Totally Integrated Power

Planning of Electric Power Distribution

Technical Principles

siemens.com/tip-cs
Navigation tips

Con-
Navigation bar
tents
On every page you will find a
Intro­
navigation bar.
duction Click on the chapter title/number in
the navigation bar to move to the
1 start page of the relevant chapter.
Click on “Contents” at the top to view
2 the contents page.

Touch screen to navigate

Contents page
2.3 Estimation of a Concrete Value for the
Power Demand from the Given Margins 21
2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply and
Distribution Grids 25
2.5 Type of Power Supply 27
2.6 Central or Distributed Installation
of Low-voltage Supply 29

On the contents page you will find a listing of

the subchapters.
Click on a subchapter to navigate to the relevant
text section.

Scroll horizontally to
switch between References to figures and tables
individual pages
… standard EN 15232 can be used for the building
management (see Tab. 2/9). However, note that energy
efficiency class D from EN 15232 plays no role …

A figure (Fig.) or table (Tab.) that is referred to

for the first time in the text and does not appear
on the same page will be indicated by a blue
background (button).
Click on the reference to skip to the
corresponding Fig./Tab.

Tab. 1/1:  Data centre (DaC) power demand  back to page 18

dependent on the concept for redundancy and infrastructure

You can navigate back from a figure or table to the

page where it was first mentioned by clicking on the
Pinch or stretch to zoom link with the blue background in the caption.
Totally Integrated Power

Planning of Electric Power Distribution

Technical Principles
Editorial

The planning of electric power distribution in buildings and infrastructure facilities is subject to
constant transformation. The search for an assignment-compliant, dependable solution should fulfil
those usual requirements placed on cost optimisation, efficiency, and time needs. At the same time,
technical development innovations and findings from the practical world are constantly seeping into
the planning process. Our books on electric power distribution are intended to support you in your
work as a designer and to provide you with a continuously updated and dependable instrument.

Various volumes under the “application manual” term have been compiled over time. To introduce a
form of structuring into the process, we will in future distinguish between planning and application
manuals.

The specific requirements of infrastructure facilities of individual industries and building types on
electric power distribution is worked on in the application manuals. Perhaps you have already made
acquaintances with the two editions on high-rise buildings and data centres. This is the series we
intend to continue with at intervals. We would be glad to take up any suggestions you may have here.

The planning manuals concern themselves more with those subjects generally used in planning
electric power distribution. They are oriented to that fundamental know-how which is at the basis
of all planning work. To this end, we are launching a new series which, initially, will consist of two
volumes.

This newly designed first volume, “Planning of Electric Power Distribution – Technical Principles”, looks,
in particular, at the general requirements and characteristics which are of interest in planning electric
power distribution. The follow-up, “Planning of Electric Power Distribution – Products and Systems”, is
being prepared. It will feature those technical details and descriptions of specific products and systems
so as to fulfil the requirements specified in this volume.

To be in a position in future to handle appropriate, up-to-the-minute subjects, we would be particularly

thankful to you – as our technically interested readers – for any information here. Please send us an
e-mail to: [email protected] with reference to: TIP Planning Manuals.

Detlef Lucius

Vice President
Consultant Support for Totally Integrated Power
 Con­
tents

Intro­ Contents
duction

2
Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction 6 6 Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 98

3 1 General Planning Considerations 10

6.1
6.2
Circuit Types and Basic Rules 99
Power System Protection and Safety Coordination 102
1.1 The Planner’s Tasks 10
1.2 Contents of the Individual Project Phases 10 7 Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 110
4 1.3 Design / Performance Specification 12 7.1 Circuit-breakers with Protective Functions 112
1.4 Some Basic Considerations on Power Distribution 13 7.2 Fuses 116
1.5 Standards, Standardisation Bodies, and Guidelines 14 7.3 Switchgear Assemblies 117
5 7.4 Miniature Circuit-­breaker 129
2 Basics for Drafting Electrical Power
7.5 Selectivity in Low-Voltage Grids 134
Distribution Systems 16
6 2.1 Requirements to Electrical Power Systems
7.6 Protection of Low-Voltage Capacitors
7.7 Protection of Distribution Transformers
147
148
in Buildings 17
2.2 Estimate of Power Demand 18
8 Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices
7 2.3 Estimation of a Concrete Value for the Power
Demand from the Given Margins 21
and Switchgear 164
8.1 Medium-Voltage Switchgear 165
2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply
8.2 Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices 175
8 2.5
and Distribution Grids
Type of Power Supply
25
27
8.3 Medium-Voltage Protection 185

2.6 Central or Distributed Installation 9 Transformers 194

of Low-voltage Supply 29
9 2.7 Network Configurations 30
9.1 Electrical Design 194
9.2 Losses and Profitability Estimates 197
2.8 Power Supply Systems according
to their Type of Connection to Earth 32 9.3 Construction of Oil-immersed Transformers 199
10 9.4 GEAFOL Cast-resin Dry-type Transformers 201
3 Power System Planning Modules 36 9.5 Power Converter Transformer 203
9.6 FITformer® REG –
11 4 Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids
4.1 Components for the Configuration
44 Regulated Distribution Transformer 204
9.7 Transformer Operation 206
of Medium-Voltage Grids 45
9.8 Transformer Room 209
12 4.2 Medium-Voltage Power Supply Concepts
4.3 Configuration of the Switchgear
47
50 10 Low-Voltage Switchgear and
4.4 Power System Protection Equipment 51 Distribution Systems 214

13 4.5 Connection of the Neutral Point

in the Medium-Voltage Cable Network 60
10.1 Parameters and Forms of Low-Voltage Switchgear 214
10.2 Planning Notes 220
10.3 Motor Control Centre 224
5 Quality of Supply 68
14 5.1 Voltage Quality 69
10.4 Distribution Boards
10.5 Busbar Trunking Systems
224
227
5.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility 75
5.3 Availability and Redundancy 78
15 5.4 Reactive Power and Compensation 84
5.5 Protection Against Lightning Current
and Overvoltage 92
16

17

2 Totally Integrated Power – Contents

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2
11 Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 234 17 Appendix 346
11.1 Circuits and Device Assignment
11.2 Requirements on the Protective Devices
236 17.1 Characteristics of Grid Supply Types
17.2 List of Standards
346
347
3
in the Three Circuit Types 237 17.3 List of Abbreviations 357
11.3 Residual Current and Arc Fault Detection Devices 240 17.4 Bibliography
17.5 Conversion Factors and Tables
361
362
4
12 Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 248
12.1 Protecting Electric Motors 248 Imprint 366
12.2 Switching Electric Motors 249 5
12.3 Comparison of Connections for Motor Start-up 256
12.4 Safety of Machines 258
6
13 Supply using Converters and Generators 262
13.1 UPS Systems 263
13.2 Embedded Generation Systems 266 7
14 Energy Management 278
14.1 Measured Variables for Energy Transparency 279 8
14.2 Graphic Representations in Energy Management 281
14.3 Evaluation Profiles 284
14.4 Characteristic Values 284 9
14.5 Electricity Market Observations 286
14.6 Operational Management 291
14.7 Normative Basis for an 10
Energy Management System 292

15 SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient

Planning of Power Distribution 296 11
15.1 Dimensioning with SIMARIS design 297
15.2 Determining Space Requirements
with SIMARIS project 298 12
15.3 Displaying Characteristic Curves
with SIMARIS curves 299
15.4 Tool Efficiency 299 13
16 Lighting Inside Buildings 302
16.1 Basic Data Establishment 302 14
16.2 Building Analysis 305
16.3 Normative Specifications 305
16.4 Lighting Scheme 312 15
16.5 Lighting Calculation 318
16.6 Emergency Lighting 329
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Contents 3

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

4 Totally Integrated Power

Introduction
Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction
 Con­
tents

Intro­ Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction

duction

1 Increasingly greater demands are placed on modern build- 1. “Properties” represent buildings, space-enclosing devel-
ings. As early as in the planning stage, demands for a high opments, outdoor facilities, engineering structures,
level of safety, flexibility throughout the entire life cycle, a transportation installations, load-bearing structures,
2 low level of environmental pollution, the integration of and technical system equipment
renewable energies and low costs must be taken into 2. “Buildings” represent self-contained, roofed, usable
account in order to exploit the full potential of economic structures which people can enter and which are
3 efficiencies and fulfilling technical demands. A special
challenge is the coordination of the individual installations.
suitable or appointed for providing shelter for humans,
animals or objects
Basically, the main installations are heating, ventilation, air 3. “New structures and new installations” represent prop-

4 conditioning and refrigeration, fire protection, protection

against intrusion, building control system and electric
erties which are newly constructed or set up
4. "Rebuilt structures” represent previously dismantled
power distribution. With innovative planning, the require- properties which are set up anew on existing structures
ments are not simply broken down to the individual instal- or installations; they are considered as new structures
5 lations, but have to be coordinated. if new planning is required
5. “Extensions” represent additions to an existing property
In the German Fees Ordinance for Architects and Engineers 6. “Conversions” represent transformations of an exiting
6 (HOAI) [1], various concepts associated with buildings and
developments are defined as follows:
property involving modifications of the substance

9
Feed-in

10 Power distribution

11 Short-circuit / overload protection

Power management

12
ology
Building techn

13 Process and ma
nufacturing ind
ustry

ems
14 Planning,
configurin
g, produc
ts and syst

15

16

17 Totally Integrated Power – the long-term power distribution as foundations for Totally Integrated Automation and
Totally Building Solutions

6 Totally Integrated Power – Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7. “Modernisations” represent structural steps taken to of the different systems makes it possible to attain maxi- 1
sustainably increase the practical value of a property - mum process efficiency and reliability. At the same time,
given they do not fall under Items 5, 6 or 9 costs weighing on building investors, users, and operators
8. “Space-enclosing developments” refer to the inner can be reduced by exploiting synergies. 2
design or set-up of interiors without significant incur-
sions made into the substance or structure; they can Integrated planning utilises the synergies of well matched,
come to light in conjunction with work undertaken in
Items 3 to 7
intelligent, integrated systems and products from a single
supplier and implements them in cost-effective solutions.
3
9. “Renovation” refers to steps for restoring the originally Interfacing and elaborate harmonization of different sys-
intend condition (designated condition) of a property
given that they are not covered by Item 4 or by steps
tems and products becomes obsolete. The expense for
spare parts management and procurement is reduced. 4
envisaged under Item 7 Integrated communication systems can be used to connect
10. “Maintenance work" represents steps taken to retain the power supply / distribution systems and products to other
designated condition of a property installations such as automated process and production sys- 5
11. “Outdoor facilities” represent planned outdoor areas or tems or automated building management systems. The wir-
spaces and appropriately designed facilities in associa- ing expense can be substantially reduced by a well
tion with or in structures matched concept and thus the wider utilisation of the cable
infrastructure for data transmission attained from such a
6
Regarding the planning concept for power supply, it is not concept. These are merely some examples, how the
only imperative to observe standards and regulations, it is
also important to discuss and clarify economic and techni-
cost-benefit ratio can be crucially improved by integrated
planning as compared to conventional planning. 7
cal interrelations. To this end electric equipment, such as
distribution boards and transformers, is selected and rated The focus of Totally Integrated Power (TIP) lies on all power
in such a way that an optimum result for the power system distribution components as an integrated entity. TIP offers 8
as whole is achieved rather than focusing individual com- everything that can be expected from a future-oriented
ponents. All components must be sufficiently rated to power distribution system: openness, integration, efficient
withstand normal operating conditions as well as fault
conditions. In addition, the following important aspects
planning tools, manifold options for communication and,
as a result, a substantial improvement in efficiency. When
9
must be considered, when drawing up the power supply regarding power distribution requirements in terms of the
concept:
• Type, use, and shape of the building (e.g. high-rise build-
building automation, fire protection and safety systems
installations, it becomes soon obvious that the better the 10
ing, low-rise building, multi-storey building) individual installations are networked, the greater the rise
• Load centres must be determined, as well as possible in savings potential. Cost reductions up to 25 % are feasible.
routes for supply lines and possible installation sites for Investors and building operators can thus provide a cost-ef- 11
transformers and main distribution boards fective power supply system and boost its efficiency.
• Building-related connection values according to specific
area loads that correspond to the building’s type of use
• Statutory provisions and conditions imposed by building
As a rule, greater efficiency provides the investor with
benefits – arising from approval and financing simplifica-
12
authorities tions – in assessing the building project. This also enables
• Requirements by the distribution system operator (DSO) investors and operators to provide a more cost-efficient and
environmentally friendly energy supply system for which
13
The greatest potential for the optimisation of a project is potential customers can be more easily won over and the
during the planning phase. At this stage, the course is set required earnings obtained. Users benefit from high-level
for additional costs and cost increases which may incur electricity supply in both quality and quantity at favourable 14
during the erection and subsequent use of the building. conditions.

For the purpose of integrated planning, a building is re-

garded as an entity, functionality is defined in line with the
15
processes running without limiting it to the individual
installations as used to be done in traditional approaches.
To this end it is necessary to define specifications compre-
16
hensively as early as in the planning stage. This is the only
way to implement a solution with optimally matched
systems and components. A seamless technical integration 17

Totally Integrated Power – Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction 7

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

8 Totally Integrated Power – Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction

Chapter 1
General Planning Considerations
1.1 The Planner’s Tasks 10
1.2 Contents of the Individual
Project Phases 10
1.3 Design / Performance Specification 12
1.4 Some Basic Considerations
on Power Distribution 13
1.5 Standards, Standardisation
Bodies, and Guidelines 14
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 1 General Planning Considerations

duction

1 On the one hand, it is up to the planner to win an edge Phase 1 – Establishment of basic data
over his competitors and gain unique selling points by
offering modern, innovative concepts for the layout of • Task definition
2 power supply systems and the selection of equipment. But • Review of the project situation
on the other hand, he is also responsible for his planning • Site analysis
work, which means that he may be held liable for damages. • Operations planning
3 Therefore it is important to clarify the project scope and the
economic conditions with the owner / developer at an early
• Preparation of a room concept
• Preparation of a concept on the functional scope
stage. • Environmental impact assessment

4 • Recommendations for the total power demand

• Formulation of decision-making aids for the selection
of other experts involved in the planning
1.1 The Planner’s Tasks • Summary of results
5
The initial project planning stages are of vital importance in Phase 2 – Preliminary planning
this context. They determine the basic set-up and (project and planning preparations)
6 guidelines for the further course of the project. Wrong
assumptions and imprecise specifications may result in • Analysis of the basis
system oversizing which may bring about unnecessary • Coordination of objectives (boundary conditions,

7 costs. Undersizing may result in overload and plant

failures. This manual about the technical principles of
conflicting objectives)
• Preparation of a planning concept that also includes
planning shall assist you in sizing the superordinate alternative solutions
components for technical installations in buildings • Integration of services rendered by other experts involved
8 properly even in these initial project stages. Its focus is in the planning
on components, systems and processes in electric power • Drawing up of a functional scheme or block diagram
distribution. for each plant
9 • Clarification and explanation of the fundamental interre-
lations, processes and conditions in the context of urban
development and design, functions, technology, building
1.2 Contents of the Individual
10 physics, economics, energy management (for example
regarding efficient power utilisation and the use of
Project Phases
renewable energies) and landscape ecology, as well as
According to the German Fees Ordinance for Architects and the impact on and sensitivity of the affected ecosystems
11 Engineers (HOAI), the services of planners are divided into • Preliminary negotiations with public authorities and other
nine service phases: experts involved in the planning as to whether an official
1. Establishment of basic data approval can be obtained
12 2. Preliminary planning
3. Concept planning
• Cost estimation (in Germany in compliance with DIN 276
or with statutory provisions for cost calculations of resi-
4. Approval planning dential dwellings)
13 5. Implementation planning
6. Preparation to the contract awarding procedure
• Compilation of all preliminary planning results

7. Participation in the awarding procedure

8. Property surveillance (construction surveillance
14 or management)
9. Property supervision and documentation

15 This manual focuses on the first three planning phases and

the associated tasks of the planner involved.

16

17

10 Totally Integrated Power – General Planning Considerations

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Phase 3 – Concept planning • Establishment of basic data: 1

(system and integration planning) –– System analysis under various aspects such as
feasibility, expense, benefit, profitability and
• Working through the planning concept which was cre- environmental compatibility 2
ated. Subject-specific requirements and the specialized –– Data acquisition
planning departments – which are integrated through –– Optimisation potential with regard to energy saving
property planning – are now considered
• Determination of all systems and plant components
and environmental compatibility 3
• Coordination of all wall / ceiling penetrations and specifi- • Preliminary planning:
cation of loads required for planning the load-bearing
structures (without drawing apertures or slits plans)
–– Testing and model testing
–– Plant optimisation with regard to energy consumption
4
• Step by step preparation of a drawing solution up to the and emission of pollutants
final draft
• Participation in negotiations with public authorities and
–– Preparation of optimised energy concepts
5
other experts involved in the planning as to whether an • Concept planning:
official approval can be obtained –– Preparation of data for the planning of third parties
• Cost calculation (in Germany based on DIN 276) and cost
controlling by comparing the calculation with the initially
–– Detailed profitability verification 6
–– Operating cost calculations
prepared cost estimate
–– Detailed comparison of pollutant emissions
Special services must be individually negotiated between –– Drawing up the technical part of a room finishing 7
the client and the planner. The following is detailed for the schedule (“Raumbuch”)
first three phases of planning technical equipment in the Fig. 1/1 shows schematically which focal points of planning
HOAI: are covered by TIP. 8

9
Energy Management/
Energy Transparency
Operation &
Monitoring
Load
management
Load curves Forecast Maintenance
Substation
Status
reporting/
failure
Protocols
DATE:

EMPLOYEE
COST CENTER
PAY PERIOD BEGINNING
PAY PERIOD ENDING
Power
Quality
Cost center
10
Distribution
DATE
SUN MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN TOTAL
IN

OUT

Maintenance
management
IN

OUT

task
OVERTIME

TOTAL HOURS

DATE
SUN MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN TOTAL
IN

OUT

U IN

I OUT

cos o Hall 1 Air conditioning system OVERTIME

P
checkup
TOTAL HOURS

central ON

11
W DATE

Distribution 3 Replacing circuit OFF IN

SUN MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN TOTAL

OUT

breaker contacts local ON

Process/ Building
IN

OFF OUT

Infeed II Replacing meters tripped

OVERTIME

TOTAL HOURS

industrial automation automation

Ethernet

PROCESS FIELD

12
Industrial

Products & Systems Renewables Medium voltage with Transformer Low voltage with
protection technology protection and measuring technology

13
≤ 110 kV

14

Planning Software Tools Network dimensioning

with SIMARIS design
Space requirements and budget
calculation with SIMARIS project
Visualisation of device
characteristics with SIMARIS curves
15

16
TIP04_13_001_EN

17
Fig. 1/1:  Totally Integrated Power – integrated solutions for electrical power distribution

Totally Integrated Power – General Planning Considerations 11

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 1.3 Design / Performance • It describes the solutions which the contractor has

Specification worked out for how to implement the project on the basis
of the design specification defined by the customer
2 The design specification and the performance specification • The questions as to “How” a project should be put into
are important aids in the first phases. practice and "Which tools or resources" are to be
employed are dealt with in the performance specification
3 Design specification • The contents of the design specification are described in
more detail, completed and written into a plausible imple-
The design or product specification describes the “What?” mentation concept and combined with technical operat-

4 and “For which purpose?” and outlines the basic require-

ments. It is a rough target setting of the contract for the
ing and maintenance requirements

contractor. Usually, each of the requirements of the design specifica-

• It specifies the scope of requirements defined by the tion can be assigned to one or more services defined in the
5 contract awarding party as regards the deliveries and performance specification. This also illustrates the order of
services to be performed by the contractor within the the two documents in the development process: A require-
scope of the contract ment is fulfilled, when the corresponding feature is imple-
6 • It describes the direct requirements and the desires
placed in a planned project or product from the user's
mented.

point of view When a design or performance specification is drawn up, it

7 • It serves as a basis for the invitation to tender, the tender

or quotation, and the contract
must be considered that subordinate targets such as invest-
ment, losses, reliability, quality, and much more may mutu-
• Requirements shall be quantifiable and verifiable ally influence one another. Listing up such conflicting
• The design specification is drawn up by the (external or relations and weighing them in the project context will
8 in-house) awarding party, and it is addressed to the foster planning decisions and hence the focus that is placed
contractors on the design and performance specification.
• In software development, the design specification consti-
9 tutes the result of the planning phase and is usually
worked out by the developers as a preliminary stage to
Weighing in the context of design or performance spec­
ification must be based on different questions posed.
the performance specification Tab. 1/1 shows a simple correlation matrix in which the

10 Performance Specification
competing situation of individual sub-targets is assessed.
For example, sub-target 2 – Low line losses – is strongly
influenced by sub-target 1 – Cost of investment – whereas
The performance or feature specification represents the sub-target 4 – High reliability of supply – has no immediate
11 target concept and is technically detailed so far that it can interrelation with line losses.
act as the basis for a technical specification.
• It is a detailed description of a service to be performed,
12 for example, the erection of a technical plant, the con-
struction of a tool, or the creation of a computer program

13 Subgoals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Low investment costs – 1 1 1 1 p C p p

14 2 Low power losses 1 – C C C C p C C
3 Process-compliant coverage of the power demand 1 C – C C C 1 C C
4 High reliability of supply 1 C C – C C 1 C C
15 5 High voltage quality 1 C C C – C p C C
6 Low hazard for man and machine p C C C C – C C C

16 7
8
Low maintenance and repair expense
Ease of operation
C p 1 1 p C – p
–
C
p C C C C C p C
9 High environmental compatibility p C C C C C C C –

17 1 Strong competition  p Competition  C No or irrelevant competition

Tab. 1/1:  Competitive situation during planning decisions [2]

12 Totally Integrated Power – General Planning Considerations

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1.4 Some Basic Considerations on 1

Power Distribution
With regard to electric power supply, the most important Technical equipment rooms 2
task in the stage of establishing basic data is the estimation
of the power required for supply. In order to attain a high Besides a proper component rating, another essential
level of efficiency, the components should work with a load
of 70 to 80 % of the maximum power output. Undersizing
planning aspect is the specification of the size and location
of the equipment rooms required for electric installations,
3
causes malfunctions, while oversizing results in excess which should take place at the beginning of the planning
costs. considerations. The dimensions of these technical equip-
ment rooms depend on the dimensions of the components 4
Network configuration and sources of supply required and the relevant safety regulations. Boundary
conditions such as room ventilation, pressure relief in the
The network configuration is determined dependent on the event of an arcing fault, ceiling loads and access ways for 5
requirements resulting from the building’s use. In line with moving items in must also be taken into consideration
the specifications made by the installation company and when drawing up room and building plans. Over-dimen-
the intended use of the building, the required power
output must be distributed between different sources of
sioned rooms reduce the profitability of a building (room
utilisation). Under-dimensioned rooms may prevent that a
6
supply. If redundancy is a system requirement, an addi- plant is erected in such a way that it can be approved, or at
tional reserve must be considered in the planning. Besides
the demand to be met by the normal power supply (NPS),
least force the use of expensive custom solutions for the
technology applied. This planning manual contains aids for 7
the power required from a safe and reliable source of determining the room dimensions required for the individ-
supply must also be estimated. This demand of safety ual components.
power supply (SPS) is divided between the emergency 8
standby power system (ESPS) and the uninterruptible
power supply (UPS). When the NPS fails, the UPS shall be
supplied from the ESPS. In addition, the power demand of
safety equipment (IEC 60364-7-710 or respectively
9
DIN VDE 0100-710, IEC 60364-7-718 or respectively
DIN VDE 0100-718) to be supplied by the SPS must be
considered. The dimensioning of the individual compo- 10
nents results from the estimate of energy and power
required and their allocation to different sources of supply.
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – General Planning Considerations 13

