air into a bicycle tyre: the pump and air become hotter. working? State in each the body gaining the ‘When a car’s brakes are applied frictional forces do 0.20 MJ of work. Because they are hot they lose 0.080 MJ of energy to the surroundings. What are (a) AW (b) AQ(e) AU for this process? A battery drives a current throught « bulb. During the first few milliseconds, while the filament is still warming up, ate AU, AQ and AW positive, negative or zero for the filament? Are they positive, negative or zero when the filament has reached its steady temperature? Heat capacity In this section you will need to use the equation AQ = cm(A@), which defines specific heat capacity (s.h.c.) ¢ describe how to measure the s.h.c. of a metal in the form of a cylindrical block ' understand that the rate of loss of energy from a body depends on the temperature difference between itself and the surroundings, and on its surface area and the nature of the surface understand that a heated body must eventually reach a steady equilibrium temperature when it is losing exactly as much energy as it is gaining make simple corrections for the loss of energy from a heated body use the equation AQ = cm(A@) in the form AQ = C(A@) where Cis the heat capacity ofa body use the equation AQ = cm(A@) in the form rate of heating = em (rate of change of temperature) understand the significance of water having a particularly high s.h.c. Ina steel-making furnace 5.0 tonnes of iron have to be raised from a temperature of 20°C to the melting point of iron (1537°C). Find how much energy (in GJ) is needed to do this. [s.h.c. of iron = 420 J kg K] 10110.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 Make a rough calculation of the cost of using electrical energy to heat water for a bath, if about 0.3 m? of water have to be heated from 5°C to 35°C. Assume that the cost of 3.6 MJ of electrical energy is about 10 pence. [Use data.] The bit of a soldering iron is made of copper and has a mass of 3.3 g. If the power of its electrical heater is 45 W, how long will it take to raise its temperature from 15°C to 370°C, assuming that there are no energy losses to the surroundings? [s.h.c. of copper = 385 J kg™! K1.] ‘An instant gas hot water heater is capable of raising the temperature of 2.0 kg of water by 50 K each minute. (a) What is its power? [Use data.] (b) What problem might there be in designing an instant electric water heater which is to work from the ordinary mains supply and achieve the same rate of heating? A power station needs to get rid of energy at a rate of 600 MW and does so by warming up a river which flows past it. The river is 30 m wide, 3.0m deep, and flows at an average speed of 1.2 m s~!. How much warmer is the river downstream of the power station? [Use data.] An electric kettle has a heat capacity of 450 J K~! and an element whose power is 2.25 kW. Ignoring losses of energy to the surroundings, what is the rate of rise of temperature (in K min7!) when the kettle contains 1.0 kg of water? [Use data.] ‘Avending machine for serving hot drinks is shown in the diagram. Its water tank has a capacity of 7.5 litres and the manufacturers say that 45 cups of hot water (at 99°C) can be produced at any one time. (a) What is the volume of a cup? (b) If 170 cups can be produced in one hour, what is the power of the heater? Assume that the water starts at a temperature of 20°C and that there are no energy losses. [Use data.]10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 10.28 10.29 10 Thermal properties of matter It is sometimes said that the cost of running an upright freezer is greater than the cost of running a chest freezer because each time the door of an upright freezer is opened cold air falls out and warm air from the room enters and has to be cooled down. Consider an upright freezer of capacity 0.20 m} and discuss whether there is any truth in this statement. The temperature inside a freezer may be assumed to be about — 18°C, and the sch.c, of air (under these conditions) is 600 J kg"! K. The density of A100 W immersion heater is placed in 200 g of water in a plastic cup (of negligible heat capacity). Ignore the heating of the surroundings: how fast, in K min“, does the temperature rise? [Use data.] How long would it take a 2.0 KW heater to warm the air in a room which measures 4m by 3m by 2.5 m from 5°C to 20°C? ("The s.h.c. of air under these conditions is about 1000 J kg! K“] Give at least two reasons why in practice it takes much longer (perhaps an hour) for the heater to warm such a room. A car of mass 800 kg moving at 20 m s~ is braked to rest 10 times. If 20% of the car’s kinetic energy is retained by the steel brake discs, what is their rise in temperature, if each of the four has a mass of 1.5 kg? [s.h.c. of steel = 420 J kg! K7, A squash ball of mass 46 g is struck so that it hits a wall at a speed of 40 m sit rebounds with a speed of 25 ms", (a) What is its rise in temperature? (s.h.c. of rubber = 1600 J kg"! K+] (b) Why is it unnecessary to know its mass? (c) What will happen to its temperature if the players continue to hit it against the wall? James Joule is said to have measured the temperature at the top and bottom of a waterfall as part of his investigation into energy. What temperature tise would you expect there to be at the bottom of a waterfall 50 m high, if the water loses all its kinetic energy on arriving at the bottom of the waterfall? [Use data.] ‘Water has a relatively high s.h.c. What effect does this have on a) climate {b) the cost of heating water for baths and showers e) the volume of water in a car's cooling system (d) the running costs of a water-filled central heating system? 1.0 kg of water at a temperature of 95°C is poured into a copper saucepan of mass 0.70 kg which is at a temperature of 20°C, The water transfers energy to the saucepan and they reach the same temperature before they start to lose energy to the surroundings. (a) Suppose this temperature is 6. Write down expressions involving @ for (i) the temperature fall of the water (i) the temperature rise of the saucepan. [s.h.c, of copper = 385 J kg! K"] (b) The energy transferred from the water is equal to the energy transferred to the saucepan. Write down an equation involving your answers to (a) and hence find @. [Use data.] (c) Explain why the final temperature of the water and saucepan is much closer to the original temperature of the water than itis to the original temperature of the copper. 