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1.5 Standards, Standardisation

1 Bodies, and Guidelines national level and debated in regional (i.e. European,
American etc.) committees, it has now been agreed upon
When planning and erecting buildings, many standards, that drafts shall be submitted at the central (IEC) level and
2 regulations, and guidelines must be observed and complied then be adopted as regional or national standards. Only if
with in addition to the explicit specifications made by the the IEC is not interested in dealing with the matter of if
building and plant operator (e.g. factory regulations) and there are time constraints, a draft standard shall be pre-
3 the responsible distribution system operator (DSO). If
internationally applicable standards and texts are used in
pared at the regional level. The interrelation of the differ-
ent standardisation levels is illustrated in Tab. 1/2. A
the following sections, they will be listed in the Appendix complete list of IEC members and links to more detailed

4 together with the documents which are specifically used in

Germany.
information can be obtained at

www.iec.ch/members_experts
To minimise technical risks and / or to protect persons
5 involved in handling electric equipment or components,
major planning rules have been compiled in standards.
Standards represent the state of the art, they are the basis
6 for evaluation and court decisions. Technical standards are
desired conditions stipulated by professional associations
which are however made binding by legal standards such

7 as health and safety at work laws. Furthermore, the compli-

ance to technical standards is crucial for any operating
licence granted by authorities, or insurance coverage.
While in past decades, standards were mainly drafted at a
8

9
Overview of standards and standardisation bodies
Regional Amerika Europa Australien Asien Afrika
10 PAS CENELEC
National USA: ANSI D: DIN VDE AUS: SA CN: SAC SA: SABS
CA: SCC I: CEI NZ: SNZ IND: BIS

11 BR: COBEI
…
F: UTE
GB: BS
… J: JISC
…
…
ANSI American National Standards Institute
12 BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BS British Standards
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

13 CEI
(Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique)
Comitato Ellettrotecnico Italiano
COBEI Comitê Brasileiro de Eletricidade, Eletrônica, Iluminação e Telecomunicações

14 DIN VDE
EN
Deutsche Industrie Norm Verband deutscher Elektrotechniker
European Norm
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
JISC Japanese Industrial Standards Committee
15 PAS Pacific Area Standards
SA Standards Australia
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
16 SAC Standardisation Administration of China
SCC Standards Council of Canada
SNZ Standards New Zealand
17 UTE Union Technique de l’Electricité et de la Communication

Tab. 1/2:  Outline of national and regional standards in electrical engineering

14 Totally Integrated Power – General Planning Considerations

Chapter 2
Basics for Drafting Electrical
Power Distribution Systems
2.1 Requirements to Electrical Power
Systems in Buildings 17
2.2 Estimate of Power Demand 18
2.3 Estimation of a Concrete Value for the
Power Demand from the Given Margins 21
2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply and
Distribution Grids 25
2.5 Type of Power Supply 27
2.6 Central or Distributed Installation
of Low-voltage Supply 29
2.7 Network Configurations 30
2.8 Power Supply Systems according 
to their Type of Connection to Earth 32
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 2 Basics for Drafting Electrical Power

duction
Distribution Systems
1
Electrical power distribution requires integrated solutions. Qualified planning of a power supply concept which con-
Totally Integrated Power (TIP) provides support for working siders the above-mentioned aspects is the key to the effi-
2 out suitable solutions. This comprises software tools and ciency of electric power supply. Power supply concepts
support for planning and configuring as well as a perfectly must always be assessed in the context of their framework
harmonized, complete portfolio of products and systems parameters and project goals.
3 for integrated power distribution, ranging from the
medium-voltage switchgear to the final circuit. With TIP Siemens TIP supports engineering consultants in power sys-
Siemens renders support to meet requirements such as: tem design and configuration (see Fig. 2/1) with a wide

4 • Simplification of operational management by a trans­

parent, simple network topology
range of services. Our TIP contact persons (please find their
contact data on the Internet at www.siemens.com/tip-cs/
• Low power losses, for example by medium-voltage-side contact) also make use of their personal contact to you to
power transmission to the load centres present you planning tools such as SIMARIS design,
5 • High reliability of supply and operational safety of the SIMARIS project and SIMARIS curves.
installations, even in the event of individual equipment
failures (redundant supply, selectivity of the power Besides planning manuals, Siemens also offers application
6 system protection, and high availability)
• Easy adaptation to changing load and operational
manuals, which describe the planning specification of
certain property types like high-rise buildings, hospitals or
conditions data centres, and more network calculation tools like

7 • Low operating costs thanks to maintenance-friendly

equipment
SINCAL, or configuration tools such as Profix for
medium-voltage switchgear.
• Sufficient transmission capacity of the equipment under
normal operating conditions as well as in fault conditions
8 to be handled
• Good quality of the power supply, meaning few voltage
changes due to load fluctuations with sufficient voltage
9 symmetry and few harmonic distortions in the voltage
• Observance of valid IEC / EN / VDE regulations as well as
project-related regulations for special installations

10
Compilation of boundary conditions
11 Influencing factors

Concept finding: • Building type / perimeter

– Analysis of the supply task • Building use
12 – Selection of the network configuration
– Selection of the type of power supply system
• Building management
• Power outage reserve
– Definition of the technical features • etc.

13
Calculation: • Lists of power consumers
– Energy balance • Forecasts of expansions
14 – Load flow (normal / fault)
– Short-circuit currents
• Temperatures
• Equipment data
(uncontrolled / controlled) • etc.

15 Dimensioning:
– Selection of equipment,
• Equipment data
– Electrical data
– Dimensions etc.
transformers, cables, protective
• Selectivity tables
and switching devices, etc.
16
– Selectivity limit tables
– Requirements according selectivity – Characteristic curves, setting data, etc.
and back-up protection • etc.

TIP04_13_002_EN

17
Fig. 2/1:  Tasks of network planning and configuration

16 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2.1 Requirements to Electrical Power • Usage / consumers or respectively purpose of power 1

Systems in Buildings distribution, this means energy report, power density,
and load centres (see Tab. 2/2)
When electric networks are planned, largely ambivalent • Architecture, for example low-rise or high-rise building 2
requirements of the three project life stages must be con- • Operational and environmental conditions
sidered: • Official regulations / statutory provisions such as health
Investment – Installation – Operation
Tab. 2/1 renders a assessment of the expense incurring in
and safety at work laws, building authorities
• By the supplying electrical utility company
3
these different “life stages”. –– Technical specifications with regard to voltage, short-

Further influencing factors

circuit power, approval of maximum connected load,
permissible technology
4
–– Use of power management, in order to profitably
The essential properties of a network are determined by the operate the power system within the given tariff
following requirements: options 5

Investment Installation Operation

6
Costs of implementation Minimum Maximum Irrelevant
Implementation time Minimum Minimum Irrelevant 7
Technology Cost-effective Easy installation Flexible operation
Space requirements for technical installations Minimum Maximum Irrelevant
Period of use Maximum Irrelevant Maximum 8
Fire load Irrelevant Irrelevant Minimum
Operating costs (e.g. insurance premiums) Irrelevant

Tab. 2/1:  Relation between expense and life stages of a project

Irrelevant Minimum
9

Type of use Features Requirements Consequences 10

Low nominal currents at comparably
Many small consumers Back-up protection
high system short-circuit power
Residential areas Ordinary persons not skilled or
instructed in electrical
Protection against direct and indirect
Mandatory RCCB
11
contact:
installation matters
Many workplaces equipped with
PCs
Voltage stability and reliability of
supply 12
Offices High proportion of capacitive
Counter measures in case of harmonics Choked compensation
loads
General escape routes Safety power supply Generator feed-in 13
Good electromagnetic compatibility TN-S system to minimise stray
(EMC) currents
Server rooms
Communication facilities
(network)
High reliability of supply Redundancy, selective grading 14
Safety power supply and High-performance safety power
uninterruptable operation supply, efficient UPS
Redundancy, selective grading, 15
Life-preserving machinery High reliability of supply high-performance safety power
supply
Medical locations
Intensive care, ECG
Good electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC)
TN-S system to minimise stray
currents
16
Containment of fault currents IT system
Industrial locations Mainly motor loads High power demand per area Busbar trunking systems
17
Tab. 2/2:  Examples for various areas of use and their impact on electric grids and equipment

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 17
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 2.2 Estimate of Power Demand

The basis for planning and sizing power distribution is machinery (motors, pumps, etc.), the demand of individual
2 knowing the equipment to be connected and the resulting functional areas (office, parking, shop, …) must be ascer-
total power demand. Besides the power demand of large tained (Tab. 2/3 and Tab. 2/4).

3
Average power Simultaneity Average building Average cost for heavy-
demand 1) factor 2) cost per walled-in current installation in a
4 Building use area walled-in area 2)

[W / m2] g [€ / m3] [€ / m3]

5 Bank 40–70 0.6 300 – 500 25 – 50

Library 20 – 40 0.6 300 – 450 20 – 40
Office 30 – 50 0.6 250 – 400 17 – 40
6 Shopping centre 30 – 60 0.6 150 – 300 12 – 35
Hotel 30 – 60 0.6 200 – 450 10 – 35

7
Department store 30 – 60 0.8 200 – 350 20 – 45
Small hospital (40-80 beds) 250 – 400 0.6 300 – 600 18 – 50
Hospital (200-500 beds) 80 – 120 0.6 200 – 500 10 – 40

8 Warehouse (no cooling) 2 – 20 0.6 50 – 120 3 – 18

Cold store 500 – 1,500 0.6 150 – 200 10 – 20
Apartment complex (without night
9 storage / continuous-flow water
heater)
10 – 30 0.4 180 – 350 18 – 35

Single-family house (without night

storage / continuous-flow water 10 – 30 0.4
10 heater)
Museum 60 – 80 0.6 300 – 450 20 – 40
Parking garage 3 – 10 0.6 100 – 200 7 – 15
11 Production plant 30 – 80 0.6 100 – 200 10 – 40
Data centre 3) 125 – 2,000 3) 0.4 – 0.9 3) 360 – 4,500 3) 60 – 2,200 3)

12 School 10 – 30 0.6 200 – 400 15 – 30

Gym hall 15 – 30 0.6 150 – 300 8 – 25
Stadium (40,000 – 80,000 seats) 70 – 140 **) 0.6 3,000 – 5,000 **) 30 – 70 **)
13 Old people’s home 15 – 30 0.6 200 – 400 10 – 25
Greenhouse (artificial lighting) 250 – 500 0.6 50 – 100 5 – 20

14 Laboratory / Research
Mechanical engineering industry
100 – 200
100 – 200
0.6
0.4
Rubber industry 300 – 500 0.6

15 Chemical industry ***) 0.6

Food, beverages and tobacco industry 600 – 1,000 0.8
1) The values specified here are guidelines for demand estimation and cannot substitute precise power demand analysis.
16 2) The simultaneity factor is a guideline for preliminary planning and must be adapted for individual projects.
3) For data centres, Tab. 2/5 and its associated explanations show the boundary conditions and simple calculations for the given estimated values and their wide

margins.
*) Per bed approx. 2,000–4,000 W; **) Per seat; ***) Power demand strongly process-dependent

17 Tab. 2/3:  Average power demand of buildings according to their type of use

18 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Functional area /  Average power Simultaneity Functional area / 

Simultaneity factor 2)
1
building area demand 1) factor 2) building area
g

Hallway / anteroom, lobby
[W / m2]
5 – 15
g
0.3 Building installations
2
Staircase 5 – 15 0.3 Escalator 0.5
Equipment, general 5 – 15 0.3 Lift 0.3 3
Foyer 10 – 30 1 Sanitary systems 0.5
Access ways (e.g. tunnel) 10 – 20 1 Sprinklers 0.1
Recreation room / kitchenette 20 – 50 0.3 Heating 0.8 4
Toilet areas 5 – 15 1 Air conditioning 0.8
Travel centre 60 – 80 0.8 Cooling water system 0.7
Office areas 20 – 40 0.8 Refrigeration 0.7 5
Press / bookshop 80 – 120 0.8
Flower shop 80 – 120 0.8
Bakery / butcher 250 – 350 0.8 6
Fruit / vegetables 80 – 120 0.8 Functional area /  Average power
building area demand 1)
Bistro / ice cream parlour 150 – 250 0.8
Snack bar 180 – 220 0.8 [W / m2] 7
Electric floor heating,
Diner / restaurant 180 – 400 0.8 65 – 100
living area

Tobacco shop 80 – 120 0.8

Electric floor heating,
130 – 150
8
bathroom
Night storage heating: low-
Hairdresser 220 – 280 0.8 60 – 70
energy house
Night storage heating:
9
Dry-cleaner’s / laundry 700 – 950 0.7 house with “standard” 100 – 110
insulation
Storage area 5 – 15 0.3 Small aircon unit 60 10
Photovoltaics 3)
Kitchens 200 – 400 0.7 (max. output of the 100 – 130

1)
modules)
The values specified here are guidelines for demand estimation and cannot substitute precise power demand analysis.
11
2) The simultaneity factor is a guideline for preliminary planning and must be adapted for individual projects. When dimensioning consumers in the safety power
supply system (SPS), their simultaneity factor must be considered separately (empirical value: g ≥ 0.8 for SPS busbar).

12
3) Average usable sun radiation in Germany per day 2.75 kWh / m2

Tab. 2/4:  Average power demand of various functional / building areas back to page 18

13
2.2.1 Special Consideration of the Cost • Requirements as to availability determine redundancy
Situation for a Data Centre and safety systems 14
For a data centre, there are a number of factors influenc- The following assumptions are to be made for data cen-
ing, among other things, the specific power demand.
Important aspects which result in a wide bandwidth of the
tre-specific cost estimates:
• An area-specific power demand of 125 to 1,500 W / m2
15
estimations of power demand, simultaneity factor and is assumed for a self-contained data centre (DaC in
specific costs are as follows:
• Differentiation between a self-contained building (data
Tab. 2/5). The low value suggests a large space required
for information technology and infrastructure (for exam-
16
centre) or the ICT areas in a building ple owing to high redundancies), whereas the high value
• Different technologies for air conditioning and power suggests a high packing density of servers in the racks
supply influence space requirements and energy effi- and modern cooling and power supply systems 17
ciency

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 19
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • An area-specific power demand of 500 to 2,000 W / m2 for –– 441 – High and Medium-voltage Systems (Switchgear,
rooms containing information technology in infrastruc- Transformers)
ture buildings (IT room in Tab. 2/5). These values slightly –– 442 – Embedded Power Generating Systems
2 differ from the ones mentioned above, since infrastruc- –– 443 – Low-voltage Switchgear
ture components can be shared in the building –– 444 – Low-voltage Installation Systems
• The "Tier" structure (with ascending requirements I to –– 445 – Lighting Systems
3 IV) of the Uptime Institute, as described in [3], is used as
a basis in connection with availability and the redun-
–– 446 – Lightning Protection and Earthing Systems

dancy conditions upon which availability is founded. The data centre simultaneity factor in Tab. 2/3 has a leeway

4 (n+1) redundancy of Tier IV results in approximately

2.5-fold costs for infrastructure components compared
between 0.4 and 0.9 depending on the infrastructural
environment and the redundancy capacities. In case of a
to Tier I without redundancy. The influence of the (2n+1) redundancy (see chapter 5), the simultaneity factor
redundancy requirements placed on the specific space to be chosen will be between 0.4 (for n = 2) and 0.5 (for a
5 required is already taken into account in the first two very large number n). Whereas without redundancy a very
items outlined here high simultaneity factor is possible in the data centre.
• For the list of costs shown in the second part of Tab. 2/5,
6 the installation components are summed up according to
the cost group 440 – Power Installations listed in
DIN 276-1. The following is considered:

8
Average building cost of walled-in area [€ / m3] Class D (C ) C (B) B (A) A (A+)
9 Average power demand Offices 1.10 1 0.93 0.87
Tier I Tier II Tier III Tier IV
[W / m2]
Auditoriums 1.06 1 0.94 0.89
10 DaC
125 360 390 490 550

Educational facilities
1,500 1,625 2,000 3,000 3,800 1.07 1 0.93 0.86
(schools)

11 IT room
500 690 810 1,130 1,400 Hospitals 1.05 1 0.98 0.96

2,000 1,900 2,350 3,550 4,500 Hotels 1.07 1 0.95 0.90

12 Average cost for Installation 440 – Heavy-current installation in a

walled-in area* [€ / m3]
Restaurants 1.04 1 0.96 0.92

Average power demand Buildings for wholesale and

Tier I Tier II Tier III Tier IV 1.08 1 0.95 0.91
[W / m2] retail
13 Tab. 2/6:  Efficiency factors (electric) for the  back to page 21
125 60 75 130 160
building automation according to EN 15232 for different
DaC
non‑residential buildings
14 1,500 740 940 1,500 1,900

500 240 300 470 620

IT room

15 2,000 900 1,100 1,750 2,300

* The cost share of embedded electricity generating sets (generators and UPS
systems) is approx. 70 % and the cost share for high and medium-voltage
switchgear, low-voltage switchgear, low-voltage installation systems, lighting
16 systems and lightning protection, and earthing systems amounts to approx.
30 % altogether.

Tab. 2/5:  Data centre (DaC) power demand  back to page 18

17 dependent on the concept for redundancy and infrastructure

20 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2.3 Estimation of a Concrete Value 1

Specific power
for the Power Demand from in W/m2
0.0 ktot 1.0
the Given Margins 150
140
2
130
120
The values for the average power demand in Tab. 2/3 and 110
Tab. 2/4 cover a vast bandwidth of different prerequisites.
When estimating the total power demand for the project to
100
90
3
80
be planned, the individual margins of building types, 70
functional areas and rooms must be substantiated. For this
4
60

purpose, we provide an estimation procedure with various

calibration factors below as a simple help. A similar proce- 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0
dure is also used in EN 15232. Efficiency factors are used in kplc kstruct kcomf kclim ktech kBA/TBM
this procedure that quantify the classification of the techni- Calibration factors 5
cal building characteristics and the use of systems for
building automation (BA) and technical building manage- Fig. 2/2:  Influence of the calibration factors on the specific power
ment (TBM). 6
These factors (Tab. 2/6) are calibrated later for our estima- (kplc + kstruct + kcomf + kclim + ktech + kBA / TBM)
ktot = ———————————————————————
tion procedure on a value range between 0 and 1 and
utilised for a characterisation of BA / TBM and the technical 6 7
building characteristics.
To establish the specific power demand, we start from the
For our simple calculation model we confine to six features lowest expected value pmin and determine a factor ktot from 8
which are evaluated as equivalent: our evaluations of the six sub-factors. This factor is used to
• Building placement weigh the difference between the minimum pmin and the
• Room structure
• Level of comfort
maximum pmax and added to the minimum. The total factor
ktot then results from the mean of the individual factors
9
• Air conditioning option (Fig. 2/2) in the above equation.
• Technical characteristics
• BA / TBM Placement of the building – calibration factor kplc
10
Of course you can also use your own factors as additional The location of the building has a fundamental influence
boundary conditions. In any case, the planner and his client on the planning of the power supply. The following ques- 11
should coordinate procedures, so that the calculation is tions can also be used to obtain an estimation:
verifiable. Six calibration factors corresponding to the six • Do special conditions with regard to adjacent buildings
characterisation features identify the power demand of the
building in the model.
have to be considered?
• Which traffic routes and connections can be used?
12
• Calibration factor kplc for the building placement • Which type of power supply is possible and to which
• Calibration factor kstruct for the room structure
• Calibration factor kcomf for the level of comfort
extent?
• Are there legal boundary conditions that have to be taken
13
• Calibration factor kclim for the air conditioning options into consideration?
• Calibration factor ktech for the technical characteristics
• Calibration factor kBA / TBM for the BA / TBM Note: Without any local particularities, the placement 14
factor can be set to kplc = 0.5.
As we do not want to apply any further weighting to the
factors, the mean value of the calibration factors can be
defined as the total value:
15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 21
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Room structure – calibration factor kstruct the number of factors must be reduced accordingly in the
above equation. To obtain a simple estimate, it is not
Smaller rooms are easier to ventilate and light is distributed worthwhile weighting the individual factors in the formula.
2 better in the room through reflection on the walls and
ceiling. This calibration factor can also take the intended
room height into account. Our estimations that are dis- Air conditioning – calibration factor kclim
3 played in Fig. 2/3 as a curve also take into account that
small rooms and areas frequently have direct ventilation With regard to the air conditioning of a building, natural
and not air conditioning. ventilation, the efficiency of the cooling equipment and the

4 Larger rooms and halls generally have a larger calibration

possibilities of reducing the solar radiation without impair-
ing the light conditions in the rooms must be taken into
factor kstruct. At this point, we would again like to empha- account. In Germany, the Association of German Engineers
sise that the experience and project knowledge of the (VDI) have considered the building-specific power demands
5 planner and the agreement with the client are decisive of the air ventilation and cooling in guideline VDI 3807-4.
when determining the factors. Our Siemens TIP contact The data described therein for the specific installed load
persons with their background knowledge support electri- of offices, hotel rooms, kitchens, data centres, theatres,
6 cal designers in specific projects. department stores, parking garages etc. for different
­demand classes ranging from “very high” to “very low”
Level of comfort and safety equipment – calibration has been converted into a curve for calibration factors

7 factor kcomf (Fig. 2/4). The superimposition of lots of individual curves

has shown that only types of use with a high demand for
It is difficult to make general statements about comfort, as cooling, such as computer centres and kitchens, display a
it is largely dependent on how the building is used. slightly different curve shape.
8 Whereas good lighting, an audio system and a monitoring
system are considered as standard in a shopping centre, Computer rooms, which are better planned without win-
these characteristics may be considered as comfort features dows, generally require more expensive air conditioning
9 in office areas. On the other hand, blinds play no role in
shop windows, but are important in hotels and offices.
– constant temperature and humidity – although there is
little effect from solar radiation. It should also be noted that
High-speed lifts for large loads require more power, as well the air conditioning depends on the room structure and the

10 as special stagecraft technology and technically sophisti-

cated, medical diagnostic equipment. Control and monitor-
comfort requirements.

ing systems make buildings safe and are the basis for a
better user-friendliness. In the production sector, this factor
11 will often play a subordinate part. If one factor is neglected,

12
kstruct 1 kclim 1

13 0.8 0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
14 0.2
0.2

0
0 very very
1 2 3 4 low low average high high
15 100 – 2,000 m2 500 – 4,000 m2 2,000 – 8,000 m2 > 6,000 m2 Power demand for air conditioning
1 Smaller, single rooms, hotel rooms, window-ventilated
2 Larger offices, window-ventilated Mean calibration factors kclim for data centres and kitchens
3 Retail shops, doctor’s practices, open-plan offices,
16 air conditioning, standard equipment
4 Open-plan offices, department stores, …, with upscale equipment
Mean calibration factors kclim for usage types such as
offices, department stores, hotel rooms, theatres, etc.

17 Fig. 2/3:  Schematic dependency of the power demand from

the building structure demonstrated through a standardised
Fig. 2/4:  Schematic dependency of the power demand from the
building's air conditioning demonstrated through a standardised
factor kstruct factor kclim

22 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Technical characteristics – calibration factor ktech Building management – calibration factor kBA / TBM 1
Even when the functionality of the technical building In the same way as for the technical characteristics, stand-
equipment has been defined, the difference in the techni- ard EN 15232 can be used for the building management 2
cal constructions is significant. High-speed lifts require (see Tab. 2/9). However, note that energy efficiency class D
higher starting currents than slower lifts, fans with EC from EN 15232 plays no role for the planning of BA / TBM
motors (electronically controlled) save power and modern
light fittings reduce the power demand, and the efficiency
systems in new buildings. The advantage of our procedure
with scaled calibration factors is revealed here. Characteri-
3
of many electrical consumers differ greatly from version to sation features can be adapted to the latest technology
version. through the scaling and the classification always defined
through one's own current experience. 4
A general classification for the energy efficiency according
to the EN 15232 standard is listed in Tab. 2/7. The effi- We will therefore omit class D and select a new class A+,
ciency factors of EN 15232 are transformed in Tab. 2/8 to which in addition to the properties of class A, is character- 5
the desired calibration area between 0 and 1. ised by remote monitoring, remote diagnostics, and remote
control as well as analysis tools for BA / TBM, as part of the
A distinction is not made for other types (such as sports
facilities, warehouses, industrial facilities, etc.) so that the
smart grid. For the four new classes C, B, A, and A+ we
then adopt the old calibration factors from Tab. 2/8
6
factor of 0.5 is selected for all classes. ­accordingly (Class C –> column D, Class B –> column C,
Class A –> column B, Class A+ –> column A of Tab. 2/8).
7

10

Class Energy efficiency

11
Highly energy-efficient devices and systems (low-friction
AC drives, EC fans, LEDs, transistor converters, etc.)
12
A Regular maintenance, possibly with remote monitoring Efficiency class D C B A

Extensive communication and control options Offices 1.0 0.57 0.26 0

13
Improved efficiency devices and systems Auditoriums 1.0 0.65 0.29 0
B
Extensive communication and control options Educational facilities
(schools)
1.0 0.67 0.33 0 14
Standard devices and systems that represent the current
state of technology during operation Hospitals 1.0 0.44 0.22 0
C
No communication options, only mechanical adjustment
Hotels 1.0 0.59 0.29 0
15
possible
Simple devices and systems that only satisfy the required Restaurants 1.0 0.67 0.33 0
D
functionality
Buildings for wholesale
16
Only On / Off switch 1.0 0.53 0.24 0
and retail

Tab. 2/7:  Classification of the technical characteristics of a building

with regard to energy efficiency according to EN 15232
Tab. 2/8:  Calibration factors ktech for the technical equipment of a
building in accordance with EN 15232 for various non-residential 17
buildings

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 23
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Estimated power demand

The established calibration factor ktot and the two limit

2 values pmin and pmax allow to determine the specific power
demand pspec for the entire usable area of a building.

3 pspec = pmin + (pmax – pmin) · ktot

To obtain the estimated power demand of the building, the

4 specific power demand is multiplied by the usable area of

the building.

5
Class Energy efficiency and building management

6 Corresponds to highly energy-efficient BA systems and

TGM
• Networked room control with automatic demand
A acquisition

7
• Regular maintenance
• Energy monitoring
• Sustainable energy optimisation
Corresponds to further developed BA systems and some
8 B
special TBM functions
• Networked room control without automatic demand
acquisition
• Energy monitoring

9 Corresponds to standard BA systems

• Networked building automation of the primary systems
C • No electronic room control, thermostatic valves on
radiators
10 • No energy monitoring
Corresponds to BA systems that are not energy efficient
Buildings with such systems have to be modernized. New
buildings must not be built with such systems
11 D
• No networked building automation functions
• No electronic room control
• No energy monitoring

12 Tab. 2/9:  Efficiency classification for executing  back to page 23

the function of building automation and technical building
management systems according to EN 15232

13

14

15

16

17

24 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply and Power station sites are oriented towards the availability of 1
Distribution Grids primary energy sources, cooling systems, and other ambi-
ent conditions, therefore they are often removed from load
Different voltages are used to fulfil the different tasks of centres. Electric transmission and distribution grids connect 2
electric power supply and distribution. According to inter- power stations with electricity consumers. The grids thus
national rules, there are initially two voltage groups: form a supra-regional backbone with reserves to ensure
• Low voltage (LV):
up to and including 1,000 V AC (or 1,500 V DC)
reliability of supply and for balancing load differences. High
operating voltages (and therefore low currents) are pre-
3
• High voltage (HV): ferred for power transmission in order to minimise losses.
above 1 kV AC (or 1.5 kV DC) The voltage is then transformed to the usual values of the
low-voltage grid in the load centres close to the consumer. 4
Most electrical appliances used in household, commercial
and industrial applications work with low voltage. High The boundary conditions for selecting the supply voltage
voltage is used not only to transmit electrical energy over and the design of the technical connection points are 5
very large distances, but also, finely branched, for regional described in the Technical supply conditions of the distribu-
distribution to the load centres. Different voltage levels are tion system operator (DSO). Depending on the situation of
common for transmission and regional distribution because
the tasks and requirements for switching devices and
the DSO with regard to supply density, grid short-circuit
power and supply quality, an installed capacity between
6
switchgear are very different. This is how the term 'medium 150 and 1,000 kW may make the connection to the
voltage' emerged for voltages that are used to regionally
distribute electrical energy (Fig. 2/5).
medium-voltage level seem reasonable. Since there is no
uniform set of rules, this must be discussed with the re- 7
• Medium voltage (MV): sponsible DSO during planning.
above 1 kV AC up to and including 52 kV AC; most grid
operating voltages are within the range of 3 to 40.5 kV 8
(Fig. 2/5)

10

11

12

13

14

15
1 2 1 3
16
1 Medium-voltage 2 High-voltage 3 Low-voltage

Fig. 2/5:  Voltage levels between the power station and the consumer 17

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 25
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Dependent on the DSO, a direct connection of the cus- The network configuration is determined by the respective
tomer to a transformer substation of the DSO (grid level 6 supply task, the building dimensions, the number of floors
in Tab. 2/10) may be possible in case of a power demand of above / below ground, the building use as well as the build-
2 more than 150 kW (house connection with 250 A), and if a ing equipment and power density. Typically, areas of differ-
connection to the grid above 300 or 400 kW needs to be ent power densities also require different network configu-
created, a connection to the medium-voltage level (grid rations. In this context, the reliability of supply and the
3 level 5) may be permitted. Often, a power factor cos φ is
also specified
supply quality of the electric power distribution system
should be paid special attention to. An optimal network
(Tab. 2/10). configuration should meet the following requirements:

4 In the local low-voltage grid, we additionally distinguish

• Low investment
• Straightforward network configuration
between grid level 7a and 7b. Part of grid level 7a are • High reliability and quality of supply
households and small commercial customers with an • Low power losses
5 electricity demand of up to approx. 300 A and 230 / 400-V • Favourable and flexible expansion options
feed-in. Industrial and commercial businesses with an • Low electromagnetic interference
electricity demand above 300 A with a 400-V connection
6 are counted as grid level 7b. The following characteristics must be determined for a
suitable network configuration:
In public power supply, the majority of medium-voltage • Number of supply points

7 grids are operated in the 10 kV to 30 kV range. The values

vary greatly from country to country, depending on the
• Size and type of power sources
• Central or distributed installation of the power sources
historical technological development and the local condi- • Type of meshing and size of the power outage reserve
tions. In urban environments, the spatial supply radius of a • Type of connection to earth and neutral-point connection
8 medium-voltage grid with 10 kV operating voltage is at
approx. 5 to 10 km and in rural areas with 20 kV operating
voltage at approx. 10 to 20 km. These are merely guide
9 values. In practice, the supply area strongly depends on
local conditions, for example the customer structure (load)
and the geographical position.

10 Apart from the public supply, there are other voltages in

industrial plants with medium-voltage grids that depend on
the consumers. In most cases, the operating voltages of the
11 installed motors are decisive. Operating voltages between
3 kV and 15 kV are very often used in industrial supply
networks.
12

13 220 / 380  kV 3~, Large power stations, wind parks,

Grid level 1 Transmission grid Ultra-high voltage grid
HVDC up to ± 800 kV DC European interconnected grid

14 Grid level 2 Main substation From ultra-high to high voltage

Supra-regional distribution Medium-size power stations, e.g.

Grid level 3 High voltage 110 kV 3~
grid bio and hydro power stations

15 Grid level 4 Main substation High to medium voltage HV / MV

Small power stations, e.g. wind

Grid level 5 Regional distribution grid Medium voltage 10 / 20 / 30  kV 3~
power stations and PV systems
16 Grid level 6 Transformer substation Medium to low voltage MV / LV

Small power stations, e.g. PV

17 Grid level 7 Local low-voltage grid Low voltage 230 V 1~ / 400 V 3~
systems, fuel cells

Tab. 2/10:  Grid level structure in the UCTE grid (UCTE – Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity)

26 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2.5 Type of Power Supply Since the circuits for SPS loads must be laid separately, their 1
placement inside the building is relevant for budget consid-
Electrical energy can be fed into the grid in different ways, erations. In Germany, certain statutory regulations and
determined by its primary function (Tab. 2/11). For normal specifications are additionally applicable, which demand 2
power supply (NPS): the functional endurance of cables and wires in case of fire.
• Direct connection to the public low-voltage grid: in
Germany for example up to approx. 300 kW (two times
250 A house connection) at 400 / 230 V
In general, circuits for safety purposes routed through
fire-threatened areas must be designed fire-resistant. Never
3
• Transfer from the medium-voltage grid (max. 52 kV) via must they be routed through explosion-prone areas. Usu-
public or in-house substations (in Germany mostly with
transformers from 0.5 to 2.5 MVA)
ally, safety-purpose facilities receive an automatic power
supply whose activation does not depend on operator 4
action. According to IEC 60364-1 (VDE 0100-100), auto-
For the emergency standby power system (ESPS), power matic supply is classified by its maximum change-over time:
sources are selected based on regulations and as a function • Without interruption: automatic supply which can ensure 5
of the permissible interruption time: continuous supply during change-over under defined
• Generators for general standby operation and / or safety conditions, e.g. with regard to voltage and frequency
power supply (SPS)
• Uninterruptible power systems
fluctuations;
• Very short interruption: automatic supply which is availa-
6
–– Static UPS comprising a rectifier / inverter unit with ble within 0.15 s;
battery or flywheel energy storage for buffering
voltage failures
• Short interruption: automatic supply which is available
within 0.5 s; 7
–– Rotating UPS comprising a motor / generator set with • Mean interruption: automatic supply which is available
flywheel energy storage or a battery plus within 15 s;
rectifier / inverter unit for bridging • Long interruption: automatic supply which is available 8
after more than 15 s;
The constellation depicted in Fig. 2/6 with the correspond-
ing description given in Tab. 2/11 has proven itself in
infrastructure projects.
9

10

11

12

Type Example 13
TIP01_11_013_EN

Normal power supply Supply of all installations and power T1 T2 T3

(NPS) consumers available in the building G UPS

Supply of life-protecting facilities in case

14
of danger:
Safety power supply
• Safety lighting
(SPS)
• Fire fighting lifts
• Fire extinguishing systems
15
Supply of sensitive power consumers NPS ESPS

Uninterruptible power
which must be operated without
interruption in the event of an NPS failure:
network network
16
supply (UPS) • Emergency lighting
• Servers / computers NPS consumer SPS consumer UPS consumer
• Communication systems
17
Tab. 2/11:  Type of supply Fig. 2/6:  Type of supply

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 27
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 In IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560) the following examples The procedure shown in Fig. 2/7 can be carried out by
of safety installations are given: customers and / or planners for a use-specific classification
• Emergency lighting / safety lighting of different power consumers and the associated corporate-
2 • Fire extinguishing pumps sensitive tasks. Criteria for the determination of business-
• Fire fighting lifts critical processes might for example be the following:
• Alarm systems such as fire alarm systems, carbon mon­ • Effects on life and health
3 oxide (CO) alarm systems, and intruder detection systems
• Evacuation systems
• Protection of important legal interests
• Observance of the law and regulations
• Smoke evacuation systems • Loss of the institution’s / company's reputation

4 • Important medical systems

7
Process definition /
task description
8
Definition of the permissible
duration of a power failure

9
Is the process / task No

10
business-critical?

Yes
Consideration of all electricity
11 consumers contributing
to the process

12 Is manual
emergency operation possible
Yes
(maybe partially)?

13 No

Is a short Is a shorter
No bridging time sufficient, No
interruption of the power
e.g. for a shutdown
14 supply permissible?
process?

Yes
Yes

15 Consumers via UPS

directly to NPS
Connect consumers
to UPS via SPS
TIP01_11_014_EN

16 Consumers to SPS
Consumers to UPS which
is supplied from NPS
Consumers to UPS which
is supplied via ESPS
Consumers to NPS

17
Fig. 2/7:  Flowchart for an estimation of NPS, SPS and UPS

28 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2.6 Central or Distributed 1

Installation of Low-voltage
Supply 2
Supply design distinguishes between central and
distributed supply variants in dependency of
spatial conditions and the associated load re-
3
quirements. In case of a central installation, the
transformers, which are concentrated in one
place, feed into the different power distribution 4
branch lines. In case of a distributed installation,
the transformers are placed at load centres, so
that they must be spread over a larger area. 5
Fig. 2/8 shows the intrinsic advantages of distrib-
uted as compared to central supply.

If separate substation rooms cannot or shall not

6
be built in an industrial environment, for exam-
ple, these transformer load centre substations
(see Fig. 2/9) provide a compact and easily
Fig. 2/9:  SITRABLOC transformer load centre substation 7
installable solution for distributed power supply.

10
Distributed power supply Central power supply

T1 PS8 11
PS7

T2 PS6
T1 T2 T3 T4 PS5 12
T3 PS4
PS3
T4 PS2 13
PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4 PS5 PS6 PS7 PS8
PS1
I”k I”k
kA kA 14
∆u
%
∆u
%
15

16
TIP01_11_020_EN

Better voltage stability Worse voltage stability

Lower power losses Higher power losses
Facilitated compliance with the conditions for Difficult compliance with the conditions for
disconnection from supply in acc. with HD 60364-4-41 disconnection from supply in acc. with HD 60364-4-41
17
Fig. 2/8:  Comparison of supply variants with regard to short-circuit current Ik“ and voltage drop Δu

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 29
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 2.7 Network Configurations Dependent on the spatial structures, the investment to be

made for an open-type ringed network can be lower or
Starting from the type of supply, electric power distribution higher than for a spur network. A spur network is advanta-
2 grids or networks can also be distinguished according to geous if individual transformers shall handle low-voltage
their type of meshing. The following basic configurations supply in a confined space. A ringed network can be favour-
are distinguished: able regarding costs of investment if supply is spread out
3 • Radial networks
• Ringed networks
over a larger area with several transformer centres.

• Meshed networks In terms of space requirements, power demand coverage,

4 The spur-line-fed radial network (Fig. 2/10) is the most

environmental friendliness and cable costs, the differ-
ences between the two network configurations are small.
simple form. Its advantages lie in easy monitoring and Although ringed networks more often come with shorter
protection as well as in fast fault localisation and simple cable lengths, the cable cross section must be higher
5 operational management. When the expense is doubled, owing to the transmission of higher capacities from one
the outcome is a double-spur network. Every load centre ring endpoint to the other.
can be reached via two different paths. Switching devices
6 are only closed if required. If the requirements placed on
supply reliability are high, each supply line can be fed from
With regard to the costs of power losses, the spur network
and the open-type ringed network only differ insignifi-
an independent supply network. Due to fact that the net- cantly. There are minimal advantages if the ringed network

7 works are independent from each other, a fault in one

network will not affect the other one.
is operated in the closed-type variant. However, protection
of the closed ring requires circuit-breakers and line differen-
tial protection. These additional costs show up in invest-
In combination with a ring line as an extension of the spur ments.
8 network (Fig. 2/10), a ringed network can be built up.

9
Radial network (spur network) Ringed network normally open (n. o.)
10 Main switchgear Main switchgear

11

12 Station 1 Station 4 Station 1 Station 4

13
Station 2 Station 5 Station 2 Station 5

14
Station 3 Station 6 Station 3 Station 6
15
n.o.
16 Feed-in Feed-in
TIP04_13_003_EN

17 Fig. 2/10:  Radial and ringed network for the connection of distributed transformer load centre substations

30 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In case of a cable fault in an open-type ringed network, all 1

stations downward of the fault location up to the normally
open switch will fail. In case of low-voltage-side meshing of
the ring stations, the failure of a large sub-ring could result 2
in overload and disconnection of non-affected, still opera-
ble transformers. Whereas a cable fault in the spur network
merely results in the failure of one station. 3
Only with a closed-typed ringed network and appropriate
protection expense could such a level of reliability be also
attained in the ringed network. In addition to this, the 4
closed-type ringed network provides an immediate reserve
in case of cable faults, whereas the spur network merely
offers a load transfer reserve. A single fault with trans- 5
former failure can be handled in both networks without
interruption if (n-1) redundancy (see chapter 5) applies for
the transformers. 6
Furthermore, operating a ringed network always requires
distributed switching operations which hamper ease of
operation. Switching operations for fault localisation and 7
actions to attain a defined switching condition in cases of
defect are more complicated than with a radial network.
Weather-dependent power feed-in of solar and wind power 8
stations increasingly burdens grids owing to fluctuations
which can inadequately be planned only. In line with this,
safely connecting parts of the network into supply and
likewise disconnecting these parts from supply together
9
with a realisation of what is going on are becoming more
and more important.
10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 31
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 2.8 Power Supply Systems tive measures (Fig. 2/11). On the low-voltage side, it also
according to their Type of influences the system's electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC). From experience the TN-S system has the best
2 Connection to Earth cost-benefit ratio of electric grids at the low-voltage level.

Suitable power supply systems according to the type of In a TN system, in the event of a short-circuit to an exposed
3 connection to earth are described in IEC 60364-1
(VDE 0100-100). The type of connection to earth must be
conductive part, a considerable part of the single-pole
short-circuit current is not fed back to the power source via
selected carefully for the medium- or low-voltage network, a connection to earth but via the protective conductor. The

4 as it has a major impact on the expense required for protec- comparatively high single-pole short-circuit current allows

5 TN system: In the TN system, one operating line is directly earthed; the exposed conductive parts in the electrical installation are connected
to this earthed point via protective conductors. Dependent on the arrangement of the protective (PE) and neutral (N) conductors,
three types are distinguished:
a) TN-S system: b) TN-C system: c) TN-C-S system:
6 In the entire system, neutral (N)
and protective (PE) conductors
In the entire system, the functions
of the neutral and protective conductor
In a part of the system, the functions
of the neutral and protective conductor
are laid separately. are combined in one conductor (PEN). are combined in one conductor (PEN).
Power Power Power
7 source
Electrical installation
source
Electrical installation
source
Electrical installation

L1 L1 L1
L2 L2 L2
8 L3
N
L3
PEN
L3
PEN PE
PE N

9 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
TT system: In the TT system, one operating line is directly IT system: In the IT system, all active operating lines are
10 earthed; the exposed conductive parts in the
electrical installation are connected to earthing
separated from earth or one point is is connected
to earth via an impedance.
electrodes which are electrically independent of the
earthing electrode of the system.

11 Power
source
Electrical installation
Power
source
Electrical installation

L1 L1
L2
12 L2
L3 L3
N
N
2

13 RB RA RB RA
3 1 4 3 1 4

14 First letter = earthing condition of the supplying

power source
Further letters = arrangement of the neutral conductor and
protective conductor
T = direct earthing of one point (live conductor) S = neutral conductor function and protective conductor function
I = no point (live conductor) or one point of the power are laid in separate conductors.
15 source is connected to earth via an impedance
Second letter = earthing condition of the exposed
C = neutral conductor function and protective conductor function
are laid in one conductor (PEN).
conductive parts in the electrical installation 1 Exposed conductive part
TIP01_11_019_EN

T = exposed conductive parts are connected to earth

16 separately, in groups or jointly
N = exposed conductive parts are directly connected to the
2 High-resistance impedance
3 Operational or system earthing RB
earthed point of the electrical installation (usually
N conductor close to the power source) via protective 4 Earthing of exposed conductive parts RA

17 conductors (separately, in groups or jointly)

Fig. 2/11:  Systems according to the type of connection to earth in acc. with IEC 60364-1 (VDE 0100-100)

32 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

for the use of simple protective devices such as fuses or Please note that neither the PEN nor the PE must be 1
miniature circuit-breakers, which trip in the event of a fault switched. If a PEN conductor is used, it is to be insulated
within the permissible tripping time. In building engineer- over its entire course – this includes the distribution sys-
ing, networks with TN systems are preferably used today. tem. The magnitude of the 1-pole short-circuit current 2
When using a TN-S system in the entire building, residual directly depends on the position of the CEP.
currents in the building and thus an electromagnetic inter-
ference by galvanic coupling can be prevented in normal
operation because the operating currents flow back
Caution: In extensive supply networks with more than one
splitter bridge, stray short-circuit currents may occur.
3
­exclusively via the separately laid isolated N conductor
(Tab. 2/12). In case of a central arrangement of the power
sources, we always recommend the TN system as a rule. 4
In that, the system earthing is implemented at one central
earthing point (CEP), for example in the low-voltage main
distribution system, for all sources. 5

Characteristics
TN-C TN-C / S TN-S IT system TT system 6
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Low cost of investment • • • • • 7

Little expense for system extensions • • • • •
Any switchgear / protective technology can
8
be used • • • • •
Earth fault detection can be implemented • • • • • 9
Fault currents and impedance conditions in
the system can be calculated • • • • •
10
Stability of the earthing system • • • • •
High degree of operational safety • • • • • 11
High degree of protection • • • • •
12
High degree of shock hazard protection • • • • •
High degree of fire safety • • • • • 13
Automatic disconnection for protection
• • • • •
purposes can be implemented
14
EMC-friendly • • • • •
Equipment functions maintained in case of
1st earth or enclosure fault • • • • • 15
Fault localisation during system operation • • • • • 16
Reduction of system downtimes by
controlled disconnection • • • • •
1 = true  2 = conditionally true  3 = not true
17
Tab. 2/12:  Exemplary quality rating dependent on the power supply system according to its type of connection to earth

Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 33
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 4-pole switches must be used if two TN-S subsystems are

connected to each other. In TN-S systems, only one earth-
ing bridge may be active. Therefore it is not permitted that
2 two earthing bridges be interconnected via two conduc-
tors.

3 Today, networks with TT systems are only used in rural

supply areas and in few countries. In this context,
the stipulated independence of the earthing systems

4 must be observed. In accordance with IEC 60364‑5‑54

(VDE 0100‑540), a minimum clearance ≥ 15 m is required.