4g10.30 10.31 10.32 10.33 10.34 10.35 A block of copper of mass 400 g is raised to a temperature of 450 K and lowered into 500 g of water contained in a vessel of heat capacity 200 J K~!; these were initially at a temperature of 290 K. The final temperature of the water was 301 K. Equate the energy transferred from the copper to the energy transferred to the water, and hence find the value that these measurements give for the s.h.c. of copper. (Use data] Discuss whether this procedure could be used as a method of measuring the s.h.c. of materials in solid form, explaining any precautions you would need to take. Would it ‘matter if the material was a bad conductor of energy? ‘A 30 W immersion heater was placed in an aluminium block of mass 1.0 kg, and switched on for 6.0 minutes: the initial temperature of the block and the surroundings was 12.3°C. At successive one-minute intervals, the following temperatures were recorded: 14.1°C, 15.9°C, 17.7°C, 19.5°C, 21.2°C, 22.9°C, 22.8°C, 22.7°C, 22.6°C, 25°C. (a) Look at the initial increases of temperature and estimate the maximum temperature which would have been reached if the block had not been heating the surroundings. (b) Hence calculate the s.h.c. of aluminium. Suppose you were given an immersion heater, a power supply, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a stop clock, a thermometer and a plastic beaker which you could fill with water, and you could ask for any other (simple) apparatus which you might need. Describe how you would measure the s.h.c. of the water, paying particular attention to the precautions ‘you would take to ensure a reliable result. Suppose you were asked to design a night storage heater, ie. a device consisting of a set of blocks (similar to concrete) which is heated at night, when for 7 hours (between midnight and 7 a.m.) electrical energy is relatively cheap, and which releases its energy during the day. Discuss as many aspects of the design as possible, including: drawing a temperature-time graph for a 24-hour cycle, estimating the power of the heater you would need, estimating the mass of the blocks, and drawing attention to any disadvantages of this form of heating. A student measures the temperature of a plastic mug of water which is cooling down and draws a temperature-time graph. The mass of water is 153 g and the heat capacity of the ‘mug is negligible, He draws a tangent to the curve at the point where the temperature is, 80°C and finds that the line shows a fallin temperature of 25°C in 9.6 minutes, fa) What is the rate of loss of energy at this temperature? (Use data.] {b) When the temperature of the water had fallen to 60°C would the rate of loss of, energy be larger or smaller? Explain. {c) Room temperature was 18°C. Assuming that the rate of loss of energy is proportional to how much higher the temperature is than room temperature, estimate the rate of loss of energy when the temperature of the water had fallen to 60°C. In an experiment to measure the rate of flow of energy along a copper bar, thin copper tubing carrying water is wrapped round one end of the bar. This keeps that end of the bar cold because energy flows into the water which is passing through the tubing. Itis found that the inlet and outlet temperatures of the water are 15.6°C and 34.3°C when the rate of flow of water is such that 430 g are collected in 5.0 minutes. Calculate the rate of flow of energy into the water. [Use data.]10.36 10.37 10.38 10.39 10.40 10.41 10.42 10 Thermal properties of matter ‘An immersion heater is fitted to a hot water tank in a house. In the summer months hot water is needed only for washing. Dad says it is better to keep the heater running all the time because if the water is allowed to cool down there will be extra energy needed to warm it up again. Clare says it is best to have the heater switched on only when it is needed. Explain whether you think Dad or Clare is right. Latent heat In this section you will need to use the equation AQ = ml, which defines specific latent heat (s.L.h.) [ describe how to measure the s.L.h. of melting of ice describe how to measure the sh. of vaporisation of water explain in molecular terms why energy is needed to melt a solid or evaporate a liquid understand the importance of evaporation in regulating human body temperature. Using data given at the start of the chapter, find how much energy must be fa) given to 2.0 litres of water at 100°C to evaporate it (b) taken from 0.50 kg of water at 0°C to freeze it. Using data given at the start of the chapter, find how long it will take (a) 2 1000 W heater to evaporate 1.0 kg of water which is already at 100°C, its normal boiling point (b) a refrigerator to freeze 1.0 kg of water which is already 0°C, its normal freezing point, ifit can remove energy at a rate of 75 W? Using the values of s.h.c. and s.L.h. given at the start of this chapter, draw a graph, with labelled axes, to show how the temperature varies with time when a block of ice, of mass 2.0 kg, is placed in a sealed container and has an immersion heater of power 200 W placed in it. The ice is initially at —10°C; continue the graph until the temperature of the water vapour is 120°C. [s.h.c. of water vapour under these conditions = 1400 J kg" K-71] ‘Two lumps of ice, at 0°C, each of mass 20 g, are added to a glass containing a mixture of alcohol and water at a temperature of 15°C. The heat capacity of the glass and its contents is 600 J K-!, When the system has reached equilibrium how much ice is there? (Use data.) ‘The mass of liquid nitrogen in an open beaker is found to have decreased by 46.3 g in 10 minutes. Ifthe s.L.h. of vaporisation of nitrogen at its boiling point is 1.99 X 10°] kg", at what rate were the surroundings heating the beaker? Why is the heat capacity of the beaker irrelevant? A coffee machine in a café passes steam at 100°C into 0.18 kg of cold coffee (s.h.c. the same as that of water) to warm it. Ifthe initial temperature of the coffee is 14°C, what ‘mass of steam must be supplied to raise the temperature of the coffee to 85°C? 105cd 10.43 10.44 10.45 10.46 10.47 10.48 Describe how you would measure (a) the sh. of fusion of water (b) the sikh. of vaporisation of water. In each case ) explain how you would calculate the result state the factors which lead to uncertainty in the result describe the precautions you would take to make your result as accurate as possible. Discuss some of the effects on everyday life if we lived on a planet in which the values for water of the following quantities were, separately, one-tenth of their present value: (a) the s.h.c, (b) the s.Lh. of fusion (e) the s.l-h. of vaporisation. A thermocouple probe connected to a multimeter gave a reading of 20.5°C for room temperature on a particular day. Explain the following