Networks with an IT system are preferably used for

5 rooms with medical applications in accordance with
IEC 60364‑7‑710 (VDE 0100‑710) in hospitals and in
production, where no supply interruption is to take place
6 upon the first fault, for example in the cable and optical
waveguide production. The TT system as well as the IT
system require the use of residual current devices (RCDs) –

7 previously named FI (fault current interrupters) – for

almost all circuits.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

34 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Chapter 3
Power System Planning Modules
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 3 Power System Planning Modules

duction

1 Power system planning modules can be used for an easy The room conditions and the associated load requirements
and systematic power distribution design for typical build- are essential for the basic concept. The flow diagram
ing structures. These are schematic solution concepts Fig. 3/1 shows, how a systematic analysis of the boundary
2 which clarify the spatial arrangement and connection of conditions and the different single decisions lead to a a
important components for electric power distribution. The planning framework which helps the planner find the right
modules shown below are suggestions for the planning of supply concept for his project.
3 various building types and supply options. All modules are
based on a clear radial network and the following goals are The design proposals (Tab. 3/1) and the network planning
aimed at: modules (Fig. 3/2 to Fig. 3/6) help building up the power

4 • High reliability of operation and supply

• Good electromagnetic compatibility
distribution system for typical building structures in an easy
and systematic way. The schematized solution proposals
• Selectivity can then be specifically extended and adjusted for a pro-
ject. When the preliminary planning stage has been com-
5 100 % of the total power are drawn from the public grid, pleted, the power system can easily be dimensioned and
whereof 10 to 30 % are provided for the safety power calculated with the aid of the SIMARIS design planning tool.
supply (SPS) and 5 to 20 % for the uninterruptible power Up-to-date and detailed descriptions of selected applica-
6 supply (UPS). For medium-voltage supply, an SF6 gas-­
insulated 8DJH medium-voltage switchgear, a SIVACON
tions can be obtained on the Internet at

low-voltage main distribution system with TN-S system, www.siemens.com/tip-cs/planning_manuals

7 and – due to the room conditions – GEAFOL cast-resin

transformers with reduced losses are assumed for the
modules.

10

11

12 Module
Building
type
Supply
Wiring /
main route
Floors
Floor
area
Total area
Power
required
Transformer
module
Generator UPS

2 × 630 kVA,
Low-rise 1 supply 1,000 – 400 kVA 200 kVA
1 Cable ≤ 4 2,500 m2 10,000 m2 ukr = 6 %,
13 building section 2,000 kW
Ik ≤ 30  kA
(30 %) (15 %)

2 × 800 kVA,
Low-rise 2 supply 2× 730 kVA 400 kVA
2 Busbar ≤ 4 2,500 m2 > 2,000 kW ukr = 6 %,
building sections 10,000 m2 (30 %) (15 %)
14 1 supply
Ik ≤ 60  kA
2 × 630 kVA,
High-rise 400 kVA 200 kVA
3 section, Busbar ≤ 10 1,000 m2 10,000 m2 ≤ 1,800  kW ukr = 6 %,
building (30 %) (15 %)
central Ik ≤ 30  kA

15 1 supply
section,
2 (2 + 1) ×
High-rise 630 kVA, 800 kVA 400 kVA
4 transformers Cable 10 – 20 1,000 m2 20,000 m2 ≤ 1,500  kW
building ukr = 6 %, (30 %) (15 %)
at remote
Ik ≤ 45  kA
16 location
2×3×
1 supply 2× 2×
High-rise 800 kVA,
5 section, Busbar > 20 1,000 m2 20,000 m2 ≤ 2,000  kW 630 kVA 300 kVA
building ukr = 6 %,
17 central
Ik ≤ 60  kA
(30 %) (15 %)

Tab. 3/1:  Design suggestions for the various building modules

36 Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Functional areas:
Offices
Functional 2
building?
Briefing rooms
Data centre yes
Canteen kitchen with casino
Heating/ventilation/air conditioning
3
Radial network
Fire protection
with partial
Transport
load reserve
4
TN-C-S system,
LVMD with central
earthing point 5

i < 5?
no 6
Tip:
Max. side length: a
Floor area A = a2
Height per floor: h Low-rise building High-rise building 7
Number of floors: i
Max. number of floors
for one supply section:
i ≤ (100 m – 2a) / h
no no
8
A ≤ 2,000 m2? i ≤ 10?

Splitting into several

supply sections per area, i ≤ 20?
no 9
yes i.e. number of floor
distribution boards ≥ 2
Tip:
Ѕmax = P/cosφ Ѕmax ≤ 2 MVA?
no yes 10
Transformer selection:
Ѕmax < 630 kVA: ukr 4 %
Central technical Central MV transfer: Distributed
Ѕmax ≥ 630 kVA: ukr 6 % equipment room,
transfer:
distributed
transformers –
MV transfer:
transformers – 11
transformer – LVMD LVMD LVMD

Interlocked load
12
transfer with
4-pole devices

13
Low-rise building
Module 1
Low-rise building
Module 2
High-rise building
Module 3
High-rise building
Module 4
High-rise building
Module 5 14
yes yes

Tip:
Busbar trunking system if the focus
yes yes yes 15
TIP04_13_004_EN

is on comfort requirements such as

no
good extendibility or easy assembly
as well as high operational safety
with EMC and small fire load
Cables?
no
Busbars?
16

17
Fig. 3/1:  Overview of the network planning concepts back to page 36

Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules 37

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2 Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section

Lifts

3 HVAC

FF lifts

4 HVAC-SPS

NPS4.2

UPS4.2
SPS4.2
5 4th floor

6
NPS3.2

UPS3.2
3rd floor SPS3.2

7
NPS2.2

UPS2.2
SPS2.2

2nd floor

8
NPS1.2

UPS1.2
SPS1.2

1st floor
9

10
LVMD
11
NPS SPS
G
12 MS
1 2 3~ UPS

13 Basement

from DSO
TIP04_13_005_EN

14 NPS
PCO
Normal power supply
Power company or system operator
FF Firefighters
HVAC Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
15 MS
LVMD
Medium-voltage switchboard
Low-voltage main distribution
SPS Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
16 DSO
z
Distribution system operator
Power monitoring system

17
Fig. 3/2:  Module 1: Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section back to page 36

38 Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Low-rise building, busbar, two central supply sections 2

Lifts

HVAC
3
FF lifts

HVAC-SPS
4
NPS4.1

SPS4.1

UPS4.1

NPS4.2

SPS4.2

UPS4.2
4th floor
5
NPS3.1

SPS3.1

UPS3.1

NPS3.2

SPS3.2

UPS3.2
3rd floor
6
NPS2.1

SPS2.1

UPS2.1

NPS2.2

SPS2.2

UPS2.2
2nd floor
7
NPS1.1

SPS1.1

UPS1.1

NPS1.2

SPS1.2

UPS1.2
1st floor
8

9
LVMD

10
NPS SPS
1 2 G UPS
3~
MS
z
11
Basement
TIP04_13_006_EN
from DSO
12
NPS Normal power supply
FF Firefighters
HVAC Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
MS
LVMD
Medium-voltage switchboard
Low-voltage main distribution
13
SPS Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
DSO
z
Distribution system operator
Power monitoring system
14

15

16

17
Fig. 3/3:  Module 2: Low-rise building, busbar, two central supply sections back to page 36

Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules 39

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2 High-rise building, busbar, one central supply section

3 FF lifts Lifts

HVAC HVAC-SPS

5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

8
2nd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

9
1st floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

10
LVMD

11 NPS SPS
1 2 G UPS
3~
MS
12 z

Basement
TIP04_13_007_EN
from DSO
13
NPS Normal power supply
FD Floor distribution boards

14 FF
HVAC
Firefighters
Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
MS Medium-voltage switchboard
LVMD Low-voltage main distribution
SPS Safety power supply
15 UPS Uninterruptible power supply
DSO Distribution system operator
z Power monitoring system

16

17
Fig. 3/4:  Module 3: Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section back to page 36

40 Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

High-rise building, cable, one supply section, transformers at remote location 2

Lifts FF lifts 3
HVAC HVAC-SPS
3 4
4

5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

(n–3)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

8

(n–4)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS 9

5th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

10

11
4th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

3rd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

NPS
FD
Normal power supply
Floor distribution
12
boards
2nd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
FF Firefighters
HVAC Heating –
Ventilation –
13
Air conditioning 1st floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
MS Medium-voltage
switchboard
LVMD Low-voltage main
14
distribution LVMD
SPS Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible NPS SPS
15
power supply 1 2 G UPS
3~
DSO Distribution system MS
16
operator z
z Power monitoring Basement
system
TIP04_13_008_EN
from DSO
17
Fig. 3/5:  Module 4: High-rise building, cable, one supply section, transformers at remote location back to page 36

Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules 41

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2 High-rise building, busbar, one distributed supply section

3 Lifts FF lifts
G
4 5 6 3~ UPS
HVAC HVAC-SPS

5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

8 FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

(n–3)th floor

9 (n–4)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

System discon- System discon- System discon-
necting point (b) necting point (b) necting point (b)

10 5th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

11 4th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

NPS Normal power supply

FD Floor distribution FD-UPS
3rd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS
12 FF
boards
Firefighters
HVAC Heating –
Ventilation – 2nd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS

13 MS
Air conditioning
Medium-voltage
switchboard
1st floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
LVMD Low-voltage main
14 SPS
distribution
Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible
power supply LVMD
15 b 4-pole switch
for connecting NPS SPS
the LVMDs 1 2 3 G
3~ UPS
DSO Distribution MS
16 z
system operator
Power monitoring
z

Basement
system
TIP04_13_009_EN
from DSO
17
Fig. 3/6:  Module 5: Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section back to page 36

42 Totally Integrated Power – Power System Planning Modules

Chapter 4
Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids
4.1 Components for the Configuration of
Medium-Voltage Grids 45
4.2 Medium-Voltage Power Supply Concepts47
4.3 Configuration of the Switchgear 50
4.4 Power System Protection Equipment 51
4.5 Connection of the Neutral Point in the
Medium-Voltage Cable Network 60
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 4 Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

duction

1 As described in chapter 3, a single medium-voltage substa- reasons for this, for example, are the high load concentra-
tion with one point of supply from the network operator tions in different areas of a large building complex, such as
and one or more distribution transformers for supply of the data centres and high-rise buildings used in the infrastruc-
2 low-voltage loads is not sufficient in large infrastructure ture, or also the distribution of loads over large areas, such
projects. Instead, an internal, separately operated medi- as airports, industrial plants, production plants, and hospi-
um-voltage system with several substations is required. The tals.
3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

44 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

4.1 Components for the Configuration 1

of Medium-Voltage Grids
In order to be able to fulfil the required tasks at all times, it Structure of the medium-voltage grid 2
may be necessary to plan the supply of the power consum-
ers via one or more medium-voltage main stations that 1. The supply cables and distribution cables are led out
serve as consumer substations of the grid operators. De-
pending on the amount of power required, these main
radially from a load centre in the first sections. Cables
should not be routed tangential to the point of supply
3
stations can become a main substation from high voltage because energy flows tangential to the supply direction
(HV) to medium voltage (MV) (grid level 4 in Tab. 2/10). are an unnecessary transport of energy and cause power
losses. Wherever possible, the loads should be supplied 4
Because of the cost benefits of purchasing power from the from the closest electric (and usually the closest geo-
high-voltage level, supply from a separate main substation graphic) network node, switchgear or main substation. A
or high-voltage transformer should typically be taken into similar configuration of individual MV subnetworks with 5
consideration for a power requirement as of 20 MW. The a few standardised network configurations, lines or rings
following must be considered with regard to the compo- makes the system easier to understand during normal
nents and configuration of medium-voltage grids: operation or when a fault occurs and reduces the proba-
bility of maloperations or unwanted system states.
6
Main substations, main supplies

1. The configuration of main substations and main supplies

2. A load flow-optimised network separation and also the
possibility of automation and remote control technology 7
should be “intrinsically safe”. This means that if an should be taken into account for the operation of MV
HV / MV transformer or an MV feeding line should fail, grids, and also the accessibility of stations in order to
the connected loads have to be switched to another minimise the downtimes when a fault occurs. 8
main substation or other points of supply. However, on
the one hand the power available to the switchable loads 3. In order to ensure the supply quality in the distribution
is limited in the medium-voltage grid, and on the other
hand there is a danger of maloperations and as a result,
network, the supply radii must be considered in relation
to the supply voltage. The rule of thumb is:
9
failure of parts of the supplied network. By keeping the –– For a high load density,
number of switching operations as low a possible, the
total time until the power is restored to the loads is
the supply radius r in km = ⅓ supply voltage in kV
–– For a low load density,
10
minimised. the supply radius r in km = ½ supply voltage in kV (for
example, for a low load density and a supply radius of
2. In order to limit the short-circuit power in the medi- approximately 5 km, a voltage of 10 kV should be 11
um-voltage grid, the transformers of the main substa- selected, whereas for a high load density, the voltage
tions should not be operated in parallel. It is better they should be 15 kV or possibly 20 kV).
are allocated to separate subnetworks. 12
Substations
3. The switchgear in the main substations and main sup-
plies should be short-circuit proof with regard to the
installations for the embedded generation and emer-
1. If different transformer sizes are used in the substations,
only a few standard types should be used.
13
gency power supply in the MV grid.
2. For cost reasons, transformers in substations up to
4. The installation of main substations and main supplies at 630 kVA are usually connected via switch disconnectors 14
the load centres corresponds to a radial supply from the and HV HRC fuses. With high transformer outputs,
main substations and short distances to the load centres. circuit-breakers are used for reasons of selectivity or
This enables losses to be minimised, a simple and flexi-
ble network configuration as well as an economic net-
when automation is required. 15
work extension.
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 45

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 3. The economically sensible power range (influence on 6. Avoid routing several cable systems together, if possi-
voltage drop, power losses, power quality) for energy ble, distribute the lines over the area. The combination
transport in a low-voltage grid of 400 V is between of distribution cables into cable harnesses with several
2 50 kVA (approx. 72 A) and 250 kVA (approx. 360 A; systems over a few routes results in mutual heating and
several low-voltage cables are required in one direction). therefore restricted transmission capacity. This also
For a larger power range, the construction of a new increases the probability that several cable systems will
3 substation should be considered. be damaged at the same time during excavation work.

4. Substations as multiple nodes make the search for a fault Power generating plants
4 more difficult. The load flow and the utilisation of the
cable may be unclear. This can even happen during 1. The power generating plants that are to be incorporated,
normal operation. Multiple nodes also make an exten- such as combined heat and power stations (CHP), diesel
sion of the network more difficult as there is often no generator units, gas turbines, wind power stations, and
5 clear assignment to lines or rings. As far as possible, the solar systems, should be assigned functions, such as
substation should be clearly assigned to a main substa- standby power supply, emergency power supply, base
tion or main feed-in point. load coverage, capping of peak loads. The respective
6 5. For monitoring and control of the loads, communicative
function and the installation sites of power generating
plants (centrally or distributed in relation to the main
instrumentation should be installed on the MV or LV side feed-in) have a significant effect on the MV network

7 of the substation. In this way, the power management

requirements according to the ISO 50001 standard can
configuration and the required power system protection.

be satisfied. 2. Depending on the design, power generating plants can

increase the network short-circuit rating; this can be
8 Switchgear and cable connections taken into account when dimensioning the switchgear
and equipment. Particularly for operation parallel to the
1. As few switchgear units as possible in the network nodal public MV grid, there must be agreement with the DSO,
9 points with a large number of distribution cables and a
small number of supply cables contribute to a simpler
and additional measures, such as the use of an Is lim-
iter 1, may be necessary.
orientation and an economic network configuration.

10 2. The type of switchgear – whether single or double

3. Power generating plants can have a negative effect
on the power system and power quality. Examples of
busbar with longitudinal and / or transversal busbar this are voltage changes, harmonics, and flicker (see
coupler – depends on the network configurations imple- chapter 5).
11 mented in the network and the network mode of opera-
tion during normal operation and when a fault occurs.

12 3. Feeder cables are transmission cables that connect the

transformer substations with one another and to the
higher network level. They are usually connected via
13 circuit-breakers with differential protection in the power
distribution of infrastructure projects. Distance protec-
tion is usually used by public grid operators.

14 4. Distribution cables connect the substations to the main

substation or the main supply. The substations are
usually connected via switch disconnectors. If there are
15 special requirements with regard to the supply safety,
circuit-breakers with the appropriate protection technol-
ogy are also used in the infrastructure. In normal opera-
16 tion, the distribution cables are not used as transmission
cables.

5. Use uniform, short-circuit-proof cables such as 120 mm²

17 Cu or 150 mm² Al for distribution cables and 240 mm² 1 Switching device that shuts down within a few milliseconds when a short
Cu or 300 mm² Al for transmission cables. circuit occurs.

46 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

4.2 Medium-Voltage Power Supply 1

Concepts
The essential prerequisite for compliance with the previ- Double spurs (Fig. 4/2) 2
ously described planning aspects is a simple, clearly struc-
tured network topology that is adapted spatially to the load In double spurs, two parallel, individually protected cables
centres. The main network configurations to illustrate this
are described below. The main substations and the trans-
supply a common substation. It can also be considered as a
ring with one substation, whereby both cables are con-
3
formers required for the supply are shown in Fig. 4/1 to Fig. nected to different busbar sections. The cables have
4/8. The main supplies can also be pure cable supplies from
the public grid (directly from the main substation of the
(nearly) the same length and each carries at maximum
50 % of the load. 4
grid operator). The substations displayed are mainly used
to distinguish between the transmission and distribution
cables and do not represent the amount required for the 5
load.

Spurs (Fig. 4/1) 6

In spurs, the distribution transformers are connected
individually directly to the switchgear of the point of sup-
ply, even over several hundred metres. This makes sense if 7
only a limited number of substations is required and the
wiring expense compared to the usual rings with additional
MV switchgear is not too large. As only the output of one 8
transformer flows through the cable, the protection against
overload is not the critical dimensioning criterion, rather
the protection against short circuit. Failure of the cable is
the same as failure of the transformer.
9
Medium-voltage main distribution
MVMD TIP04_13_097_EN

Fig. 4/1:  Network configuration: spurs

10

11

12

13

14

15

16
MVMD TIP04_13_098_EN

17
Fig. 4/2:  Network configuration: double spurs

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 47

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2 = substation, such as

3
or

TIP04_13_099_EN
6 MVMD

7 Fig. 4/3:  Network configuration: rings

8 Rings (Fig. 4/3) Lines (Fig. 4/4)

Rings start and end in the same main substation or in the Lines start in the main substation or in the main feed-in
9 main feed-in point, but on different busbar sections. The
reserve power is guaranteed through the maximum permis-
point and end in the same remote station. A reserve power
with 100 % of a line is guaranteed through a reserve cable
sible utilisation of a half ring of 50 to 60 %. (empty line without substations).

10 Lines with load-centre substation (Fig. 4/5)

The supply of a load centre without main substation or

11 without main feed-in point requires feeder cables without
substations with cross sections ≥ 240 mm² Cu or ≥ 300 mm²
Al and immediate reserve for the switchgear. The maxi-
12 mum connected load is determined through the transmis-
sion capacity of (n-1) feeder cables. The feeder cables also
provide the reserve power for the lines.
13
TIP04_13_100_EN

Coupling of two main substation areas (Fig. 4/6)

If two main substation areas are coupled via a common

14 remote station with busbar coupler longitudinal (BCL), a
reserve cable is required for each area, which avoids a
coupling of the main substation supply or main feed-in
15 when a fault occurs.

Generally, the network configurations according to

16 MVMD
Reserve cable
Remote station
Fig. 4/3 to Fig. 4/6 are found in the public supply. Networks
for the infrastructure area are generally structured similar
to Fig. 4/1 to Fig. 4/3 or from a mix of these three network
configurations.
17
Fig. 4/4:  Network configuration: lines with remote station

48 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

4
Feeder cable

5
Feeder cable
6

TIP04_13_101_EN
MVMD Remote station 8
Fig. 4/5:  Network configuration: lines with load-centre substation back to page 48
9

10

11

Remote station 12

13

14
TIP04_13_102_EN

Feeder cable Feeder cable

15
MVMD-1 MVMD-2

16

Fig. 4/6:  Network configuration: coupling of two main substation areas back to page 48 17

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 49

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 4.3 Configuration of the Switchgear

The configuration of the switchgear, i.e. whether a single Mixed network configuration (rings and lines)
2 or double busbar, or busbar couplers longitudinal (BCL)
and / or busbar couplers transversal (BCT), depends on: As for a line network, a single busbar with BCL is also
• Number of connected feed-in points possible here if the remote station of all lines is a main
3 • Implemented network configurations
• Network mode of operation during normal operation and
substation. The rings are then connected to both sides of
the BCL.
when a fault occurs

4 In all cases, it must be ensured that each busbar section

If a double busbar with BCL is used, the rings start and end
on the same block, but on different busbars so that only
can be isolated and galvanically separated subnetworks can half of the open rings fail when a fault occurs on the bus-
be operated. The configuration of a busbar in a main bar.
5 substation can usually be divided according to the con-
nected system configuration. The BCT is highly recommended for a single block
with rings. A duplex system is also possible for this
6 Spurs ­network configuration in order to save costs for the
circuit-breakers in the rings.
If the distribution transformers are connected directly in

7 the spur, then a single busbar is sufficient for the switch-

gear from which the spurs are routed. This switchgear is
Note: A duplex system is a switchgear system with two
single busbars installed back-to-back or opposite to one
usually a subordinate main feed-in point, i.e. not a trans- another, in which the cable feeder or respectively the
former substation. Sectionalizing is recommended if a large feed-in panel are both connected to each busbar, each
8 number of transformers is to be connected. Feed-in from with a circuit-breaker. This also provides the function of
the upstream network as a ring or double spur should then a double busbar.
be connected separately to both halves of the busbar.
9 A single busbar is sufficient for switchgear without feed-in.
If it is a pure remote station, then a BCL is generally not
Double spurs
required. However, a BCL is recommended for a larger

10 Double spurs are used to supply subordinate switchgear

from a main substation or main feed-in point. A single
number of lines (≥ 8). A BCL is required for a remote station
with attached rings or for a main substation.
busbar with sectionalizing is sufficient to ensure the supply.
To increase the supply reliability, the busbar sections can be Because of the shorter cable lengths in industrial or infra-
11 separated spatially. structure projects compared to those for the supply in
public networks, rings and lines can be operated with
Rings higher utilisation with regard to the voltage drop. So that it
12 If the medium-voltage grid is configured exclusively with
is not necessary to use double cables for rings (two cables
in parallel on one circuit), it is recommended that rings are
rings, a single busbar with BCL is sufficient. The rings start not loaded with more than 300 A, with a single-­sided
13 on one side of the coupler and ends on the other side. To
increase the supply reliability, the busbar sections can be
supply. For double spurs, a load of 500 A should not be
exceeded.
separated spatially.

14 Lines

In a line network, the decision between a single or double

15 busbar depends on the respective remote station. If the
remote station is a main substation, a single busbar with
BCL can also be used. However, a double busbar is usually
16 preferred. If two (possibly three) transformers supply the
double busbar in the main substation, then for reasons of
flexibility, a BCL with a BCT for each block is recommended.