observations: (a) When the probe was placed in some ethanol in a watch glass the recorded temperature fell to 14.8°C. (b) When the probe was removed from the ethanol and placed in the air again the temperature fell further to 6.8°C, but after afew seconds the temperature began to rise again, eventually reaching 20.5°C. An open dish of liquid is very slightly cooler than its surroundings. Why? Your explanation should include an account of why its temperature is steady, and the factors which determine the steady temperature. Explain the following: {a) If you have just finished taking some exercise you should put on a track suit, even if you feel warm. It is particularly important to do this on a windy day. {b) A bottle of milk is sometimes put under an upturned earthenware pot which is standing in a bowl of water. The pot is porous and water seeps up it. In this way the milk is kept cool. (c) Snow and ice lie on the ground for some days after the air temperature has risen above 0°C. (d) A large tub of water placed in a cellar will make it less likely that the temperature in the cellar will fall below 0°C. (a) A runner of mass 60 kg generates internal energy at a rate of 800 W. Assuming that she loses no energy, and that the average s.h.c. of her body is the same as that of ‘water, at what rate, in K min”, will her temperature rise? (b) If she loses energy through conduction, convection and radiation at a rate of 300 W, at what rate, in K min“, will her temperature rise? {e) Ideally her temperature should remain constant. Evaporation (from skin and through exhaled air from the lungs) is an additional mechanism by which she can lose energy. At what rate, in g min", must she evaporate water in order to keep her temperature constant? {d) When she stops running she generates internal energy at a rate of 100 W, but continues to lose energy at a rate of 800 W. At what rate, in K min”, will her body temperature fall?114 11.2 The ideal gas ‘Molar gas constant R= 8.31 J mol K7 Ng) = 6.02 10% mol! Boltzmann constant k= 1.38 10-8 J K~! Density of water = 1000 kg m- g=981Nkgt Avogadro constant L The ideal gas law In this section you will need to understand that the temperature used in gas laws is the kelvin temperature, and that 0°C = 273K understand that amount of substance n is measured in moles remember that the number of particles in a mole is called the Avogadro constant L (or Na) use the equations pV = nRT, pV m Express the following volumes in m*: (a) 1.7 litres (b) 6.5 cm? (e) 3.4 mm’, The diagram shows a graph of p against V, and a graph of p against 1/V, for a fixed mass of gas kept at constant temperature. Copy the graphs and on each sketch a graph for the following separate changes: (a) a lower temperature and (b) an increased mass of gas. Label your graphs to make it clear which is which. = WW 10711.3 114 11.5 11.6 17 118 11.9 a 11.10 In an experiment the pressure of a gas and its volume were measured at constant temperature, the following readings were obtained: pikPa 102 M3178 200233 Vem 40528734 207178, Flot graphs of (a) p against V(b) p against 1/V. Does the second graph enable you to sty that these measurements show that pV = constant? A party balloon has a volume of 1.50 litres and the pressure of the air in itis 128 kPa It is squashed so that its volume becomes 1.30 litres. (a) How would you try to measure one of these volumes? (b) What is the new pressure? Accylinder of volume 0.20 m? contains gas at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 290 K. {a) How many moles of gas are there in the cylinder? (Use data.] {b) How many molecules of gas are there in the cylinder? The relative molar masses of hydrogen and nitrogen are 2 and 28 respectively. (c) What is the mass of gas if tis (i) hydrogen (ii) nitrogen? A balloon is filled with air until its volume is 1.50 litres and the pressure is 110 kPa. The temperature is 290 K. Assume that the volume and temperature remain constant. (a) How many molecules are there in the balloon? (b) How many more molecules must be blown into the balloon to increase its pressure to 115 kPa? The diagram shows two graphs which show how the pressure of the same fixed mass of gas, kept at constant volume, varies with temperature. (a) In (i) is the pressure proportional to the temperature? (b) In Gi) what would be the label on the x-axis? kPa kPa 120 120 wy % we aw % Graph (i) in the previous question contains some numerical information about the gas Make a copy of graph (if) and transfer this information to it. Hence find the pressure of the gas when its temperature is 100°C. At the start of a journey the pressure of the air in a car tyre is 276 kPa and the temperature is 12.0°C. After being driven the pressure is 303 kPa. Assuming that the volume of the air remains constant, what is its temperature now? ‘The volume of air in a bicycle tyre is 400 cm? and the pressure is 145 kPa, (a) Ifthe temperature did not change, what volume would the air occupy just before the tyre bursts on a day when the atmospheric pressure is 102 kPa?1144 11.12 11.13 11.44 11.15 11.16 11.17 11 The ideal gas (b) In practice the temperature falls: would the air occupy? it falls from 30.0°C to 10.0°C, what volume On a day when atmospheric pressure is 105 kPa, air is pushed into a vehicle tyre until the pressure of the air init is 360 kPa. If the volume of the inside of the tyre is 0.150 m°, ‘what volume of air at atmospheric pressure is pushed in, assuming that the volume of the tyre, and the temperature of the air, remain constant? The tyre in the previous question later warms up from 15°C to 32°C, What does the pressure in the tyre become, assuming that the volume of the tyre remains constant? Some gas occupies a volume of 6.0 X 10 m? and exerts a pressure of 80 kPa at a temperature of 20°C. What pressure does it exert if, separately {a) the temperature is raised to 40°C (b) the volume is halved {e) the temperature is raised to 586K (d) the volume becomes 2.5 X 10-3 m3 (e) the volume becomes 12 X 10~ m and the temperature becomes 57°C? ‘The volume of one cylinder in a diesel engine is 360 cm? and the cylinder contains a mixture of fuel vapour and air at a temperature of 320 K and a pressure of 101 kPa. The volume of the mixture is then reduced to 20 cm? and at the same time the temperature rises to 1000 K. (a) Calculate the new pressure in the cylinder, (b) What assumption have you made? An air bubble of volume 3.0 x 10° m? escapes from a diver’s equipment at a depth of 45 m where the water temperature is 5°C. What is its volume as it reaches the surface, where the temperature is 12°C? [Atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa, density of sea-water = 1020 kg m=] Describe how you would perform an experiment to investigate how the volume of a gas depends on its temperature while its pressure remains constant. Draw a diagram of the apparatus, describe how you would make the measurements, explain what precautions you would need to take, and sketch a graph to show the sort of results you would expect. The diagram shows two graphs of p against 1/V for a gas. (a) What is the gradient of graph B? (b) If the temperature of the gas was 290 K, what was the amount of gas? Graph A is for the same amount of gas ata different temperature (c) What was the new temperature? kPa 209) ot 02 0304 08 biros™ AeGeena 11.18 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.22 {a) How many moles of gas are there in the following masses: (i) 20 g of hydrogen 20 g of helium (ii) 200 g of oxygen’ (The relative molar masses of hydrogen, helium and oxygen are 2, 4 and 32, respectively.) {b) If these masses of gas, all at the same temperature, are placed successively in the same container, which will exert the greatest pressure, and which the least? A vessel of volume 0.20 m? contains a mixture of 2.0 g of hydrogen molecules and 8.0 g of helium molecules. The temperature is 320 K. (a) Calculate the numbers of moles of each gas. (The relative molar masses of hydrogen and helium are 2 and 4, respectively). (b) What is the total amount of substance (i.e. the number of moles)? (ce) What is the pressure in the vessel? The kinetic theory of gases In this section you wi need to understand what is meant by Brownian motion interpret pVce nT in molecular terms remember the assumptions made in the kinetic theory of gases understand the steps in the derivation of the equation p= + p<2> understand what is meant by the root mean square (1.m.s.) speed of a collection of molecules understand that the average ke. of the molecules of a ga: temperature remember that the average kinetic energy B of a molecule is given by E=3KT, where kt is the Boltzmann constant understand that the internal energy of a gas may be changed by either heating or working, and understand the difference between these methods. proportional to its kelvin A student is observing the Brownian motion of ash particles in air. fa) Describe what she sees. {b) What changes would she notice if, separately, (i) larger ash particles were used (ii) the temperature of the air were raised? What can be deduced about gases from the observation of Brownian motion? Consider a cubical box containing air at a temperature of 290 K. Its sides are each 10 cm (a) What is its volume? (b) The pressure in the box is 101 kPa. How many molecules does it contain? (c) Find the space ‘available’ to each molecule by dividing the volume of the box by the number of molecules. (d) The diameter of an atom is about 3 X 10!” m, Treating it as a spherical body, what is its volume? (e) How many times larger than this is its available space?11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 11.27 11.28 11.29 11.30 11 The ideal gas Consider a rectangular box with sides of 0.30 m, 0.40 m and 0.50 m, respectively, as shown in the diagram. Suppose it contains 1.5 X 10% molecules, each of mass 5.0 X 10*kg. Suppose that each face of the box has one-third of the molecules moving at right angles to it, and that all the molecules have the same speed of 500 m s-!. Consider face X, which measures 0.40 m by 0.30 m. Calculate (a) the time between successive impacts of a particular molecule on face X (b) the size of the change of momentum when a molecule strikes face X {e) using your two previous answers, the average rate of change of momentum when a molecule strikes face X (4) the average force, caused by all the | molecules moving in this direction, | on face X i (e) the pressure on face X. 0.50 m 0.40 m Referring to question 11.23, explain what the pressure would be (a) on one of the other faces (b) iif the molecules each had a mass of 8.0 X 10% kg {e) if the molecules each had a of speed of 600 ms, The kinetic theory of gases predicts how the pressure of a gas depends on properties of the gas. Two forms of this result are p= 4p<2> and pV =tNm<2>. (a) Explain what each of the quantities p, p, V, N, n, m and <2> represents, (b) Give a unit for each of the quantities. (a) Given that pV = 3Nm<@> and pV= nRT derive an expression for the total ke. N(3m) of the molecules of an ideal gas in terms of 1, Rand T. (b) Since Ne n, this could also be written 3NKT, where kis a constant, called the Boltzmann constant. What is the average kee. of a single molecule in terms of k and T? (c) Ris the molar gas constant. Explain why k could be thought of as the molecular gas constant. (4) What is kin terms of R and the Avogadro constant Na? List four assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases, and for each explain why it is necessary to make the assumption. How does the kinetic theory of gases explain why the pressure ofa fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its volume? How does the kinetic theory of gases explain why the pressure ofa fixed mass of gas at constant volume increases as its temperature rises? ‘The measured speeds of 10 vehicles on a motorway are, in m s“!, 42, 32, 28, 40, 33, 32, 35, 34, 32, 25. Calculate (a) their mean speed (b) their 1.m.s, speed. m11.31 11.32 11.33 11.34 11.35 11.36 11.37 11.38 11.39* ‘The density of argon gas is 1.61 kg m™ at a pressure of 100 kPa. (a) What is the rm.s. speed of argon molecules under these conditions? (b) What would be the r.m.. speed if the pressure were halved, the temperature remaining the same? Estimate the r.m.s. speed of air molecules in the atmosphere at sea level. Assume that the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa and that the density of air is 1.3 kg m=. (a) Find (i) the average k.e. (ii) the r.m.s. speed of a carbon dioxide molecule at a temperature of 290 K. [Use data.] {b) Calculate these quantities for a carbon monoxide molecule at the same temperature. ‘The relative molecular masses of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are 44 and 28, respectively. What is the temperature of a gas if its molecules have an average ke. of (a) 6.21 x 10 J (b) double that amount? What is the average ke. at 288 K of the molecules of the following gases: (a) hydrogen (b) nitrogen (e) bromine? What is the r1m.s. speed at 288 K of the molecules of each of the gases listed in the previous question? Their relative molecular masses are 2, 28 and 160, respectively. (Use data] Air contains a mixture of different gases: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, ete. Explain