17

50 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

4.4 Power System Protection 1

Equipment perform a selective tripping operation. The network com-
ponents and the loads should only be subject to short-cir-
The following section considers the protection of electrical cuit currents and voltage dips for as short a time as possi- 2
equipment and their components against faults through ble. When the switch is tripped by a protective device,
protective devices and systems, and particularly the assess- either all loads should continue to be supplied (if an instan-
ment of their usefulness. Technical details about the con-
figuration and functioning principle of the protective relays
taneous or immediate reserve is available), or as few loads
as possible disconnected, whereby they are immediately
3
and the associated modules can be found in the relevant supplied again after the fault has been located and cor-
documents to be obtained from the manufacturer. rected (if there is only a changeover connection as power
reserve). 4
Power system protection should limit the effects of a defect
in a system element on the system operation and reduce The following protective devices are available for the power
the effects on parts that are directly affected as far as distribution: 5
possible. The criterion of selectivity, i.e. the clear identifica- • Overcurrent-time protection
tion of the power supply unit affected by the fault and its (e.g. Siemens 7SJ…)
disconnection, is clearly linked to these requirements. In
order to reduce the effects of a system fault as much as
• Cable differential protection
(e.g. Siemens 7SD…)
6
possible, the protection must take effect as quickly as • Transformer differential protection
possible. This property has the side effect that the destruc-
tive effects of high fault currents and arcs are reduced. The
(e.g. Siemens 7UT…)
• Machine protection 7
basic idea behind power system protection is the detection (e.g. Siemens 7UM…)
of a fault through the presence of abnormal electrical • Busbar differential protection
states, and then to determine which points in the network (e.g. Siemens 7SS…) 8
should be disconnected. • Distance protection
(e.g. Siemens 7SA…)
Short circuits and earth faults are the most important faults
for which the protection must be provided. The following Three current transformers for each feeder and, if required,
9
are characteristic for these faults: three current transformers on the busbars as well as the
• Overcurrent
• Collapse and displacement of the voltages
circuit-breaker are required for the connection and opera-
tion of the protective devices. As, in contrast to the measur- 10
ing instruments, the protective relay should only trip when
The protection function is based on the determination and a fault occurs, it is essential that it functions in the few
evaluation of these variables. Overcurrent and voltage moments that it is required. To guarantee this, the protec- 11
changes occur not only in the immediate vicinity of the tive devices should have a live contact and trip circuit
fault location, but in wide areas of the network or through- monitoring that immediately signal readiness for use or a
out the entire network. It is therefore not enough to only
measure these variables in order to decide whether a relay
fault to the control system. Without this equipment, a
stationary test unit should be available in order to regularly
12
that responds to these variables should trip or not. Usually, check the protective relay during operation. During the
additional selection criteria must be introduced in order to
be able to decide about the regulation-compliant tripping
test, an artificial fault is simulated to check the response of
the relay. At the same time, operation should not be inter-
13
operation. Particularly important for these additional rupted and therefore a trip during the test must be sup-
variables are: pressed.
• Time 14
• Energy or current direction

The work involved in the requirement for selectivity mainly

depends on the structure of the network to be protected,
15
and is usually greater the more complicated it is structured.
16
4.4.1 Protective Devices for Power Systems

The power system protection devices must detect a short 17

circuit in the power system as quickly as possible and

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 51

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 4.4.2 Selection of the Power System • Specification of the mounting location of the protective
Protection and the Power System relay and the circuit-breaker on which the protective
Protection Concept device is to take effect
2 • Selection of the protective relay type
One of the planner's tasks is the preparation of a power sys- • Recommendations for the selection of the transformation
tem and protection concept that matches the customer's ratio of the transformers
3 requirements. As described previously, mainly spur, double
spur, and ring networks are used in the infrastructure. Spur
• Specifications for the protection settings
• Consideration of specifications (for example technical
networks and open-type ringed networks are used when supply conditions of the DSO) and / or provision of devices

4 the changeover connection as power reserve is sufficient.

Double spur networks and closed-type networks are better
by the electrical utility company (for example, consumer
substation)
when implementing an immediate or instantaneous re-
serve. In addition to the definition of the power supply
5 concept, the following is required for the protection config-
uration:

7
n.c.

I> 0.6 s
8 I>> 0.1 s
n.c.

n.c.

9 I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s

10
n.c.
Main station

I>> 0.3 s
Feed-in

11

12
Station 1

Station 2

13
n.c.

n.c.

I>> 0.3 s
14 I> v 0.1 s
n.c.

15 I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
TIP04_13_103_EN

16 n.c. Normally closed

I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable

17
Fig. 4/7:  Protection concept for a spur network back to page 53

52 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Various basic statements can be made for the selection of Spur (see Fig. 4/7) 1
the protective devices and the time grading for the previ-
ously described standard system configurations. The transformers connected directly in the spur are either
protected with a fuse switch-disconnecter combination or 2
Note: The grading times specified in the following examples with the aid of an overcurrent-time protection.
apply for the digital protective devices SIPROTEC 4, SIPROTEC
Compact, and SIPROTEC 5 in conjunction with Siemens
switchgear and correctly dimensioned current transformers. Double spur (Fig. 4/8 and Fig. 4/9)
3
The subordinate switchgear is supplied from two cable
systems operated in parallel. There are two ways to selec- 4
tively trip a fault on one of the cable systems:

n.c.
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
8
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
9
I>> 0.6 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.1 s
10
n.c.

n.c.

11
Main station

Substation

I>> 0.6 s I>> 0.3 s

Feed-in

12

13
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

I>> 0.6 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s
14
n.c.

15
I> 0.6 s
TIP04_13_104_EN

I>> 0.1 s
n.c. Normally closed 16
I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable

17
Fig. 4/8:  Protection concept for a double spur with directional time-overcurrent protection

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 53

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • The start and end of the cable are equipped with an

overcurrent-time protection, whereby the one at the end
is a directional overcurrent-time protection
2 • Both cable systems are protected via a cable differential
protection. As a differential protection only trips faults
within its protection zone, further protection must be
3 provided for faults on the busbar of the subordinate
switchgear. Usually a separate overcurrent-time protec-
tion is used in the load feeders of the double spurs or a

4 function of the overcurrent-time protection within the

differential protection

n.c.
8 I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
9
I>> 0.6 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
I> v 0.1 s I>> 0.3 s
10
n.c.

n.c.
Main station

11
Substation

I>> 0.6 s I>> 0.3 s

Feed-in

12

13
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

14 I>> 0.6 s
I> v 0.1 s
ΔI 0.0 s
I>> 0.3 s
ΔI 0.0 s
n.c.

15
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
16
TIP04_13_105_EN

n.c. Normally closed

I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
Communication link
17
Fig. 4/9:  Protection concept for a double spur with cable differential protection back to page 53

54 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Open ring Closed ring 1

Several substations are connected via a ring cable, whereby Several substations are connected via a ring cable. For an
their ring-cable panels are only equipped with switch immediate reserve, i.e. a cable fault is disconnected selec- 2
disconnectors (Fig. 4/10). The cable feeders in the main tively without interrupting the supply of the stations, all
feed-in are equipped with circuit-breakers and overcur- cable panels in the station must be equipped with
rent-time protection. The cable ring is operated openly so
that when there is a cable fault only one half of the ring is
circuit-breakers. There are several options available for a
selective protective disconnection for a cable fault.
3
shut down. The fault is usually located by means of a
short-circuit indicator. After the faulty cable section was
manually switched out, the disconnected substations can 4
be connected again.

6
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
Station 1

Station 2
7

8
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
I>> 0.5 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s
9
n.c.

10
Main station

I>> 0.5 s
Feed-in

11

12
n.o.
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

13
I>> 0.5 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s

14
Station 4

Station 3
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s 15

16
TIP04_13_106_EN

n.c. Normally closed

n.o. Normally open
I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
17
Fig. 4/10:  Protection concept for a network with open rings

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 55

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Direction determination and time grading (Fig. 4/11) current component that flows from the opposite side does
not energise the protective devices on this side. Only after
The cables can be disconnected selectively with the aid of the fault has been cleared on one side, enough fault cur-
2 the direction determination of short-circuit currents when a rent can flow from the other side so that the fault can be
fault occurs and a time grading. Voltage transformers are finally cleared. This results in the breaking times having to
required for the direction determination. The direction be added. This must be taken into account in the settings in
3 determination is required so that fault current is only
cleared when it is in the direction defined in the protective
the upstream ­overcurrent-time protection devices.

device. As can be clearly seen in Fig. 4/11, this method is

4 only useful in the ring for a few stations (usually three at

the most), as otherwise the tripping times in the main
feed-in are too high. You must also consider that because
of the impedance conditions when a fault occurs at the
5 outgoing feeder of the ring in the main station, nearly the
entire fault current is at first led through this panel. The

6
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
7
Station 1

Station 2
8
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
9 I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.9 s I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.7 s I> v 0.3 s I> v 0.5 s
I> v 0.1 s
n.c.

10
Main station

I>> 1.3 s
Feed-in

11

12
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

13
I>> 1.3 s I>> 0.9 s I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.7 s I> v 0.3 s I> v 0.5 s

14
I> v 0.1 s
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
Station 4

Station 3

15 I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s

I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s

16
TIP04_13_107_EN

n.c. Normally closed

I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
Note: Addition of the grading times must be taken into account for faults at the start of the ring!
17
Fig. 4/11:  Protection concept for a network with closed ring and time grading

56 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Directional comparison protection (Fig. 4/12) Note: With the SIPROTEC protective devices from Siemens, this 1
is guaranteed within 100 ms even over longer distances (also
In the directional comparison protection, the direction within 50 ms under certain boundary conditions).
determination is extended so that no time grading is re- 2
quired in the ring. Through the evaluation of the fault Because of the current distribution over the two ends of the
current direction and a corresponding blocking of the ring, this can also result in an addition of the breaking
protective device at the other end of the cable or the
adjacent ring panel in the station, all protective devices in
times until the fault is finally cleared within the cable ring.
The advantage of the same breaking times is noticeable in
3
the ring can be set to the same delay time. The blocking larger rings (more than three stations in one direction).
can be performed via binary inputs / outputs with copper
wiring as well as via a system interface with fibre-optic 4
cable (FOC). The evaluation and blocking as well as the
resetting of the breaking signal must be performed within
the set time delay. 5

6
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
Station 1

Station 2
7

8
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
I>> 0.9 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward 9
forward forward forward forward forward
n.c.

10
Main station

I>> 0.9 s
Feed-in

11
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

12
I>> 0.9 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s backward backward backward backward backward
forward forward forward forward forward
13
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

14
Station 4

Station 3

I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s

I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s

n.c. Normally closed 15

I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
backward Short-circuit direction determination backward; this means in the direction of the busbar
16
TIP04_13_108_EN

forward Short-circuit direction determination forward; this means in the direction of the cable
Blocking
Note: Consider adding grading times for faults at the start of the ring!
17
Fig. 4/12:  Protection concept for a network with closed ring and directional comparison protection

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 57

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Cable differential protection (Fig. 4/13) In modern devices, the communication between the device
pairs for the cable differential protection is generally via
In cable differential protection, each ring-cable section is FOC, but communication via copper cable is also possible.
2 assigned to a differential protection zones. A fault within Because of the differential principle and the extremely fast
this zone results in a simultaneous disconnection of both communication between the devices, a tripping delay is not
ends by the cable differential protection. This also elimi- necessary. A further advantage of the differential protec-
3 nates the problem of the possible addition of breaking
times under unfavourable fault conditions. A fault outside
tion principle is the simpler configuration compared with
the complex structure for blocking by means of a direction
the differential zone is not recognised as a fault. For this comparison.

4 reason, an overcurrent-time protection should be available

for possible faults within the stations either as a device or
at least as a function within the differential protection
device at both ends of the ring.
5

7
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
Station 1

Station 2
8
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
9
I>> 0.5 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
10 I> v 0.1 s I>> 0.3 s
n.c.

11
Main station
Feed-in

I>> 0.5 s

12
n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.

13
I>> 0.5 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s

14 I> v 0.1 s I>> 0.3 s

n.c.

n.c.

n.c.
Station 4

Station 3

15 I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s

I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s
TIP04_13_109_EN

16 n.c. Normally closed

I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
Communication link
17
Fig. 4/13:  Protection concept for a network with closed ring and cable differential protection

58 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Busbar protection The busbar differential protection is the faster and more 1
sensitive method, but entails higher costs. Fig. 4/14 shows
Busbar faults within switchgear are very improbable today the possibility of reverse interlocking at a substation, which
because of the construction of the systems, but not impos- is integrated in a closed ring via directional comparison 2
sible. Usually such faults are detected by an upstream protection or via cable differential protection.
overcurrent-time protection and cleared. However, with this
method the time until disconnection depends on the
grading times that result from the selective configuration
In order to increase the protection level within metal-­
enclosed switchgear, arc-related faults that are associated
3
of the network. In order to achieve shorter breaking times with a pressure rise within the enclosed system, can be
for busbar faults and therefore reduce the damage as much
as possible, or to reach a higher protection level, either a
quickly detected and cleared by means of pressure
switches. In such cases, the pressure switch functions as a 4
special busbar differential protection can be used or a busbar protection device.
reverse interlocking through the directional overcur-
rent-time protection. 5

Substation as extract of a closed ring with directional

comparison protection
Substation as extract of a closed ring with cable
differential protection
9

Ring cable Ring cable Ring cable Ring cable 10

ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
I>> 0.1 s
backward
I>> 0.1 s
backward
I> r 0.1 s
backward
I> r 0.1 s
backward
11
forward forward forward forward
n.c. n.c. n.c. n.c.
Blocking busbar Blocking busbar
12
Station x Station x
n.c. n.c. n.c. n.c.
13
I> 0.6 s I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s I>> 0.1 s

14
n.c.
I> r
Normally closed
15
Short-circuit tripping in the backward direction; this means in the direction of the busbar
backward Short-circuit direction determination backward; this means in the direction of the busbar
16
TIP04_13_110_EN

forward Short-circuit direction determination forward; this means in the direction of the cable
Blocking
Communication link
17
Fig. 4/14:  Protection concept of the reverse interlocking as busbar protection

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 59

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Setting of the overcurrent-time protection 4.5 Connection of the Neutral Point

excitation currents in the Medium-Voltage Cable
2 The setting of the overcurrent excitation for the protection Network
of cable routes depends on:
• The respective operating conditions During normal operation, the connection of the neutral
3 • Current transformer transformation ratios
• Maximum operating currents that occur
point has no effect on the transmission of the electrical
energy. Only when a fault occurs is the connection of the
• Minimum short-circuit currents that occur neutral point to earth of importance. The neutral-point

4 Because of the release ratio (ratio of the release value to

connection is not uniform in medium-voltage grids. The
following neutral-point connections can be found in over-
the operating value) for the relay, the operating value head line networks and in cable networks (Fig. 4/15):
should not be less than 1.3 times the highest load current. • Operation with isolated ("free") neutral point
5 The following parameters must be taken into account when • Operation with earth-fault compensation
setting the excitation currents: • Operation with neutral earthing, whereby a distinction
• Maximum load current can be made between low resistance and rigid neutral
6 • Carrying capacity of the connection to be protected
• Rated currents of the existing current transformer set
earthing

• Maximum and minimum short-circuit currents to be

7 expected at the installation location of the associated

transformers Isolated neutral point
(free neutral point)
The maximum load current that occurs during operation is
8 the decisive factor for the setting of the overcurrent excita- 1
tion. An excitation through overload must be excluded in 2
all cases. Therefore a setting to more than 1.3 times the 3
9 maximum load current is usual. The settings of the overcur-
rent-time protection or the used HV HRC fuses of the trans-
ICE
C0
former outgoing feeders in the substations must also be

10 taken into account for the selective protective grading.

Earth-fault compensation
(resonance NE: RNE)
11
1

12
2
3
Petersen IRest
coil C0

13

14 Low-resistance neutral earthing

(LRNE)

15 1
2
3
Ik1“
16 Resistance R C0

TIP04_13_010_EN

17
Fig. 4/15:  Neutral earthing (NE) in a LV system

60 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Depending on the neutral-point connection, there is a power plant networks are usually operated with an isolated 1
difference in the operating behaviour of the networks, neutral point. The costs for the equipment to compensate
which is described in the following sections. The following for earth-fault currents are eliminated. It is only recom-
are assessed: mended that the earth fault windings of the three voltage 2
• Size of the single-phase short-circuit current transformer sets that are connected openly in the delta
• Size of the neutral displacement voltage connection are equipped with an ohmic damping resistor.
• Transient overvoltage in the conductors not affected
• Type of voltage recovery in the affected conductors after
This is to avoid the relaxation oscillations that can occur
during the earth fault or during starting cycles. Even when
3
clearing the short circuit the fault location is detected with the aid of earth-fault
relays, which can result in the fast disconnection of the
faulty line, the danger of double earth faults through 4
4.5.1 Operation with Isolated Neutral Point
earth-fault overvoltages and also the voltage increase on
The most common fault in all distribution networks is the faulty conductors still remains.
single-phase earth fault Approximately 70 to 90 % of all 5
network faults start as a single-phase fault. In a network
4.5.2 Operation with Earth-fault
with a free neutral point, the conductor-earth voltages of
Compensation
the system are displaced when an earth fault occurs. The
fault-free conductors of the network are increased to the During operation with earth-fault compensation, the
6
delta voltage, whereby a voltage increase of √3 times the feeding HV / MV transformers must have a medium-­voltage
normal star voltage U occurs. The earth-fault current Ie
which is fed from the fault-free conductors via the earth
winding at the neutral point for the connection of an
earth-fault neutraliser. Otherwise a neutral earthing trans- 7
capacitance C0, flows across the fault location. The size of former must be used. When selecting the transformer to
the earth-fault current is therefore determined by the earth which the earth-fault neutraliser (Petersen coil) is to be
capacitance of the conductor. connected, the relevant regulations, as described in stand- 8
ard IEC 60076-6 (VDE 0532-76-6), must be taken into
The following applies for the earth-fault current: account. The earth-fault current can also be distributed

Ie = 3 · U · ω · C0
over several earth-fault neutralisers or transformer neutral
points.
9
Only small earth-fault currents occur in spatially limited
cable networks and therefore relatively small earth capaci-
In a network with earth-fault compensation, the same
displacement of the voltage neutral point occurs at an 10
tance. The thermal effect at the fault location is small. For earth fault as in a network with free neutral point. The
this reason, the cable affected by the fault can usually fault-free conductors take the delta voltage to earth. As the
remain in operation until switchovers have been made in conductor-earth capacitances in the network are independ- 11
the network, which allow the cable to be isolated without ent of the neutral point connection, the capacitive earth-
affecting the loads. During the time required for the fault currents also reach the same size as in a network with
switchovers in the network, there is a danger that the earth
fault develops into a short circuit, or that as a result of the
free neutral point. 12
increased conductor-earth voltage, a second earth fault in If an earthing reactor is connected at the neutral point of a
the network occurs on another phase conductor. Such
double earth faults can affect the consumers much more
transformer, the neutral displacement voltage drives an
inductive current that flows back into the network via the
13
than single earth faults or short circuits because two differ- fault location. The capacitive earth-fault current and the
ent cable connections can be affected and then two discon- inductive reactor current are in the opposite phase. If the
nections are required in the network. reactor is suitably dimensioned, the two currents are 14
approximately the same size and neutralise one another.
In large cable networks, earth faults usually develop very Only the active leakage current resulting from the active
quickly into short circuits. There is therefore not enough components flows across the fault location. In cable net-
works, this current is approximately 2 to 5 % of the capaci-
15
time to make the switchovers. When operating cable
networks with free neutral point, it is best when the earth- tive earth-fault current. In practice, a residual reactive
fault currents are relatively small. Usually an earth-fault
current range of 10 to 35 A is suitable for this operating
current resulting from inexact harmonisation and a har-
monic leakage current are superimposed on the active
16
mode. With small currents, there is a risk of intermittent leakage current, because the resonant circuit from network
earth faults with high transient overvoltages. With large capacitances and earth-fault neutraliser are only harmo-
currents, there can be major thermal effects through an nized to the basic frequency of 50 Hz. 17
earth-fault arc. Small industrial networks and internal

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 61

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 As with the free neutral point, operation can also be main- probability of automatic clearance of the fault current. For
tained with earth-fault compensation when an earth fault this reason, equipment must be available for the reliable
occurs, because the conductor voltages are only displaced and quick detection of a cable fault.
2 against the earth potential. The voltages of the conductors
to one another are maintained. That is the main advantage
4.5.3 Operation with Neutral Earthing
of these two types of neutral-point connection. The supply
3 of the consumers connected to the network is not affected
by a single-phase fault and operation is also maintained
With neutral earthing, currents similar to short-circuit
currents flow in the network when a single-phase fault
during an earth fault. occurs. They must be detected and selectively isolated as

4 Compensation of the earth-fault current is intended to

quickly as possible by the power system protection in order
to clarify the situation even when a single-phase fault
automatically clear the earth-fault current and thus elimi- occurs. This eliminates the possibility of an unclear fault
nate the fault in the network. An attempt is made to limit evaluation. The fault search is omitted, which can cause
5 the fault current to the smallest possible leakage current. problems in the other neutral-point connection procedures.
However, the insulation at the fault location should not be
damaged after the current is cleared. This is not a problem All three phase conductors must be monitored by the
6 in overhead line networks. protection system in medium-voltage grids with earthing of
the neutral point. This means that there must be three
On the other hand for cable faults in general, automatic current transformers and the power system protection

7 clearance of the current at a fault location is not always

desired because the insulation is often damaged at the
must be equipped with relays effective in all three phases.
In existing networks that only have two current transform-
fault location, and this can result in earth faults or double ers, cable-type current transformers to detect single-phase
earth faults later. Otherwise, the clearance of earth-fault faults can be retrofitted when converting to neutral earth-
8 currents has the same advantages for cable networks as ing. This does not have to be a cost disadvantage, because
described above. additional earth-fault relays and even transient earth-fault
relays are frequently required to locate a fault in systems
9 With earth-fault compensation, the transient internal
overvoltages are smaller than with the free neutral point.
with free neutral point or earth-fault current compensation.