whether the molecules of the different gases have different (a) average kinetic energies (b) rms. speeds. ‘Two cylinders have the same volume. One contains hydrogen, the other oxygen. The pressures and temperature in the two cylinders are the same. Explain whether the numbers of molecules in each cylinder are the same. The figure shows the distribution of molecular speeds v for 1000000 oxygen molecules at two temperatures 300 K and 600 K. At any particular whole-number speed the height, of the curve represents the number of molecules which have speeds within 10.5 m s”! of that speed (e.g. for the graph with the higher peak about 2000 molecules have speeds between 319.5 m s! and 320.5 ms“). The relative molecular mass of oxygen is 32. (a) Explain which graph corresponds to 300 K and which to 600 K. (b) Estimate the number of oxygen molecules which have speeds within +0.5 ms" of 750 m s“ at (i) 300 K (ii) 600 K, (c) Is the area beneath the 300 K the same as the area beneath the 600 K curve? What does this area represent? (d)_Fstimate the number of oxygen molecules which have speeds of less than 250 m =“! at (i) 300 K (ii) 600 K. (e) What is the median speed (i.e, the speed of the greatest number of molecules) at {i) 300 K (i) 600 K Gi) the ratio of these speeds? (f) What is the rm.s. speed of oxygen molecules at (i) 300 K (ii) 600 K (iii) the ratio of these speeds? {g) Copy the axes, scales and the 300 K graph, and add a graph which shows the distribution of speeds at 1200 K.11.40% 11.41 11 The ideal gas 2500. umber of molecules witha speed within 0.5 ms" of the spoed ef v 2000 1500) 1000. 500. ist 250-800 750.~—«*1000'~—«+1250 In questions 11.23 and 11.24 it was assumed that the molecules do not collide with each other: in practice they do. Consider the simple case of a collision between two molecules which are travelling parallel to one edge of the box, and which collide head-on. Explain whether the collision makes any difference to the momentum changes on the opposite faces of the box. The internal energy of a gas In this section you will need to use the equations U= N(#KT) and U= 4nRT to calculate the internal energy U ofan ideal gas at temperature T draw isothermals for different temperatures for an ideal gas understand what is meant by isothermal and adiabatic changes describe the changes in AQ, AW and AU for constant volume, constant pressure, isothermal and adiabatic changes use the equation AU = AQ + AW where AU is the change of internal energy of a body when energy AW is supplied to the body by working and energy AQ is supplied to the body by heating remember that the work done AW by a gas at constant pressure is given by AW = (AV) where p is the pressure and AV the change of volume * Tepresent constant-volume, constant-pressure, isothermal and adiabatic processes on a graph of p against V for a gas. The diagram shows some gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. Initially the piston is fixed in position, and the gas is heated. On a second occasion, with the gas in the same initial state the gas undergoes the same amount of heating, but with the piston free to move, (a) Explain whether the gain of internal — ‘energy will be the same on this second na occasion. ote (b) Will the temperature rise be the same? 1311.42 11.43 11.44 11.45 11.46 Ip Physics The diagram shows graphs of p against V for a fixed mass of gas, contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston, for two constant temperatures T and T. (a) Which is higher, T; or T;? Explain. (b) Copy the graphs (but ignore the point ‘b which is used in a later question), and from the point labelled ‘a’ draw lines to show (i)_how pand Vary when the piston is fixed in position and the gas is heated until the temperature is T, (call this line X) (ii) how p and V vary when the piston is free to move and the gas is heated until the temperature is T (call this line Y) p Vv Refer to the previous question. Explain how it is possible for the gas to be heated without its temperature rising, The internal energy U of an ideal gas is given by U= N(3K7). What is the internal energy of 1.0 X 10% molecules of an ideal gas at a temperature of (a) 300 K (b) 600 K? A cylinder is fitted with a frictionless piston and contains gas at a constant pressure of 50 kPa. The area of the piston is 1.0 X 107 m?, (a) What force does the gas exert on the piston? (b) What work does the gas do when the piston moves outwards 5.0 mm, the pressure le the cylinder being kept constant (e.g. by heating)? Make a copy of the graph provided for question 11.42. This time the initial state of the gas is given by point ‘b. (a) Draw lines to show the variation of p with V when (i) the temperature of the gas {alls from T, to T, at constant pressure (ii) the temperature of the gas then rises from T, to Tp at constant volume (iii) the gas then returns to its original state at constant temperature. Label the lines i, ii and iii, (b) For each of the three processes, explain whether the internal energy of the gas has risen, fallen or remained the same. {c) How might these changes have been accomplished, e.. ifthe internal energy fell, what happened to the energy?11.47 11.48 11.49 11.50 11.51 11.52 11 The ideal gas The graph shows the variation of pressure kPa with volume for a gas at two temperatures. 300 K and 600 K. Use information from the graph to calculate (a) the number of moles of gas present (b) the pressure of the gas at a (e) the volume of the gas at b. 60 VAo= me (a) The first law of thermodynamics is sometimes written AU= AQ + AW. Why is this said to be a statement of the principle of conservation of energy? (b) Explain the meaning of the symbols AU, AW and AQ. (ce) ‘AU is about content but AW and AQare about processes’ What does this statement mean? (d) Itis not correct to refer to ‘the heat in a body’. What is the correct version of this phrase? Some soup is warmed up using (a) a gas ring (b) a microwave woker. During each of these processes what are the signs of (i) AW (ii) AU (iii) AQ for the soup? Refer to question 11.47. The gas is compressed from b to c For each answer attach the appropriate sign. (a) How much work AWis done? (b) If the internal energy U of the gas is given by U= 3nRT, what is the change AU in internal energy in this process? (In the previous question you should have found that the amount of gas is 2.4 moles.) (c) Work is done on the gas, but its internal energy decreases. How is this possible? Calculate the energy AQ transferred by heating. (a) Sketch graphs of p against V for a gas at two different temperatures T, and T, (T,>T)). (b) Suppose for some gas contained in a cylinder T, = 280 K and T, = 430 K and that its initial pressure is 80 kPa and its initial volume is 12 X 107 m?, If the gas is heated at constant volume from T; to Ty, use U= 3RT to calculate the increase in internal energy. What are AQ and AW for this process? (c) If, instead, the gas is heated at constant pressure from T; to T,, what is AU? What are AQ and AW? Describe the type of process for which, with the notation of the first law of thermodynamics, (a) AQ = 0 (b) AU=0 (c) AW = 0, illustrating your answer by drawing lines on a p -V graph for a gas. 11511.53 11.54 11.55* 11.56 Explain whether the internal energy of a gas always increases when (a) ‘its temperature rises (b) itis compressed adiabatically (c) its volume decreases. {a) 4.0 mol of an ideal gas is contained in a cylinder at a constant temperature of 300 K, Calculate values of its pressure p corresponding to volumes V given by V/10™ m? = 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0, and plot a graph of, ‘P against V for this range of values of V. Estimate the area between the graph and the V-axis and hence find an approximate value for the work done AW by the gas when it expands at constant temperature from a volume of 5.0 X 107 m? to a volume of 9.0 X 10-2 m3, (b) What are AU and AQ for this process? (a) Sketch graphs of p against V for a gas at two different temperatures T; and T; (Ty > T)) and add a line to your diagram to help you explain what is meant by an adiabatic process. (b) The table gives corresponding values of p and V for an adiab: expansion: wi0?m 50 60708080, plkPa 200 «15512510488 Plot these values and hence find an approximate value for the work done by the gas when it expands. {e) Explain whether your answer is greater or smaller than the work which would be done by the gas in an isothermal expansion with the same change of volume. (d) For the adiabatic expansion what are AQand AU? Heat engines In this section you will need to understand the principle of a heat engine understand that the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined by the equation: 11 = (work done)/(energy supplied by heating) © understand that the maximum thermal efficiency of a heat engine is governed only by the temperatures between which the heat engine works and use the equation: maximum thermal efficiency Tmax = (Ty — T3)/T, understand that for a heat engine maximum thermal efficiency is achieved only by a cyclical process of a particular kind (a Carnot cycle) which is not achieved in practice understand that the actual (or overall) efficiency of a heat engine is less than the thermal efficiency because of unintentional energy transfers to the surroundings © understand that a heat pump is a heat engine working in reverse, and that a reftigerator is one example of this. ‘The diagram shows a schematic diagram for a heat engine. Energy Qy is taken from the hot reservoir and energy Q. is delivered to the cold reservoir (e.g. in a power station the hot reservoir is the furnace and the cold reservoir is the surroundings) and as a result work Wis done by the heat engine.11.87 11.58 11.59 11 The ideal gas {a) Write an equation for the thermal efficiency of this engine. (b) Calculate the thermal efficiency if Q. . 2.4 GJ and Qs, = 3.9 GJ. hot reservoir heat ‘engine cold reservoir ‘What is the maximum thermal efficiency of a heat engine working between temperatures of (a) 300 K and 550 K (b) 300 K and 650 K (e) 300 K and 750 K? A thermocouple consists of two junctions between two different metals or alloys, as shown in the diagram. A difference of temperature between the junctions can produce an em.f. and drive a current round a circuit. This is a heat engine. (a) What are the hot and cold reservoirs? (b) Where is the work done? r fi load water Tat water The figure on the next page shows a cycle abcda round which some gas may be taken, starting at a. The temperatures of the three isothermal curves are shown. The pressure and volume at @ are 100 kPa and 1.0 m3, respectively. {a) What are the values of pressure and volume at b, cand d? (b) Work is done by the gas along be, and on the gas along da. On a copy of the graph shade areas which represent these two amounts of work done, and explain why the area abcd represents the net work done by the gas. (c) Copy this table and complete the column headed AW, remembering to attach signs to the quantities. path AQ AW AUIK] “711.60 iat (d) The energy supplied to the gas by heating along ab is 150 KJ. Enter this value in the table, and also the value of AU for ab. (e) From ato b the temperature rose from 300 K to 600 K; from b to cit rose from 600 K to 1200 K. AU for ab was +150 kj, so what was AU for ba (f) Deduce AQ for be. {g) Now calculate AU for cd and da, and hence the rest ofthe table, (h) Why, for the complete cycle abcda, would you expect AU to be zero? (i) How much energy was supplied by heating? @) Use your answers to (b) and (i) to calculate the thermal efficiency of this cycle. {a)_ Sketch two isothermals, which need not be to scale, for temperatures of 300 K and 550 K on a p~V graph. (b) On your graph draw a cycle abcda for which ab is an isothermal compression at 300 K, bean adiabatic compression to 550 K, ed an isothermal expansion at 550 K and daan adiabatic expansion to 300 K. (c} Draw up a table with headings AW, AU, AQ, with one line for each of the paths ab, be, ed and da. Then write ‘0’ in the four spaces for which you know the values must be zero. (d) Given that U= 3nRT for the gas, and that on this occasion nR = 40 J K~!, calculate AU for the paths beand da, and enter these in the table, Also enter the values of AW for these paths. {e) Ifalong path ab 7.3 KJ of work is done on the gas, and along path ed 13.4 kj of work is done by the gas, complete the rest of the table. (f) What is the net work done by the gas, and the energy supplied by heating? Use your answers to (f) to calculate the thermal efficiency of the process. On your graph shade the area which represents the net work done by the gas. Use the equation for the maximum thermal efficiency of a heat engine to calculate this for a heat engine working between 300 K and 550 K. How does your answer compare with your answer to (g) and what does this tell you about the cycle which this question describes? (This cycle is called a Carnot cycle after the French engineer Sadi Carnot who thought of it in 1824.) (@ How could the thermal efficiency of this kind of cycle be increased still further?11.61 11.62 11.63 11.64 11.65 11.66 11 The ideal gas (a) In the year 2000, one electricity company charged 9.90 p during the day for each kW h