They reach two to three times the star voltage, whereby The immediate, albeit selective, disconnection of the

10 factors above 2.5 are relatively seldom. Arc reignition

scarcely occurs. The danger of double earth faults occur-
relevant cable when a single-phase fault occurs, is fre-
quently considered to be a major disadvantage or the
ring is therefore less than in networks with isolated neutral neutral earthing. This argument is not generally valid, as
point. the effect of a single-phase fault or a multi-phase fault is
11 largely influenced by the network configuration. In a
The disadvantages of earth-fault current compensation are well-planned configuration of the medium-voltage cable
the additional costs for the reactors and the much more network, an earth fault causes the selective disconnection
12 difficult locating of sustained earth faults compared to
networks with free neutral point. Only the relatively small
of the relevant cable. The supply interruption can be
quickly rectified through simple switchovers.
active leakage current can be used for a clear indication of
13 the earth fault. Generally only electronic relays with sensi-
tive earth-fault detection are capable of detecting these in
In medium-voltage grids, the direct earthing of transformer
neutral points is not used. The rigid neutral earthing would
cable networks with an active leakage current, because result in high earth-fault currents of 10 kA or more and
they are only 2 to 5 % of the capacitive earth-fault current. would have no advantages in comparison to current limit-
14 Alternatively, transient earth-fault relays can also clearly ing through neutral-point resistances (low-resistance
locate an earth fault. If these are not available, however, a neutral earthing). Exceptions are countries that are influ-
laborious and time-consuming search with reconnections enced by British standardisation (BS).
15 and disconnections must be performed until the fault is
localised. This method can cause significant disturbance in The high earth-fault currents can cause major damage and
the network. potential increases at the fault location and high induction
16 In medium-voltage cable networks, the common-mode
voltages in telecommunication cables. This may require
costly protective measures. For this reason, the earth-fault
reactors should be matched as closely as possible to the current in medium-voltage systems is also limited through
network capacitances. It is therefore recommended that additional neutral point impedances in countries where
17 one of the reactors be a plunge-core reactor that can be rigid neutral earthing is commonly used.
varied infinitely. The active leakage current increases the

62 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The permissible level for the limitation is determined by the behaviour of the resistance earthing is advantageous 1
trigger conditions for the power system protection. Even particularly for voltage changes in medium-voltage grids.
with an unfavourable network and position of the earth
fault, the assigned relays must trigger reliably. In medi- There is no uniform guideline for the measurement of 2
um-voltage grids, a highest earth-fault current of 1 kA to neutral-point resistances or reactor coils. It is appropriate
2 kA is practically always sufficient. This value will be in the that the current measurement is determined by the largest
lower range in industrial networks, because they are not as
large as public distribution networks, and values down to
earth-fault current that was specified for the grid, for
example, to meet the requirements of the power system
3
500 A are also common. The damage at the fault location is protection. This current is considered to be the rated short-
relatively small with such currents. However, the current is
also large enough to lead to the low-resistance earth
time current. The stressing duration is generally specified
between 5 and 10 s taking into account long grading times 4
connection required to locate the fault. In pure cable and earth faults that follow in quick succession. Frequently,
networks there is therefore no reason to limit the earth- the resistance or reactance of the earthing unit can be
fault current further. However, in networks in which gener- determined precisely enough by means of the network star 5
ators are connected directly, it is better when the current is voltage and the largest earth-fault current. For an assumed
limited as much as possible (stator earth fault). maximum earth-fault current of 2,000 A, this results, for

The insulation stress during an earth fault is determined by

example, in an earthing resistance of 5 to 6 Ω in a 20 kV
network. It is recommended however, that the attenuation
6
the frequency of the voltage increases during operation of the earth-fault current is checked through the series
(characterised by the earth-fault factor according to
IEC 60071-1, VDE 0111-1) and by the transient earth-fault
impedance. The earthing units are isolated in the system
voltage range between 10 and 20 kV for the star voltage of 7
overvoltage (characterised by the overvoltage factor). the network.
Compared with operation with free neutral point or with
earth-fault compensation, the low-resistance neutral
4.5.5 Planning of Neutral Earthing 8
earthing has definite advantages with regard to the insula-
tion stress. When planning the neutral earthing for a network, a deci-

With earth faults, it is particularly important that the stress-

sion must first be made as to where the neutral earthing is
to be performed and for what magnitude the earth fault
9
ing of the network with increased voltage is significantly current is to be limited. The neutral point should always be
shorter. The overvoltages are reduced through the low-re-
sistance neutral earthing not only for earth faults, but
earthed in the feeding station. If there are several feed-in
points, then neutral earthing must be performed at each 10
practically for all switching procedures. feed-in points. Only in this way is it possible to achieve a
simple and safe earth-fault disconnection, independent of
4.5.4 Comparison of Neutral Earthing via the network. Generally, the conditions required for neutral 11
earthing in substations are much more difficult to fulfill.
Resistance or via Reactance
The low-resistance neutral earthing can be performed
either by means of resistance or reactance. In the
It is therefore of advantage for a medium-voltage supply
grid when a common resistance is connected to the neutral
12
­medium-voltage grids of many countries up to 20 kV, points of the transformers or a neutral earthing trans-
resistance earthing dominates, because the attenuation of
the transient overvoltages for earth faults and switching
former in the feeding station. The neutral earthing is then
independent of the network. Through the selection of
13
procedures is higher. With the reactance earthing, high suitable transformers or neutral earthing transformers
overvoltages can occur particularly when clearing earth (small zero phase-sequence impedance), the attenuation
faults. The neutral earthing via reactance is only recom- can be minimised by the zero phase-sequence impedances 14
mended [2] when the ratio of the zero-sequence reactance of these network components. The magnitude of the
X0 to the positive sequence reactance X1 of the network largest earth-fault current is mainly determined by the
remains less than or equal to 10 (X0 / X1 ≤ 10). This means
that the earth-fault current must be more than 25 % of the
effective zero phase-sequence impedance of the neutral 15
earthing and therefore mostly by the rating of the neu-
3-phase short-circuit current and therefore above the tral-point resistance. The series impedance – and therefore
minimum value required by the power system protection. also the fault power in the secondary-unit substation – has
no great effect due to the generally used high current
16
High overvoltages are to be expected if arc reignitions of limiting. However, when a fault occurs in the network, the
circuit-breakers occur when breaking capacitive currents. earth-fault current is significantly damped by the cable
The problem does not seem important for circuit-breakers impedances. In contrast to multi-phase short circuits, fault 17
without arc reignition. Despite this, the better overvoltage currents can occur here that are of the same size as the

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 63

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 rated cable currents. The main point to be investigated Fig. 4/16 shows a summary of the most important electrical
during the planning is whether all earth faults trip the parameters for the various neutral-point connections.
assigned relays and the relays intended as reserve protec-
2 tion. The worst fault case and possibly also the worst The earth-fault currents are detected via the wiring of the
network must be taken into consideration. protection transformer using a Holmgreen connection (see
Fig. 4/17 a) or by means of a cable-type current transformer
3 The zero phase-sequence impedance is mainly responsible
for the additional attenuation of the earth-fault current,
(see Fig. 4/17 b). The following is recommended:

and less so the positive-sequence impedance. Whereas the • Operation with isolated neutral point

4 positive-sequence impedance of cables is a known value,

which only depends on the type and conductor cross
–– Use of the Holmgreen connection
if ICE sec > 0.05 IN2
section, the zero phase-sequence impedance is generally –– Use of the cable-type current transformer
not a fixed value. Apart from the cable configuration it also if ICE sec < 0.05 IN2
5 depends on environmental influences. In addition to the
metal cable sheaths, other cables laid in parallel, piping, ICE sec capacitive earth-fault current of the galvanically
busbars, etc. also have an effect. Any cable steel tape connected network in relation to the secondary
6 armour or pliable wire armour also has an effect. This
reinforcement is magnetised by the currents in the conduc- IN2
side of the current transformer
secondary side rated transformer current
tor-earth loop (residual currents) so that the zero phase-se-

7 quence impedance also becomes dependent on the cur-

rent.
• Operation with earth-fault compensation
–– Always use the cable-type current transformer

Therefore, during the planning of the neutral earthing, it is • Operation with low resistance neutral earthing
8 recommended that measurements are made to obtain an –– Use of the Holmgreen connection
overview of the cable zero phase-sequence impedances of if Ik1“ > 0.1 IN1
the network. Furthermore, those cables should be investi- –– Use of the cable-type current transformer
9 gated where the protection conditions are not clear, for
example, extremely long cables or double cables. These
if Ik1“ < 0.1 IN1

measurements enable a sufficiently precise calculation of Ik1“ single-phase earth-fault current

IN1 primary rated transformer current
10 the earth-fault currents. This calculation is a decisive factor
for the selection of the current limiting and the specifica-
tion or the neutral point impedance. If the direction is also to be detected, additional voltage
transformers must be provided.
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

64 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

TIP04_13_111_EN
Low-resistance neutral earthing
Neutral-point connection Free neutral point Earth-fault compensation
With impedance Rigid
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
Connection
ICE
3
C0
Petersen
Coil
I Rest
3
C0 Resistance R
I k1“
3
I k1“
3
3

Objective Continuous operation during a single-phase fault Selective tripping of a single-phase fault 4
1 UnN 1
Rating — XD ≈ R≈ << —
3 · ω · C0 3 · Ik1“ 3 · ω · C0

1/(j · ω · C0)
5
Z0/Z1 Very high resistance 20 … 100 1…5
Z1

Current at the
ICE ≈ j · ω · C0 · 3 · UnN
IRest ≈ j · ω · C0 ·
(d + jv) · 3 · UnN
Ik1“ =
c· 3 · UnN
2 · Z1 + Z0
6
fault location
10 A < ICE ≤ 35 A IRest ≤ 60 A Ik1“ ≤ 2 kA Ik1“ ≤ 1,5 · Ik3“

<3h <3h <1s <1s

7
Fault duration

Formula character d = damping ratio; v = detuning; c = voltage coefficient

8
Fig. 4/16:  Electrical parameters of the various neutral-point connections back to page 64

10
Measurement-based detection of earth faults with

Holmgreen connection Cable-type current transformer 11

L1 L1
L2 L2

12
L3 L3

7SJ61/62/63/64 7SJ61/62/63/64
I L1 I L1

I L2 IL1 > I L2 IL1 > 13

I L3 IL2 > I L3 IL2 >
TIP04_13_112_EN

3 × I0
IL3 > IL3 > 14
IE > IEE >

15
3xI0

16

17
Fig. 4/17:  Measurement-based detection of earth faults with a) Holmgreen connection b) cable-type current transformer back to page 64

Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids 65

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 4.5.6 Neutral-point Connection and

Transformer Vector Group

2 The neutral-point resistance or the neutral-point reactance

coil can be connected to the transformer in the feeding
main substation in most cases. Prerequisite is that its zero
3 phase-sequence impedance is sufficiently small.

With transformers, the size of the zero phase-sequence

4 impedance depends on the connection method. Transform-

ers in star-delta connection have zero phase-sequence
impedance that corresponds to approximately 0.8 to
1 times the positive-sequence impedance. Whereas
5 star-zigzag transformers have a relatively small zero
phase-sequence impedance. It is only approximately one
tenth of the positive-sequence impedance. With star-star
6 transformers with delta stabilising winding for a third of
the output, zero phase-sequence impedance can be up to
2.4 times larger than the positive-sequence impedance

7 related to the rated power.

Three-leg core transformers in star-star connection without

stabilising winding have a zero phase-sequence impedance
8 of approximately five to ten times the positive-sequence
impedance. Because of the considerable stray current
running through the tank walls and the associated heating,
9 they cannot readily be used for the system earthing.

With shell-type transformers and three separate single-­

10 phase transformers in star-star connection, the zero

phase-sequence impedance is approximately the size of the
open-circuit impedance due to the free magnetic return.
They are therefore not suitable for system earthing. Trans-
11 formers in star-delta connection and transformers in star-
star connection with a tertiary delta winding are suitable
for connection of earthing reactors and also for the connec-
12 tion of low resistances.

If earth-fault current compensation or neutral earthing is

13 used, transformers are required on which the connection to
the neutral point of the winding is possible and permissi-
ble. If this is not the case, so-called neutral earthing trans-
formers can be used. These are three-phase reactors with
14 zigzag connection that have a large open-circuit imped-
ance, but a small zero phase-sequence impedance. A
neutral earthing transformer can also be dimensioned with
15 increased zero-sequence reactance to limit the earth-fault
current. The installation and connection of an earthing
resistance is then no longer required as the neutral earth-
16 ing transformer can be earthed directly. In medium-voltage
grids, the neutral earthing transformer can also be
equipped with a secondary winding and therefore can also
serve as a network transformer.
17

66 Totally Integrated Power – Planning of Medium-Voltage Grids

Chapter 5
Quality of Supply
5.1 Voltage Quality 69
5.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility 75
5.3 Availability and Redundancy 78
5.4 Reactive Power and Compensation 84
5.5 Protection Against Lightning Current
and Overvoltage 92
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 5 Quality of Supply

duction

1 All in all, the quality of electrical power supply is character- The electrical designer will indirectly factor in the aspect of
ised by the voltage and service quality as well as its availa- service quality by considering the functionality and quality
bility. The basic challenge in planning is to find the opti- aspects of the products and systems involved in the project.
2 mum of investment and operating costs on the one hand
and a risk estimation (frequency and effects of failures) on In order to specify the required product quality of connected
the other hand (see Fig. 5/1). power consumers with regard to their supply voltage, the
3 Supply quality =
curve of the “Information Technology Industry Council“
(ITIC), formerly “Computer and Business Equipment Manu-
voltage quality + availability + service quality facturers Association” (CBEMA), as shown in Fig. 5/2 is

4 The plus sign symbolizes the linkage of the individual

often used. In this context it must be noted that the
data is based on a manufacturer agreement concerning
factors. Voltage quality does not mean pure line voltage power supply units for computers and 120 V / 60 Hz
quality in the narrow sense but also includes power quality, power supplies. Within the scope of the standards issued
5 reactive power, and failures caused by power consuming by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), this
equipment. In the planning process, the question of how curve is based on the IEEE 446 standard. The ITIC curve is
supply quality is desired inevitably leads to a cost analysis. shown in Annex B of the IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
6 Investments made for risk minimisation must be compared
to and assessed with the consequential costs from opera-
standard. However, special emphasis is laid on the 120 V
single-phase network and the limitation to IT facilities.
tional downtimes possibly resulting from the crash of a

7 server, machine control, or medical facility. Today, many single-phase power supply units are used for
the wide input voltage range of 110 to 240 V. As such, the
A cost estimate of supply problems should at least take into curves nevertheless provide a good starting point for the
account the costs of interruptions, failures, and putting the protective measures to be chosen. The parameters of
8 hardware into service again. Indirect costs such as costs voltage quality and availability will be discussed in the next
incurred due to a deterioration of customer loyalties or two sections and rounded off by an estimate of the power
even contract losses can practically not be assessed as cost demand. Basically, the entire infrastructure chain must be
9 factors during the planning stages. The specific usage of
the facility plays an important part in a cost estimate so
included in such a consideration.

that the desired degree of operational flexibility should be

10 considered as early as in the planning stages. For this, the

operator has to define the later user options.

11

12
Cost
TIP04_13_011_EN

Voltage ratio referred

13 to nominal voltage (in %)
500
TIP04_13_012_EN

Optimisation range
(dependent on the
14 specific cost situation)
Total cost 400
Voltage
Non-permissible range
(damage may occur)
tolerance
300 ranges with
uninterrupted

15 Cost of investment function

200
and operation 140
100 110
80 90
70 Range possibly without function,

16 Cost incurred due 40 but also without damage

0
to supply problems 20 500
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 3 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Quality of supply Duration (in ms)

17 Fig. 5/1:  Diagram of cost optimisation conditional upon supply Fig. 5/2:  ITIC curve for computer power supply units [4]
quality

68 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

5.1 Voltage Quality The fault parameters described in EN 50160 affect the 1
operation of the power supply system and the connected
The voltage quality results from the technical specifications power consumers. Tab. 5/2 assigns potential causes and
linked with the different interests of consumers and suppli- effects to the individual voltage problems. Due to the 2
ers. It is impaired by faults in the power supply on the one current energy policy, this issue is now increasingly becom-
hand and system perturbations caused by the connected ing the focus of the planner's attention. The power genera-
appliances, plants, and equipment on the other hand.
EN 50160 describes the following main characteristics of
tion concept based on controlled power stations in the
vicinity of load centres is being restructured towards decen-
3
the supply voltage for connection to the public grids: tralised power supply dependent on time and local condi-
• Voltage magnitude, slow voltage changes
• Fast voltage changes, flicker
tions. Consequently, intelligent concepts such as the smart
grid are used and that the efficient use of measuring and 4
• Voltage dips automation technology, storage technologies, energy
• Supply interruptions consumption controls, and energy conversion technologies
• Voltage unbalance such as uninterruptible power supply systems and charging 5
• Harmonic voltage and interharmonic component stations for electric vehicles need to be planned.
• Line-frequency and transient overvoltages
• Frequency variations EN 50160 does not specify any values for electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) or limit values for the emission of
6
In many European countries, this standard serves as a interferences. It describes the characteristics of the supply
guideline or reference for parameter adaptation to the
characteristics of national power systems in order to create
voltage and related requirements for general operation.
Whereas the D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5] defines EMC as the 7
national standards. The establishment of such standards is capacity of an electrical appliance to function in a satisfac-
normally performed on the basis of the experience gained tory manner in the given electromagnetic environment
by local initiatives with the implementation of monitoring without causing impermissible electromagnetic distur- 8
systems for power quality which allow the determination of bances itself. This kind of reciprocal impact in the distribu-
appropriate voltage parameters. Tab. 5/1 shows a more tion network and on the distribution network is called
detailed subdivision with appropriate level and guidance
values.
system perturbation. 9

Characteristic Requirements Measurement interval

Period under 10
consideration
Interconnected grid: 50 Hz + 4 % / –6 % continuously; 1 year
System frequency
50 Hz ± 1 % during ≥ 99.5 % of a year
Isolated operation: 50 Hz + 15 % / –6 % continuously;
10 sec average
1 week
11
50 Hz ± 2 % during ≥ 95 % of a week
Urated + 10 % / –15 % continuously
Slow voltage changes
Urated ± 10 % during ≥ 95 % of a week
10 min average 1 week
12
Long-term flicker severity Plt < 1 during ≥ 95 % of a week and 2 h (flickermeter in acc.
Flicker / fast voltage changes 1 week
∆U10ms < 2 % Urated with IEC 61000-4-15)

Voltage unbalance
U (negative phase-sequence system) / U (positive phase-sequence
system) < 2 % during ≥ 95 % of a week
10 min average 1 week 13
< limit value in acc. with EN 50160 and THD < 8 % during > 95 % 10 min average of each
Harmonics Un2 … Un25 1 week
of a week harmonic
Subharmonics being discussed 1 week 14
Signal voltages < standard characteristic curve = f(f) during ≥ 99 % of a day 3 s average 1 day
Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 50 % with t < 1 s and 10 ms r.m.s. value
Voltage dips
∆U10ms < 60 % Urated U10ms = 1 … 90 % Urated
1 year
15
10 ms r.m.s. value
Short voltage interruptions Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 1 s 1 year
U10ms ≥ 1 % Urated
Long voltage interruptions Number < 10 … 50 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 3 min 1 year 16
10 ms r.m.s. value
Temporary overvoltage (L-N) Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 1 s 1 year
U10ms > 110 % Urated
Transient overvoltage < 6 kV; µs … ms No data
17
Tab. 5/1:  Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public grids in accordance with EN 50160

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 69

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Problem Description Cause Effect

f1 f2 f1 Frequency variation: • Start-up or shutdown of very • Maloperation, or even damage

2 A frequency variation involves large item of consumer to IT equipment
Voltage signal

variation in frequency above or equipment, e.g. air conditioning • Data loss

below the normally stable utility equipment • System crash
0 0.1 time (s) 0.2 frequency of 50 or 60 Hz • Loading and unloading of

3 f1 > f2
generator or small co-generation
sites
• Unstable frequency power
sources

4 interruption
time up to
Supply interruption:
Planned or accidental total loss of
• Switching operations attempting • Sensible software process
to isolate an electrical problem crashes
Voltage signal

three minutes power in a specific area; and maintain power to affected • Loss of computer / controller
momentary interruptions lasting area memory
5 0 0.1 0.2 time (s) 0.4 0.5 from half a second to 3 minutes
and long-term interruptions
• Accidents, acts of nature, etc.
• Fuses, actions by a protection
• Hardware failure or damage

lasting longer than 3 minutes function, e.g. automatic recloser

cycle

6 short voltage dip Voltage dip / sag or swell: • Start-up or shutdown of very • Memory loss, data errors,
Any short-term (half cycle to large item of consumer shrinking display screens
Voltage signal

60 seconds) decrease (sag) or equipment, e.g. air conditioning • Lighting variations

7 0 0.1 0.2 time (s) 0.4 0.5

increase (swell) in voltage equipment
• Short circuits (faults)
• Motors stalling or stopping and
decreased motor life
• Underdimensioned power
supply
• Owing to utility equipment
8 failure or utility switching
Supply voltage variations: • The line voltage amplitude may • Equipment shutdown by
reduced voltage level
Variation in the voltage level change due to changing load tripping due to undervoltage
9
Voltage signal

above or below the nominal situations • Overheating and / or damage to

voltage under normal operating equipment due to overvoltage
0 0.1 0.2 time (s) 0.4 0.5
conditions • Reduced efficiency or life of
electrical equipment

10
reduced voltage level with repetition Flicker: • Intermittent loads • Rapid variations in the

11 Impression of unsteadiness of • Motor starting of fans and luminance of lamps causing

Voltage signal

visual sensation induced by a pumps headaches on people,

0 0.1 0.2 time (s) 0.4 0.5
light stimulus the luminance or • Arc furnaces disturbing their concentration;
spectral distribution of which • Welding plants defective products caused by
fluctuates with time production shortcomings
12
Transient • Utility switching operations • Hardware damage
13 Transients
A transient is a sudden change in
voltage up to several thousand
• Starting and stopping heavy
equipment and lifts
• Data loss
• Burning of circuit boards and
volts. It may be of the impulsive or • Static discharge power supply units
oscillatory type (also termed • Strikes of lightning
14 impulse, surge, or spike)
Notch:
This is a disturbance of opposite
polarity from the waveform
15 Noise: • Noise is caused by • Noise interferes with sensitive
Voltage signal

This is an unwanted electrical electromagnetic interference electronic equipment

signal of high frequency from from appliances, e.g. • Data loss
other equipment microwave, radio, and TV • Harmonic distortion causes
16
0 0.02 0.04 time (s) 0.08 0.1

Harmonic: broadcast signals, or improper motors, transformers, and

Distortion of the pure sine wave earthing wiring to overheat
due to non-linear loads on the • Harmonic distortion is affected • Improper operation of circuit-
power supply network by UPS systems, for instance breakers, relays, or fuses
17
Tab. 5/2:  Main problems of power quality back to page 69

70 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

A classification of different operational environments and processing facilities in the data centre. Protection by UPS, 1
the assignment of appropriate characteristic parameters filters, or surge arresters is common for this class. The
and compatibility levels are described in the standard series classification in accordance with IEC 61000-2-4
IEC 61000 (VDE 0839). Tab. 5/3 gives an overview of the (VDE 0839‑2-4) is shown in Tab. 5/4. 2
contents of the individual standards. According to
IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) equipment and devices Voltage stability, voltage unbalance, and harmonics play an
must be classified as Environment class 1 of electromag-
netic compatibility when they respond very sensitively to
important part in assessing malfunctions and voltage
quality.
3
interference parameters of power supply, such as the data

5
IEC 61000 – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
-2 EMC – Ambient conditions
6
EMC – Environment – Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-
-2 VDE 0839-2-2

-4 VDE 0839-2-4
voltage power supply systems
EMC – Environment – Compatibility level in industrial plants for low-frequency conducted disturbances
7
EMC – Environment – Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public
-12 VDE 0839-2-12

-3 EMC – Limit values

medium-voltage power supply systems plants
8
-2 VDE 0838-2 EMC – Limits – Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)

-3 VDE 0838-3
EMC – Limits – Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems,
for equipment with rated current ≤ 16 A per phase and not subject to conditional connection
9
EMC – Limits – Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems
-11 VDE 0838-11
– Equipment with rated current ≤ 75 A and subject to conditional connection

-12 VDE 0838-12
EMC – Limits – Limits for harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public low-voltage systems with
10
input current > 16 A and ≤ 75 A per phase
-4 EMC – Testing and measuring procedures

-7 VDE 0847-7
EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – General guide on harmonics and interharmonics measurements and 11
instrumentation, for power supply systems and equipment connected thereto
-15 VDE 0847-15 EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – Flickermeter – Functional and design specifications
30 VDE 0847-30 EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – Power quality measurement methods 12
Tab. 5/3:  Structure of the standard series IEC 61000 (VDE 0838, VDE 0839, VDE 0848)