of energy; in the same area a gas company charged 2.06 p. Assuming that the use of electrical energy for heating in the home is 100% efficient, but the use of gas for heating is only 75% efficient, how many times more expensive is it to use electrical energy rather than gas for heating water? (b) What is the underlying cause of this difference? Question 11,56 showed a schematic diagram for a heat engine. Here is a diagram for a heat pump. (a) Add labels and arrows similar to hot reservoir those in question 11.56. (b) Name a heat pump which is found in nearly every home. (c) For this heat pump what are the heat ‘hot reservoir’ and the ‘cold reservoir’? parm cold reservoir ‘The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is defined by the equation nm, ~ (energy transferred from cold rescrvoir)/(work done) or 7, = Qc/W where Wis the work which must be done to transfer energy Q. from the cold reservoir to the hot reservoir. {a) Show that itis possible to write 1, = Qc/ Qh ~ Q.) where Qh, is the energy delivered to the hot reservoir. Heat pumps are in use to warm large buildings such as hospitals and shopping centres. Suppose that a hospital needs an average power of 120 kW for heating, and the cost of electrical energy is 6.0 p per kW h. (b) What is the cost per day of using conventional electrical heating? (c) Suppose a heat pump with a coefficient of performance of 2.0 is used to deliver a power of 120 kW to the buildings. What power must be supplied to the heat pump? (d) Where does the rest of the energy come from? (e) What is the cost saving per day? (a) If during the course of a day it requires 2.0 MJ of energy to run a refrigerator, and during that time it transfers 3.0 MJ of energy from the contents of the refrigerator to the room, how much energy is delivered to the room? {b) What is its coefficient of performance? Your friend says ‘You're telling me that you can use a power of 1.0 kW and deliver a power of 3.0 kW to a room? I don’t believe it — that’s something for nothing’ Explain to him or her how this can be done with a heat pump. ‘The Peltier effect is the opposite of the effect described in the question 11.58. A modern version of a Peltier device is shown in the diagram over the page. It is 40 mm square, It consists of 127 junctions between p- and n-type semiconductors, arranged in series. An electric current is passed through the device and one junction is cooled and the other heated. A heat sink is fixed to the hot junction so that the energy may be transferred to the surroundings. ieManes (a) Explain why this device is a heat pump. (b) This device may be used to cool the microprocessor in a computer and therefore enable the microprocessor to run faster. Suppose a particular microprocessor generates 30 W. To keep the temperature of the microprocessor at 5°C when the room temperature is 25°C requires a p.d. of 10.2 V across the device and then the current is 4.9 A. What is the coefficient of performance of this device? these junctions warm up, and are connected to a heat sink these junctions cool, ‘and are connected to the microprocessor12.4 12.2 12.3 12.4 Photons and electrons speed of light c= 3.00 X 108 ms! the Planck constant l= 6,63 X 104J 5 electronic charge e= 1.60 X 10-19. C 11 X 107 kg mass of electron m, = ‘mass of proton my = 1.672 X 107 kg OT The energy of electrons and photons In this section you will need to use the equation W = QV for the energy transfer when a charge Q passes through a pd. V understand that the electron-volt (eV) is a unit of energy (though not an ST unit), and remember how itis defined understand that the energy E of electromagnetic radiation is quantised use the equation E = hffor the energy of a photon, where h is the Planck constant, use the wave equation use the equation E, = +mv? in solving problems use the equation I= P/4nr? to calculate intensity of radiation. The definition of the volt tells us that there isa transfer of energy of 1.0 J when a charge of 1.0 C passes through a p.d. of 1.0 V. (a) What is the energy transfer when 2.0 C pass through a p.d. of 3.0 V? {b) What is the energy transfer when an electron passes through a p.d. of 1.0 V? (Use data.] {c) In TV tubes the electrons may be accelerated through p.d.s of 800 V. How much energy is transferred from electrical potential energy to the kinetic energy of each electron? (a) What is 1.0 eV in joules? (Use data.] (b) What is the answer to part (e) of the previous question if eV is used as the unit of energy instead of the joule? ‘What is the energy transfer, in J, when an electron passes through a p.d. of (a) 2.0 V (b) 20 V (e) 1.0 MY (d) 5.0 MV? (Use data.] ‘What is the energy transfer, in eV, when an electron passes through a p.d. of (a) 2.0 V (b) 20 V (¢) 1.0 MV (d) 5.0 MV? 12112.5 What is the energy transfer, in eV, when (a) a proton passes through a p.d. of 1.0 V {b) a doubly-charged ion passes through a p.d. of 1.0 V {c) a proton passes through a p.d. of 2.0 MV? 12.6 What is the speed of (a) an electron with a kinetic energy of (i) 6.0 X 10-!8 J ( (b) a proton with a kinetic energy of (i) 6.0 x 10-!8 J 50eV 50 eV? [Use data,] 12.7 Ina certain X-ray tube electrons are accelerated through a p.d. of 200 kV. What is their final kinetic energy in (a) eV (b) J? 12.8 Refer to question 12.5. Suppose the mass of the ion is four times the mass of the proton. What isthe ratio (speed of proton)/(speed of ion) when both pass through a p.d. of love 12.9 What is the energy, in J, of a photon of (a) ‘red light of frequency 4.6 x 10!" Hz (b) violet light of frequency 6.9 X 1014 Hz? (Use data.] 12.10 Calculate the energies, in J, ofa photon of {a) infrared radiation of wavelength 1500 nm. (b) green light of wavelength 546 nm (c) ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 365 nm {d) X-radiation of wavelength 154 pm (e) y-radiation of wavelength 2.3 X 10-2 m. 12.11 Suppose a photon has an energy of 1.00 eV. {a) What is (i) its frequency (i) its wavelength? (b) In what part of the electromagnetic spectrum would you find it? (c) Repeat part (a) for a photon with an energy of 2.00 eV. (d) Repeat part (b) for a photon with an energy of 2.00 eV. 12.12 (a) At what points in a typical house containing the usual electrical equipment would you expect to find electromagnetic radiation of the following wavelengths: (05 x 107 m (i) 3 X 10-1 m (i) 2 10- m (iv) 0.12 m (W) 15 x 10? mz (b) What are the energies (in eV) of photons of these wavelengths? 