13
This class applies to protected supplies, having compatibility levels which are lower than for public grids. It refers to the
Class 1 operation of equipment which responds in a very sensitive manner to disturbances in the power supply, for example the
electrical equipment of technical laboratories, certain automation and protection gear, certain data processing facilities etc. 14
This class generally applies to points of common coupling (PCC) with the public grid and for in-plant points of coupling (IPC)
with industrial and other non-public power supply networks. The compatibility levels for this class are generally identical with
Class 2
those applying to public grids. Therefore, components which were developed for use in public grids can also be employed in
this class for industrial environments. 15
This class only applies to in-plant points of coupling (IPC) in industrial environments. For some disturbances, it comprises
higher compatibility levels than those in Class 2. This class should be considered, for example, if one of the following

Class 3
conditions is true.
• A major load share is fed by the power converters
16
• Welding machines exist
• Large motors are frequently started
• Loads vary quickly
17
Tab. 5/4:  Electromagnetic compatibility levels in accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 71

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 5.1.1 Voltage Unbalance Uneven harmonics Even harmonics

No multiples Multiples
Unbalances arise from uneven loading of the phase con- of 3 of 3
2 ductors in a three-phase system. Since many consumers Order Relative Order Relative Order Relative
are supplied from single-phase power supply units, unbal- voltage voltage voltage
ance prevails practically at all times. However, a fine subdi- h in % h in % h in %

3 vision of single-phase loads in operation will usually lead

to a symmetrisation. In line with the specifications of
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1,5 4 1
IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) for the protected supply of 11 3,5 15 0.5 6 / 24 0.5
4 data centres, unbalance for stationary network operation
must not exceed the permissible level of voltage unbalance 13 3 21 0.5

kU,perm. of 2 % for electromagnetic Environment classes 1 17 2

and 2 and 3 % for class 3, respectively. 19 1.5
5 As a rule, 23 1.5
kU ≈ SA / SkV ≤ kU,perm. 25 * 1.5

6 kU Level of voltage unbalance

kU,perm. Permissible level of voltage unbalance
* No values are given for h > 25 since they are normally very small

SA Connected load as single-phase or two-phase load Tab. 5/5:  Electromagnetic compatibility levels in accordance with
SkV Short-circuit power at the linking point EN 50160 for line voltages up to 35 kV

7
5.1.2 Harmonics Uneven harmonics Even harmonics

Harmonics are overladen oscillations deviating from the No multiples Multiples

8 50 Hz fundamental frequency of the power supply system
Order
of 3
Relative Order
of 3
Relative Order Relative
with an integer multiple of the fundamental. Every peri-
voltage voltage voltage
odical oscillation curve can be represented as an overlay h in % h in % h in %
9 of the sine-shaped basic curve and harmonic oscillations.
Harmonics are generated by equipment with non-linear
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
current-voltage characteristics such as transformers,

10 gas-discharge lamps, and power electronic devices. 11

13
3.5
3
15
21
0.4
0.3
6
8
0.5
0.5
Important harmonic generators are:
17 ≤ h ≤ 21 ≤ h ≤ 10 ≤ h ≤
• Power electronic devices such as converter drives, static 0.27 0.2 0.25
11 UPS systems, rectifier systems, dimmers
49 45 50

Tab. 5/6:  Electromagnetic compatibility levels in accordance with

• Fluorescent lamps
IEC 61000-2-2 (VDE 0839-2-2) up to 1 kV
• Power supply units for the DC voltage supply of informa-
12 tion and communication technology components
• Motors with non-linear current-voltage characteristics
• Converters in DC chargers
13 • Converters in photovoltaic systems and wind power
stations
The compatibility levels to be observed by the distribution
system operator are defined in EN 50160 (see Tab. 5/5).
When connecting to the public supply grid, the user must
Harmonics cause, for instance: ensure that compatibility levels in accordance with the
14 • Heating of three-phase and alternating current motors D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5] corresponding to EN 50160 and
• Fault tripping of circuit-breakers and miniature cir- IEC 61000-2-2 (VDE 0839-2-2) are observed at the connect-
cuit-breakers and malfunctions of ripple control receivers ing points to the public distribution grid see Tab. 5/6.
15 • Overloading and destruction of capacitors as a result of Concerning the harmonic voltages of plant-internal con-
thermal overloading necting points in the non-public grids, reference can be
• Overheating of transformers made to IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) (see Tab. 5/7 to
16 • Skin effects of cabling resulting in higher temperature
loads and a greater voltage drop
Tab. 5/9).

• Malfunction of electronic devices and control units as a

result of zero-crossing faults
17 • Problems with the compensation of earth faults
• Overloading of the N conductor

72 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The values specified in the standards are for forming a Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
1
reference level in a defined environment which exceeds the
No multiples Multiples
actual interference level only with a low probability (< 5 %).
They are used for a metrological inspection of the user's
Order
of 3
Relative Order
of 3
Relative Order Relative
2
systems. Monitoring systems can be used for measuring voltage voltage voltage
which provide more extensive options for data processing h in % h in % h in %
and analysis than required by EN 50160. The SICAM Q80
Power Quality Recorder (see Fig. 5/3) uses the principle of
5 3 3 3 2 2 3
7 3 9 1.5 4 1
“complete recording” so that even events in which the
11 3 15 0.3 6 0.5
defined thresholds are not reached can be used for power
quality analyses or for recording such events at the relevant 13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
4
locations in the distribution systems. 17 2 10 0.5

SICAM Q80 meets the precision requirements of a Class A

17 ≤ h ≤
49
0.27
21 ≤ h ≤
45
0.2
10 ≤ h ≤
50
0.25 5
measuring device in accordance with IEC 61000-4-30
(VDE 0847-30) for measuring the voltage quality. Harmon- Tab. 5/7:  EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 1 (Tab. 5/4) in
ics (see Fig. 5/4) are detected in accordance with the speci-
fications made in IEC 61000-4-7 (VDE 0847-7) and flickers
accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
6
are calculated as described in IEC 61000-4-15
Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
(VDE 0847‑15).
No multiples Multiples 7
of 3 of 3
The identification, determination, and profile formation of
the measuring points for system quality monitoring play an Order Relative Order Relative Order Relative
important part in project design. Since the supply network h
voltage
in % h
voltage
in % h
voltage
in %
8
is a dynamic system in the building infrastructure, the
5 6 3 5 2 2
optimisation of the measuring points is based on the
insights gained in day-to-day operation. Besides the selec-
tion of measuring points, the determination of system
7
11
5
3.5
9
15
1.5
0.4
4
6
1
0.5
9
quality requires a definition and determination of the evalu- 13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
ation criteria at the individual measuring points.
17 2 10 0.5 10
In order to properly estimate harmonic voltage interfer- 17 ≤ h ≤ 21 ≤ h ≤ 10 ≤ h ≤
0.27 0,2 0.25
49 45 50
ences in line with the D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5], it is impor-
tant to consider the functioning principles of the harmonic Tab. 5/8:  EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 2 (Tab. 5/4) in 11
generators used. According to [5], two groups are to be accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
differentiated:

Group 1: Equipment with a low emission of harmonic Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
12
content (10 % ≤ THDi ≤ 25 %) No multiples Multiples

Group 2: Equipment with medium-range and high emission Order

of 3
Relative Order
of 3
Relative Order Relative
13
of harmonic content (THDi > 25 %) voltage voltage voltage
h in % h in % h in %

For example, pumps, ventilators, compressors, air condi- 5 8 3 6 2 3 14

tioning appliances, DC-controlled fans, and compact fluo- 7 7 9 2.5 4 1.5
rescent lamps with electronic ballast belong to Group 2. 11 5 15 2 6 1
Compact fluorescent lamps with inductive ballast and
12-pulse converters are typically assigned to Group 1. For
13 4.5 21 1.75 8 1 15
self-commutated converters with pulse width modulated 17 4 10 1
conversion via power capacitors, the harmonic content is
less than 10 % so that such converters don’t need to be
17 ≤ h ≤
49
4.5 ×
(17 / h) –
21 ≤ h ≤
45
1
10 ≤ h ≤
50
1 16
0.5
considered. However, the same also applies if integrated
harmonic filters for 6- or 12-pulse diode or thyristor invert- Tab. 5/9:  EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 3 (Tab. 5/4) in
ers ensure a corresponding reduction. accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) 17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 73

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Finally, the load simultaneity to be expected per group

must be factored in to estimate the harmonic load of the
plant SOS from the two group-specific shares (SGr.1, SGr.2)
2 according to

SOS = 0.5 · SGr.1 + SGr.2

3 The quotient SOS / SA (SA = connected load of the plant) can
be used graphically from the relation to the quotient from

4 short-circuit power at the linking point SkV and connected

load of the plant (see Fig. 5/5) to assess the harmonic load
content:

5 SOS SkV
Fig. 5/3:  SICAM Q80 power quality recorder back to page 73

=b·
SA SA
6
(b = 0.082 for low voltage or b = 0.058 for medium voltage)

7 If the limit lines of Fig. 5/5 for SOS / SA are exceeded, passive
or active filters can be used as an effective means to limit
harmonic content. While passive filters influence harmonics
of matched frequencies only, an active filter performs an
8 analysis of the interference and emits a "negative" (i.e.
phase-shifted by 180 °) harmonic range to quench interfer-
ences as far as possible.
9 When an active filter is connected in parallel, the upstream
line current is optimised, whereas the series connection is

10 largely utilised for a targeted improvement of the voltage

quality of individual loads. However, even active filters
Fig. 5/4:  Overview of harmonics of the SICAM Q80  back to page 73
power quality recorder
cannot simultaneously make current and voltage curves
nearly sinusoidal.
11
An important use of active filters is the reduction of sum- 1.0

TIP04_13_013_EN
mated N conductor currents produced, for instance, by the Measures required
12
SOS/SA

phase angle control of many power supply units or energy-­

0.5
saving lamps. In particular, the interferences of the third
harmonic with a frequency of 150 Hz add up in the N
13 conductor. Please observe that high N conductor currents
possibly require larger dimensioning of switchgear and
Permissible
range
0.2
transformers in addition to the cables, as described in
VDE 0298-4. You may then consider the use of power
14 converter transformers. Under certain conditions, the cost 0.1
of oversizing transformers is balanced by reduced energy 1 5 10 50 100 500 1,000
losses during operation. LV: Low voltage SkV/SA
15 MV: Medium voltage

Fig. 5/5:  Graphical assessment of the harmonic content

16

17

74 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

5.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility 1

TIP04_13_014_EN
The so-called EMC Directive of the European Union [6] 10
defines electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) as "the capa- 2

Magnetic flux density B in µT

bility of an item of equipment to work satisfactorily in its 1 1/r Single conductor
electromagnetic environment without causing electromag-
netic interference itself which might be unacceptable to
other equipment in the same environment".
0,1
1/r2
3
Supply and
return conductor
10-2
An electric current which flows generates a magnetic and
an electric field. These fields affect the environment and 1/r3
Transformer
4
10-3
other equipment. Two factors play a major part in propa- winding
gating the fields and thus for EMC:
• Cable routing and screening 10-4
2 7 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 47 5
• Power supply system Distance r in m

Cable routing and screening Fig. 5/6:  Distance dependency of the magnetic 
flux density for various conductor arrangements
back to page 76 6
The propagation of interference currents and the electric
and magnetic fields linked to them depend both on the
cable type and their arrangement. Generally speaking and 7
in accordance with EN 50174-2 (VDE 0800-174-2), signal
and data cables should be routed well away from power
supply leads. 8

EMC Wiring Type of cable

9
1 2 3 4
D D D D
worse
Side-by-side
Configuration:
1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation Single-core cable
10
with spacing D
3 Strand sheathing
4 PVC outer sheathing
1 2 3 4

Configuration:
11
Side-by-side 1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation Single-core cable
without spacing
3 Strand sheathing
4 PVC outer sheathing 12
1 2 3 4

Configuration:
In bundles
1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation
Single-core cable 13
3 Strand sheathing
4 PVC outer sheathing
1 2 3 4

Configuration: 14
Multi-core cable 1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation Multi-core cable
L1-L2-L3-N-PE
3 Strand sheathing

1 2 3 4 5
4 PVC outer sheathing
15
Multi-core Configuration:
1 Cu conductor Multi-core
L1-L2-L3-N
with concentric
screening (PE)
2 PVC insulation
3 Strand sheathing
cable with
concentric PE 16
4 Concentric Cu screen braiding
better 5 PVC outer sheathing

17
TIP04_13_015_EN

Fig. 5/7:  Classification of simple cable types and wiring with regard to EMC back to page 76

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 75

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The requirements placed on this separation depend on the loading of conductors leads to a deterioration of EMC
following: conditions. The symmetrical splitting of conductors in the
• EMC characteristics of the IT cables busbar trunking system has significant advantages because
2 • Design, dimensions, and geometrical arrangement of the of the reduced magnetic interference with the environ-
power supply cables ment. The Siemens LD busbar trunking system (LDA / LDC)
• Type of circuits supplied with its symmetrical conductor splitting is thus particularly
3 • Possibly existing isolation devices suitable for the transmission of high currents.

The procedure how to define isolation / separation require- Earthing and equipotential bonding
4 ments is described in EN 50174-2 (VDE 0800-174-2). In
particular for data centres, doubling the value established In particular stray currents may become a severe problem.
for the (isolating) distance between IT cabling and power That is, currents flowing through the protective conductor
supply leads is recommended. and the screening of data and IT cables can cause failures,
5 malfunctions, and even damage. In the low-voltage net-
Bundling into cable groups and twisting phase and work, it is the connection to earth conditions in the power
­return conductor is beneficial for electric power supply system which are decisive for this cable-bound EMC. The
6 (see Fig. 5/6). The different bundlings of conductors and
the use of cable screens are arranged in an EMC-quality-­
strict separation of the protective conductor from the
neutral conductor in the TN-S network helps to avoid these
significant manner in Fig. 5/7. kinds of stray currents.

7 When comparing cables and a busbar trunking system, also For each functional unit, a central earthing point (CEP)
the conductor splitting plays an important part. Commonly, should be additionally formed in the TN-S network. The
busbar trunking systems are better in terms of EMC in case following is to be considered in the planning phase:
8 of equal currents. Fig. 5/8 also reveals that an asymmetrical

9 Conductor arrangements
100

TIP04_13_016_EN
L1
10 cm L1 = 1,000 A e-j0°

10 L2 L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
Magnetic flux density B in µT

10 cm L3 = 950 A e-j240°
L3

L1

11 10 cm

L2
L1 = 1,000 A e-j0°
L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
10

10 cm L3 = 1,000 A e-j240°
L3

12 10 cm
L1
L1 = 200 A e-j0°
L2 L2 = 200 A e-j120° 1
10 cm L3 = 200 A e-j240°
L3
13 L1
Interference limit ECG
L1 = 1,000 A e-j0° Interference limit EEG
3c

L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
m
3c

L3 = 1,000 A e-j240°
14
0.1 Interference limit EMG
L3 3 cm L2

L1 L2 L3 LN PE LDA & LDC

L1 = 1,100 A e-j0°
15 L2 = 1,100 A e-j120°
L3 = 1,100 A e-j240°
0.01
L1L2L3 NN L3L2L1PE LDA & LDC 1 5 10 50 100

16 L1 = 2,500 A e-j0°
L2 = 2,500 A e-j120°
Distance to source of interference in m

L3 = 2,500 A e-j240°

17 Fig. 5/8:  Cable configuration and suitability with regard to EMC (the interference levels for electromyograms (EMG), electrocardiograms
(ECG), and electroencephalograms (EEG) are specified in the standard IEC 60364-7-710 (VDE 0100-710))

76 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• In the TN-S network, two earthing bridges must never be 1

connected with each other via two conductors
• 4-pole switching devices must be used for a changeover
connection in case of a supply from two networks each 2
with its own CEP (in the Fig. 5/9 example the transformer
and generator feed into separate distribution boards in a
distributed layout)
• If a PEN conductor is installed, it is to be insulated over its
3
entire course. This also applies to switchgear assemblies
• PEN and PE conductors must not be switched
4
The earthing concept must be thoroughly examined for
UPS feed-in considerations, for example. With static UPS
systems which feature different feed-ins for the rectifier 5
input and connection of the electronic bypass, it must be
kept in mind that parallel neutral conductors are to be
connected in such a way that only the neutral conductor
whose associated phase conductors carry currents is always
6
connected. Please contact your TIP expert for further
information.
7

Splitter
9
bridge
Source

Protective
Main
earth
10
equipotential bar 2
bonding –
transformer
System earthing 11
Low-voltage main distribution

U
12
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
PEN N 13
TIP04_13_017_EN

PE PE
Central
earth
point
14
Main
earth

15
Sub-distribution board

bar 1

L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3 16
N N
PE PE

Fig. 5/9:  Earthing concept for coupling distributed feed-in systems 17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 77

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 5.3 Availability and Redundancy HRG

Designation Explanation
class
Although there are no binding standards with regard to Function can be interrupted, data
2 reliability of supply at the moment, the permissible dura-
AEC-0 Conventional
integrity is not essential.
tion of interruption and corresponding redundancy require- Highly Function can be interrupted, but data
AEC-1
ments should be considered in the planning phase. Reliable integrity must be ensured.

3 Adapted to DIN 40041 (comparable to the international

standard IEC 60050-191), redundancy is defined as the AEC-2
High
Function may only be interrupted within
defined times or minimally during the
Availability
main operating time.
existence of more functional power supply components in

4 one unit than required for maintaining this function (here:

for electric power supply of the critical infrastructure com- AEC-3 Fault-resilient
Function must be maintained without
interruption within defined times or
during the main operating time.
ponents). The DIN standard explicitly notes that mainte-
nance, i.e. monitoring, servicing, and restoring (in case of Function must be maintained without
5 failure) proper functioning, is required for maintaining the
AEC-4 Fault-tolerant interruption, 24 / 7 operation (24 hours,
7 days a week) must be ensured.
redundancy. In particular in the field of ICT and data centre
Disaster- Function must be available under all
infrastructure, it is necessary that the planner intensely AEC-5
tolerant circumstances.
6 deals with the redundancy issue. Therefore, in the follow-
ing, reference will often be made to research, experience,
Tab. 5/10:  Availability Environment Classification (AEC) acc. to [7]
and studies from this field.

7
5.3.1 Availability Classes
As a mathematical term, availability is defined as the
Based on the classification performed by the Harvard quotient from the "mean time between failure“ (MTBF) and
8 Research Group (HRG) in 2002 (see Tab. 5/10), several the sum of all MTBF and the "mean time to repair" (MTTR):
grades of availability have established. In its High Availabil-
ity Compendium [8], the German Federal Office for Infor- Availability A = MTBF / (MTBF+MTTR)
9 mation Security (Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informa-
tionstechnik (BSI)) presents a classification quoting down-
times corresponding to the respective status of non-availa-

10 bility (see Tab. 5/11).

Availability Minimum Non- Downtime per Downtime per

11 Class (AVC)
Designation
availability availability month year
Standard IT system without requirements on
AVC 0 ~95 % ~5 % 1 day Several days
availability

12 AVC 1
Standard safety based on basic IT protection with
normal demand for availability
99 % 1 % <8h < 88 h

Standard safety based on basic IT protection with

AVC 2 99.9 % 0.1 % < 44 min <9h
13 increased demand for availability
High-availability basic IT protection for specific
AVC 3 99.99 % 0.01 % < 5 min < 53 min
IT resources; 100-3*

14
AVC 4 Highest availability 99.999 % 0.001 % < 26 s < 6 min
AVC 5 Disaster-tolerant Max. availability 0 0 0
* Supplementary risk analysis acc. to BSI Standard 100-3)

15 Tab. 5/11:  Typical availability classes acc. to the High-availability Compendium of the BSI [8]

16
MTBF MTTR A Operational compatibility
1 day 1 second 86,400 s / 86,401 s = 99.999 % Not acceptable
1 month 30 seconds 2,592,000 s / 2,592,030 s = 99.999 % Still acceptable

17 10 years 1 hour 87,600 h / 87,601 h = 99.999 % User-friendly

Tab. 5/12:  Availability A for different interruption characteristics back to page 79

78 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

However, availability only becomes significant if the magni- A reliability calculation can be made to quantify the reliabil- 1
tudes of MTBF and MTTR are known. Tab. 5/12 shows three ity of supply. Using models for the replication of the system
estimations of the availability in different fault scenarios. and the associated reliability characteristics, the weak-
nesses and optimisation options in the electrical power 2
The percentages of availability differ marginally in the sixth distribution system can be identified. The following models
digit after the decimal point. The significance of a long, describing the power supply operation and failure behav-
uninterrupted phase of operation is obvious, as many
minor interruptions may impair the work rhythm. Some
iour are known:
• Element model
3
guidelines can be derived from this: • Failure model
• Preference should be given to high quality of the products
applied
• Resupply model
• Consumer load model 4
• The number of components used should be kept as small
as possible, since every component must be regarded as a The calculation of reliability characteristics is very elaborate
potential source of trouble and can be made manually for very small and simple 5
• Repeated interference and switching operations, in networks only. In programs for the quantitative determina-
particular in connection with modularisation and load-de- tion of the reliability of supply, the following methods are
pendent operation, should be avoided
• A dependency on single components should be avoided
basically used:
• State space method
6
since their failure or switching off such a “single point of • Boolean networks
failure“ (SPOF) would affect the whole system • Monte Carlo simulation
7
On top of this, a failure of the electrical power supply In the calculations, generally every network conditions
means that a restart of the infrastructure cannot be ex- must be considered, and for all combinations of failed
pected within seconds but more likely after many hours or network elements the frequency of occurrence and the 8
even days. If a defect concerns special components such as duration of this fault state must be determined. Thus, the
the transformers, UPS, or switchgear panels, their replace- total failure extent can be determined for every state.
ment may take several days or weeks.
In most cases a cost analysis is used to assess the calculated
9
characteristics. For that, the not supplied energy is deter-
5.3.2 Reliability Calculations
Interruptions are mostly caused by accidental occurrences.
mined in kilowatt hours and the interrupted power in
kilowatts and converted into monetary variables. It has 10
These events can be analysed quantitatively using statisti- turned out, however, that due to the large spread of com-
cal methods and probability calculation. Therefore, proba- mercial and economic costs of interruptions, in most cases
bility calculation forms the basis of reliability calculation. no clear recommendations for or against investments in 11
The calculations are made with random variables which network extensions can be derived.
cannot be forecasted exactly, nor can the results thereof.
The random variables are assessed appropriately and a
large number of calculations yield results that suffice a
When comparing the calculated characteristics of two
extension variants, a reliability calculation may show which
12
probability with a corresponding fluctuation margin. variant is more reliable. Since a model always has to get by

It should be mentioned here that though the (n-1) concept

with approximations and neglects, a plausibility check
should be made. The calculations are made with slightly
13
and the (n+1) concept known from redundancy considera- changed boundary conditions and the results are compared
tions in network design follow the same basic idea, they with regard to plausibility.
proceed from a different number of "n" resources or com- 14
ponents of the same design or function. The factors determining the frequency and duration of
• (n-1) concept: "n" components are available, with "n-1" supply interruptions include external influences, technical
components being sufficient to ensure full functioning
("n" items available, "n-1" items are sufficient). That is,
condition of the equipment, network planning and design, 15
product quality, installation and commissioning, as well as
the occurrence of a fault does not yet entail a failure operating conditions and operating modes.
• (n+1) concept: One component may fail or be removed to
the extent that "n" components are sufficient for full
16
functioning ("n+1" items available, "n" items are sufficient)

17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 79

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 External influences ruption. The higher the regarded network level is (see grid
level structure in chapter 2), the larger are usually the
Supply interruptions can be caused by climatic and atmos- effects of a supply interruption. The expenditure for redun-
2 pheric impacts. Since these cannot be influenced directly, dant supply at the individual grid levels must be selected
only their effects can be prevented or minimised by second- accordingly. In medium-voltage grids, a changeover reserve
ary measures in network planning and design as well as in is economically feasible.
3 network operation. Typical incidents are variations in
temperature and humidity, thunderstorms, storms, ice and Network configuration
snow, wind-borne sand and sea salt, UV radiation, earth-

4 quake, landslide, avalanche, flood, water pollution, and

aggressive gases. Also human-influenced actions and
The network configuration influences the frequency of
interruptions and most of all the number of consumers
events such as sabotage, plane crash, destruction of cables affected by that. For the implementation of quick resupply,
during cable work, or unwanted disturbances caused by the complexity of fault locating and the realization of
5 animals such as cable bite or body contact are examples of changeover options are to be considered. Therefore, the
such occasions which cannot be influenced primarily. network configuration should be simple and clear. With
regard to reliability of supply, the following should be
6 Technical condition of the equipment minded:
• Adaptation of the mode of operation to the supply task
The technical condition of the equipment available in the (see chapter 4, for example, open or closed ring)

7 network affects most of all the frequency of interruptions.