12.13 Copy and complete this table for light from mercury vapour (answers are given for (a), {b), (c) only} ee colour yellow green violet ultra-violet wavelength M/nm 579 546 435, 253 frequency/10" Hz (a) photon energy/10-!9 (b) photon energy/eV (c) 12.14 Describe the difference between ‘ted’ light (e.g. from a red dress) and the red light tted by -d hydrogen. a emitted by excited hydroge12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18° 12.19 12.20 12.21 12 Photons and A laboratory helium-neon laser emits light of wavelength 632.8 nm in a beam of diameter 2.0 mm. (a) What is the energy of one photon of this light? {b) If its power is 0.70 mW, how many photons per mm? are passing through any cross- section of the beam each second? ‘A radioactive source is found to emit y-radiation of wavelength 6.5 X 10-!? m. (a) What is the frequency of the 7-radiation? {b) What quantity of energy (in MeV) is carried away from the nucleus by each y-ray photon? A.60 W filament lamp hangs from the ceiling in a room. Assume that 596 of the electrical energy is converted into visible radiation. (a) Calculate an approximate value for the intensity in W m’ of the visible radiation on a table which is 1.5 m below the lamp. State any further assumptions you make. {b) The average wavelength of the visible radiation is 550 nm. What is the average energy of each photon? (Use data.] {c) At what rate are photons striking an Ad sheet of paper which is placed on the table? ‘The wavelengths of the two D lines in the spectrum of a sodium lamp are both close to 590 nm, (a) What is the energy of one photon of sodium light? {b) A500 W sodium vapour lamp has an efficiency of 30% (i.e. 30% of the supplied energy is emitted as light in the two D lines). How many photons does it emit per second? {c) Someone stands 50 m from the lamp. What is the intensity of the D light at that distance? {d) If his eye pupil in these conditions has a diameter of 3.5 mm, how many photons enter one eye each second? {e) What is the average distance between photons along the line from the lamp to the eye? (a) What is the kinetic energy (i) in eV (ii) in J, of an electron accelerated through a p.d. of 100 kV ina tube designed to produce X-rays? {b) Photons are emitted when the electron hits the metal target in the tube. If the ton emitted from the tube has the whole of this energy what is (i) its frequency wavelength? Ifa TV tube accelerates electrons through a p.d. of 20 kV, what is fa) the kinetic energy of the electrons (i) in eV (ii) in J (b) the maximum frequency of the X-rays produced (c) the range of wavelengths of the X-rays? Orthochromatic photograph film was in use in the 1940s and 1950s. Its advantage was that it was not sensitive to red light, so could be developed in a darkroom fitted with a red safelight (and the processor could see what he was doing). Why would you have expected it to be less likely that there should be a type of film which was not sensitive to blue light? 123ra 12.22 12.23 12.24 in Phy: Energy levels In this section you will need to * understand that an atom can exist in a few sharply-defined states of energy because there are only certain ‘positions’ where its electrons may be understand that the energy of an atom may be changed when itis bombarded by electrons or photons, or when it emits photons calculate the frequency of radiation emitted when an electron moves from one energy level to another. The diagram shows some of the energy levels for an atom of hydrogen. Photons are emitted when an electron moves down from one level to another. (a) When an electron moves from level 2 to level 1, what is nee (i) its loss of energy in eV Gi) its loss of energy in J the frequency of the emitted photon {iv) the wavelength of the emitted photon (v) the part of the electromagnetic spectrum in which this radiation occurs? {b) Repeat part (a) for an electron moving from level 3 to level 2 (e) Repeat part (a) for an electron moving from level 4 to level 3. 9 20 8888 ey 151 eV n=2 3.41 ev 19,60 ev The two lowest excited states of a hydrogen atom are 10.2 eV and 12.1 eV above the ground state. (a) Calculate three wavelengths of radiation that could be produced by transitions between these states and the ground state. {b) In which parts of the spectrum would you expect to find these wavelengths? ‘The figure shows an energy level diagram. 1 Sketch a possible line spectrum for the light emitted when electrons make the transitions shown. Label the lines, using the letters shown in the diagram, and indicate on your spectrum diagram which end corresponds to the higher frequency.12 Photons and electrons 12.25 The four lowest energy levels for an atom consist of the ground state and three levels above that. How many transitions are possible between these four levels? 12.26 The figure shows three energy levels for a particular atom. When an electron moves from level 1 to the ground state the light emitted is blue. In what part of the spectrum would You expect to find the radiation emitted when an electron moves from level 2 to the round state? G level 2 eV level -eev founds [| -108v 12.27 Suppose an atom has two energy levels Ej and E; above the ground state. Radiation frequencies of f, and f, correspond to these energies, respectively. (a) Sketch the energy level diagram of this atom, (b) What other frequency will be emitted by this atom? 12.28 Refer to the diagram for question 12.22. Plot a graph of the values of energy E on the y-axis against the square of the number of the level (i.e. n?) on the x-axis, Choose scales so that values of n* up to 60 can be plotted on the x-axis, and use a scale of 1 em per eV on the y-axis, From your graph deduce the next two highest energy levels above those shown in the previous diagram. 12.29 The ionisation energy of hydrogen is 13.6 eV. (a) What is the speed of the slowest electron that can ionise a hydrogen atom when it collides with it? (b) What is the longest wavelength of electromagnetic radiation that could produce ionisation in hydrogen? 12.30 Refer to the diagram for question 12.22. (a) If the atom is in the ground state, how much energy must be given to it to ionise it? (b) Suppose an electron of energy 2.2 eV collides with the atom. Explain the possible results if (i) the atom is in the ground state (ii) its electron is at the —3.41 eV level. (c) What is the wavelength of the photon which could raise an electron from the —0.849 eV level to the —0,545 eV level? (d) Ifan electron returns from the ~0.849 eV level to the ground state, what is the wavelength of the photon emitted? 12.31 The table shows the results when electrons of three different energies strike a mercury atom in its ground state. Explain these results. energy of electron before collision/eV 40 49 6.0 energy of electron after collision/eV 40 zero Ll 125