The age-related failure frequency of the individual pieces of
• Avoidance of different voltage levels at one grid level
• Avoidance of multiple nodes
equipment plays a major part in that. After the early failure • Avoidance of spur lines
period, the failure rate remains constant at a low level for a • Avoidance of different cable cross sections
8 long time until the failure probability increases again from
a certain age on ("bathtub curve"). Protection concept

9 To avoid investments in new equipment, it is often oper-

ated beyond its lifetime with very high repair and mainte-
It is difficult to design and set protection for complex
network configurations such that selective fault tripping is
nance expenses. Intensive maintenance definitely improves ensured at any time. Moreover, this requires extensive

10 the technical condition of equipment, but from a long-term

perspective this can become uneconomical because main-
adaptations of the power system protection to changes in
the network, and the probability of misadjustment (over-
tenance work requires high personnel expenses. protection or undersized protection) increases. The danger
of maloperation or misadjustments increases if a large
11 Furthermore, it has to be considered that revisions require variety of different makes and product series of protective
disconnection of the equipment, which also involves devices is used. In this case, the product and operational
switchovers in the network. Every switchover in the net- know-how for the individual device types has to be ac-
12 work involves the danger of faulty circuits, which can lead quired and kept up to date.
to supply interruptions in parts of the network when the
power system protection responds or equipment is de- Cable laying
13 stroyed.
For cost reasons, cables are often routed in large numbers
Network planning and design in one single duct. For that it has to be minded that, for
example, in the event of an excavator accident, all cables in
14 Given factors such as climatic conditions, geographic the duct would be destroyed, or if a cable was destroyed by
structures of the supply area, as well as load and structural short-circuit current, the other cables would also be af-
changes have to be considered for the network planning fected. To increase the reliability of supply, the number of
15 and design in order to achieve the intended reliability of cables in a cable duct should be limited. In particular redun-
supply. The following planning criteria must be taken into dant systems should be routed in separate ducts.
account dependent on the probabilities of occurrence and
16 the associated effects of these external influences: Short-circuit power

Redundant supply High short-circuit power is required to ensure good voltage

maintenance and stability of the network. However, it must
17 The reasonable interruption time is oriented towards the not reach too high values as the equipment in the network
magnitude of the failed power affected by a supply inter- has to be dimensioned for them and short-circuit currents

80 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

go with greater mechanical and thermal stress and higher the supply interruption. For example, misadjustments are 1
breaking capacities. avoided in the forefront already by precise instructions in
the documentation.
Automation 2
Failure and damage statistics can help to comprehend
The degree of automation of the network has great influ- failure causes and processes to a certain extent and to
ence on the number and most of all the duration of supply
interruptions. Even in a medium-voltage network, the
render visible weak points or defects in the network. This
allows for their early removal and an improvement of the
3
automation of the central systems is advantageous with reliability of supply.
regard to the reliability of supply, despite the variety of
equipment and the large amount of data. The implementa- Personnel
4
tion of simple network automation helps to avoid misad-
justments but requires a simple and clear network configu- The number of personnel required for reliable operation
ration. largely depends on the size of the network, the technology 5
used, and the degree of automation of the network. Apart
Production, installation, and commissioning from the number of personnel also its qualification, i.e. pro-

Supply interruptions are always attributable to the failure of

found training, technical knowledge, and many years of
work experience, plays an important part. Not to be ne-
6
single pieces of equipment. The reasons for a failure can be glected is the ability to work in a team as well as the coop-
very different. For example, misadjustments or external
influences can lead to the tripping of the protective equip-
eration of the personnel with external companies.
7
ment, which in turn can cause the deliberate failure of Switching operation
equipment (load shedding). The destruction of equipment
usually leads to its failure. However, the actual failure cause If the power system protection is set wrongly, equipment 8
might already have been implied before operation. Mis- may be overloaded or destructed due to misadjustments,
takes in the project planning phase or insufficient quality which leads to repair costs and an interruption of supply.
assurance during the production process may increase the
probability of equipment failure. Mistakes can also be made
Therefore, switching operation also includes setting of the
power system protection.
9
during installation and commissioning of the equipment,
which might only become apparent after a longer period of
use in the network by failure of the equipment. This danger
Procedure in the event of a fault 10
can only be averted by good technical knowledge of the The organisation of the fault-clearing service is another
installation and commissioning personnel. important factor influencing the duration of the supply
interruption. Failure detection and indication depend on 11
The operator can minimise the risk of defective equipment the degree of automation. After the failure has been de-
by carefully selecting the manufacturing companies of the tected, the fault-clearing service is responsible for the
equipment used, and by influencing the proper execution
of installation and commissioning works.
immediate evaluation of information in order to take
circuitry-wise and organisational actions.
12
Power system operation To ensure quick fault location, the required personnel must
be available upon the occurrence of a fault, which can be
13
Productive and economic working and quick responding in consulted on the spot as well as on call for fault repair.
the event of a failure depend on the organisation and Moreover, the required vehicles and / or special vehicles
structure of the personnel as well as on the available must be available and immediately operational. 14
documents and documentation on the network.
After fault localisation, it depends on the network configu-
Documents and documentation ration to what extent resupply of all consumers is possible
by disconnecting the fault location and switching over to
15
Precise and always up-to-date documentation of switching other supply lines. Repair work often requires interventions
states in the network, protective settings, and planning
documents which show the correct position of the equip-
on public ground, for example, blocking and breakup of
roads, which can only be done with the appropriate author-
16
ment in the network and include technical data such as ity's permission. The relevant authorities' contact addresses
cable cross sections or transmission capacities is the basis are to be kept up to date. It is even better to make agree-
of reliable power system operation. It allows for quick ments which allow for autonomous actions. This simplifies 17
proceeding in the event of a fault and thus clearly shortens

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 81

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 the procedure because making arrangements is often not Parallel redundancy

possible at the time when an intervention is required.
For a certain function of power distribution, one compo-
2 Fault repair might be delayed critically if the required spare nent more than is necessary for its maintenance is em-
parts are not available. Therefore, stockkeeping organisa- ployed. To this end, the components must be operated in
tion is of major importance. Standardised equipment in the parallel. Since the spare component is ready immediately,
3 network is advantageous for stockkeeping. Thus, the size of
the stock can be reduced considerably, which is a financial
we also refer to this as “hot” redundancy.

advantage and also allows for clear stockkeeping. In the UPS example of Fig. 5/11, two of the three systems

4 Maintenance
connected in parallel are sufficient to safely supply the
connected load. In the case of maximum utilisation of
redundancy, each of the connected UPS systems supplies
Maintenance combines all measures necessary to retain two-third of the required power.
5 (service) and restore (repair) the target state. This also
includes the determination and assessment of the actual Generalising, we speak of an (n+1) redundancy if n items
state (inspection). By regularly inspecting the equipment, of equipment are sufficient in parallel operation to ensure
6 weak points and defects can be recognized and rectified in
the course of service and repair.
undisturbed operation so that one item of equipment may
fail or be switched off. Thus, no further redundancy exists
then.

7 5.3.3 Redundancy
System redundancy
The availability of a system is influenced by the quality of
its components (the availability of the individual compo- The configuration of two parallel supply systems allows
8 nents) on the one hand and redundancy configurations on system redundancy to be obtained. At the same time,
the other hand. Generally speaking, redundancy character- parallelism should be maintained as far as possible down to
izes the use of multiple technical resources which are the load be supplied. Ideally, electric power supply of
9 technically identical or at least functionally identical. In the
following, the ICT terminology is used.
consumers is ensured by at least two redundantly usable,
separate power supply units.

10 In order to avoid complete failure from system-related

faults, so-called "diversified" systems (different technology
Isolated-parallel redundancy

or design for the same function) are used in a redundant To cut back somewhat on the expenditure that would be
manner. Electric power distribution may involve considera- required for system redundancy, parallel-operating compo-
11 tion being given to a very diversified range of redundancy nents are used (n+1)-redundantly and the consumers are
configurations in planning. divided into several groups supplied in different ways. This
concept, however, only brings advantages when more than
12 Attention: The following differentiation of the redundancy
types may easily lead to mix-ups!
two consumer groups are differentiated – that is, at least
three consumer groups and three or more supply groups.
Put simply, the simultaneous modularity of the systems and
13 Standby redundancy loads is utilised. In Fig. 5/12 a UPS redundancy with (2+1)
parallel-operating UPS systems is distributed to four sys-
A spare component is operated in idle mode side by side tems in an isolated-parallel redundancy system
with the active component. It only becomes active should (2+1)+(2+1)+(2+1)+(2+1) = (3+1)^(2+1) for four con-
14 the primary component fail. This type of redundancy is also sumer blocks. The redundancy of the four systems (3+1) is
called “cold” redundancy or “hot” redundancy depending on linked with the redundancy of the components (2+1).
the duration of readiness. Basically, a spare tyre is a “cold”
15 redundancy since refitting takes quite some time. Fig. 5/10
exemplifies the output of the standby UPS being connected
to the input of the static bypass line of the primary UPS.
16 Only when switching over to the bypass line does the
standby UPS become active. In some texts, standby redun-
dancy is also called “isolated redundancy.”

17

82 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Secondary UPS
1

TIP04_13_018_EN
3
Primary UPS

Fig. 5/10:  Schematic illustration of the standby  back to page 82

4
redundancy for a single UPS system

5
Communication tie
UPS 1
50 kVA
for parallel operation
6
UPS 2 100

TIP04_13_019_EN
50 kVA kVA
7
UPS 3
50 kVA

8
Fig. 5/11:  Parallel-redundant UPS system with  back to page 82
(n+1) equal to (2+1)

9
50 kVA

50 kVA

50 kVA
10
UPS 12

UPS 11

UPS 10

Communication
tie for parallel
operation

11
UPS 1 UPS 9
50 kVA 100 100 50 kVA
kVA kVA
UPS 2
50 kVA
UPS 8
50 kVA
12
100 100
UPS 3 kVA kVA UPS 7
50 kVA 50 kVA
13
Communication tie
for parallel
14
TIP04_13_020_EN
50 kVA

50 kVA

50 kVA

operation
UPS 4

UPS 5

UPS 6

15
Fig. 5/12:  Isolated-parallel UPS system with a link  back to page 82
through two independent power supply units acc. to (m+1)^(n+1) –
here: (3+1)^(2+1)
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 83

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 5.4 Reactive Power and Compensation Transmission losses and energy consumption are reduced
and expensive expansions become unnecessary as the
The total power, the so-called apparent power, of a trans- same equipment can be used to transmit more active
2 mission network is composed of active and reactive power power owing to reactive power compensation.
(Fig. 5/13). While the power consumers connected into
supply transform the active power into active energy, the Determination of capacitor power
3 reactive energy pertaining to the reactive power is not
consumed. The reactive power at the consumer side is A system with the installed active power P is to be compen-
merely used for building up a magnetic field, for example, sated from a power factor cos φ1 to a power factor cos φ2.

4 for operating electric motors, pumps, or transformers. The capacitor power necessary for this compensation

Reactive power is generated when power is drawn from is calculated as follows:

the supply network and then fed back into the network
5 with a time delay. This way it oscillates between con- Qc = P · (tan φ1 – tan φ2)
sumer and generator. This constitutes an additional load
on the network and requires greater dimensioning in Compensation reduces the transmitted apparent power S
6 order to take up the oscillating reactive power in addition
to the active power made available. As a consequence,
(see Fig. 5/15). Ohmic transmission losses decrease by the
square of the currents.
less active power can be transported.

7 Reactive power estimate

Solution For industrial plants that are still in a configuring stage, it

can be assumed by approximation that the reactive power
8 With a reactive power compensation system with power consumers are primarily AC induction motors working with
capacitors directly connected to the low-voltage network an average power factor cos φ ≥ 0.7. For compensation to
and close to the power consumer, transmission facilities cos φ = 0.9, a capacitor power of approximately 50 % of the
9 can be relieved as the reactive power is no longer sup-
plied from the network but provided by the capacitors
active power is required:

(see Fig. 5/14). Qc = 0.5 · P

10

11

12
TIP04_13_021_EN

Active power
Apparent power
Reactive power
13

14

15
Magnetic field
16
Grid of the power supplier Motor Drive
17
Fig. 5/13:  Composition of the total power of a transmission grid

84 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In infrastructural projects (offices, schools, etc.), the follow- 1

ing applies: Supply from
medium-voltage network

Qc = 0.1 to 0.2 · P 2
20 kV
Calculation of the reactive power based on the
electricity bill 3
For installations which are already running, the required
capacitor power can be determined by measuring. If active
and reactive work meters are available, the demand of 400 V
4
capacitor power can be taken from the monthly electricity

TIP04_13_022_EN
bill.
Iw Ib
5
tan φ = reactive work / active work M

For identical meter operating times in the measurement of

reactive and active work, Fig. 5/14:  Principle of reactive power  back to page 84
6
compensation using low-voltage power capacitors

tan φ = reactive power Q / active power P

7
With
Legend:

1–cos2 φ P Active power 8

tan φ = Q1
Q1 Reactive power
cos φ Q2 Qc non-compensated

the compensation power Qc matching the active power P

S1 Apparent power
prior to compensation
9
S2 φ Phase angle
can be calculated for a desired value of cos φ2.
P Q2 Residual reactive power
Qc = Q1 – Q2 = P · F φ2
φ1 after compensation 10
S2 Apparent power
after compensation
In this case
TIP04_13_023_EN
Qc Connected
capacitor power 11
F = tan φ1 – tan φ2

To simplify the calculation of Qc, Tab. 5/13 states the con-

version factors F when a measured cos φ1 is to be compen-
Fig. 5/15:  Power diagram for a non- 
compensated (1) and a compensated (2) installation
back to page 84
12
sated in order to attain a power factor cos φ2 in operation.

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 85

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Actual value
Conversion factor F
(given)
tan φ1 cos φ1 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2
2 = 0.70 = 0.75 = 0.80 = 0.82 = 0.85 = 0.87 = 0.90 = 0.92 = 0.95 = 0.97 = 1.00
4.90 0.20 3.88 4.02 4.15 4.20 4.28 4.33 4.41 4.47 4.57 4.65 4.90
3.87 0.25 2.85 2.99 3.12 3.17 3.25 3.31 3.39 3.45 3.54 3.62 3.87
3 3.18 0.30 2.16 2.30 2.43 2.48 2.56 2.61 2.70 2.75 2.85 2.93 3.18
2.68 0.35 1.66 1.79 1.93 1.98 2.06 2.11 2.19 2.25 2.35 2.43 2.68
2.29 0.40 1.27 1.41 1.54 1.59 1.67 1.72 1.81 1.87 1.96 2.04 2.29
4 2.16 0.42 1.14 1.28 1.41 1.46 1.54 1.59 1.68 1.74 1.83 1.91 2.16
2.04 0.44 1.02 1.16 1.29 1.34 1.42 1.47 1.56 1.62 1.71 1.79 2.04

5 1.93 0.46 0.91 1.05 1.18 1.23 1.31 1.36 1.45 1.50 1.60 1.68 1.93
1.83 0.48 0.81 0.95 1.08 1.13 1.21 1.26 1.34 1.40 1.50 1.58 1.83
1.73 0.50 0.71 0.85 0.98 1.03 1.11 1.17 1.25 1.31 1.40 1.48 1.73
6 1.64 0.52 0.62 0.76 0.89 0.94 1.02 1.08 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.39 1,64
1.56 0.54 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.86 0.94 0.99 1.07 1.13 1.23 1.31 1.56

7 1.48
1.40
0.56
0.58
0.46
0.38
0.60
0.52
0.73
0.65
0.78
0.71
0.86
0.78
0.91
0.84
1.00
0.92
1.05
0.98
1.15
1.08
1.23
1.15
1.48
1.40
1.33 0.60 0.31 0.45 0.58 0.64 0.71 0.77 0.85 0.91 1.00 1.08 1.33

8 1.27 0.62 0.25 0.38 0.52 0.57 0.65 0.70 0.78 0.84 0.94 1.01 1.27
1.20 0.64 0.18 0.32 0.45 0.50 0.58 0.63 0.72 0.77 0.87 0.95 1.20
1.14 0.66 0.12 0.26 0.39 0.44 0.52 0.57 0.65 0.71 0.81 0.89 1.14
9 1.08 0.68 0.06 0.20 0.33 0.38 0.46 0.51 0.59 0.65 0.75 0.83 1.08
1.02 0.70 – 0.14 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.45 0.54 0.59 0.69 0.77 1.02

10 0.96
0.91
0.72
0.74
0.08
0.03
0.21
0.16
0.27
0.21
0.34
0.29
0.40
0.34
0.48
0.42
0.54
0.48
0,63
0.58
0.71
0.66
0.96
0.91
0.86 0.76 – 0.11 0.16 0.24 0.29 0.37 0.43 0.53 0.60 0.86

11 0.80 0.78 0.05 0.10 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.55 0.80
0.75 0.80 – 0.05 0.13 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.42 0.50 0.75
0.70 0.82 – 0.08 0.13 0.21 0.27 0.37 0.45 0.70
12 0.65 0.84 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.32 0.40 0.65
0.59 0.86 – 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.26 0.34 0.59

13 0.54 0.88 – 0.06 0.11 0.21 0.29 0.54

0.48 0,90 – 0.06 0.16 0.23 0.48
0.43 0.92 – 0.10 0.18 0.43
14 0.36 0,94 0.03 0.11 0.36
0.29 0.96 – 0.01 0.29
0.20 0.98 – 0.20
15
Tab. 5/13:  Conversion factors F for phase angle adjustments  back to page 85

16

17

86 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

5.4.1 Types of Compensation 1

Capacitors can be used for single, group, and central com- SkV
pensation. These types of compensation will be introduced fres = fN ·
QC
2
in the following. Tab. 5/14 gives a rough overview of which
compensation is suitable for certain purposes. A project-­
optimised mixed compensation of single, group, and
central compensation is possible, too.
fres
fN
Resonance frequency in Hz
Line frequency in Hz
3
SkV Short-circuit power at the linking point in kVA
QC
Together with the impedance of the upstream system, the
compensation capacitors form a resonant circuit, the
Compensation power in kvar
4
resonance frequency being determined by the ratio of the The resonance frequency is to be considered with regard to
compensation power QC to the short-circuit power at the the transmission frequencies of ripple control systems (see
linking point SkV, in line with the D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5]: section 5.4.2). Resonance phenomena can be prevented or 5
minimised with an appropriate choked compensation (see
section 5.4.3).
6
Type of compensation Characteristic Applications / operational Advantages Disadvantages
conditions
Single compensation Compensation close to Large consumers with constant Relief of consumer lines Many small capacitors
7
the power consumer power demand and long ON and reduction of
times transmission losses
Long feeder lines to consumers
(voltage drop, power reduction)
Saving of the switchgear Higher costs 8
For example, with single No simultaneity factor
induction motors, welding
transformers, discharge lamps 9
Group compensation Compensation in sub- Consumer groups (for example, Relief of the consumer Single interruptions may
distribution boards motors, lamps with electronic lines lead to overcompensation
ballast) that are very close 10
Concurrent ON / OFF switching Consideration of the Reactive current load on
of consumers and capacitors simultaneity factor the consumer lines
possible possible
Reduction of the
11
capacitor costs
Central compensation Compensation in main
switchgear or main
Systems with constantly
changing load and / or ON times
Improved utilisation of
the capacitor power
Extra costs for control
12
substations
Further reduction of the Transport of reactive
capacitor costs power from the
switchgear / station in the
LV network
13
General reduction of the
power losses
Easier extendibility
14
System control possible

Tab. 5/14:  Assessment of the types of compensation 15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 87

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Single compensation

In single compensation, the capacitors are directly con-

2 nected to the terminals of the individual power consumers
and switched on together with them via a common switch-
ing device. Here, the capacitor power must be precisely
3 adjusted to the respective consumers. Single compensation
is frequently used for induction motors (Fig. 5/16).

4 Single compensation is economically favourable for:

• Large individual power consumers

TIP04_13_024
• Constant power demand
• Long ON times M
5
Here, load is taken off the feeder lines to the power con-
Fig. 5/16:  Single compensation
sumers; a continuous adjustment of the capacitor power to
6 its reactive power demand is not possible, however.

Group compensation
7 With group compensation, each compensation device is
assigned to a consumer group. Such a consumer group may
consist of motors or discharge lamps, for example, which
8 are connected into supply together through a contactor or
switch. In this case, special switching devices for connect-
ing the capacitors are not required either (Fig. 5/17). Group
9 compensation has the same advantages and disadvantages
as single compensation.

TIP04_13_025
10 Central compensation
M M M
Reactive power control units are used for central compen-
sation, which are directly assigned to a switchgear unit,
11 distribution board, or sub-distribution board and centrally Fig. 5/17:  Group compensation

installed there. Control units contain switchable capacitor

branch circuits and a controller which acquires the reactive
12 power present at the feed-in location. If it deviates from the
set-point, the controller switches the capacitors on or off
step by step via contactors.
13 The capacitor power is chosen in such a way that the entire
installation reaches the desired cos φ (Fig. 5/18). Central
compensation is recommended in case of:
14 • many small power consumers connected into supply
• different power demands and varying ON times of the
power consumers
15 M M M M M M M

Controller

16
TIP04_13_026_EN

Fig. 5/18:  Central compensation

17

88 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

5.4.2 Ripple Control System 1

Transmitter Receiver
Ripple control systems are used for remote control of power
consumers in the power supply network (night-storage 2

TIP04_13_027_EN
heaters, street lights, etc.). The latter also functions as a Ripple control signal
transmission path. Control commands are transmitted by
means of pulse sequences in the range of 167 to approx.
2,000 Hz which are superimposed on the voltage with an
3
amplitude of approx. 1 – 8 % of the respective nominal
power system voltage. The audio frequency (AF) 1 is
switched on and off for transmission following a code 4
(pulse grid), which creates a “telegram”. The consumer to Capacitor
be remote-controlled is downstream-connected to a special (control unit)
receiver (ripple control receiver) which filters the pulse 5
telegrams out of the network and deduces the desired
Fig. 5/19:  Schematic diagram of the compensation in a network
control information from them (Fig. 5/19).
with an audio frequency ripple control system

An existing ripple control frequency in the network must

6
absolutely be observed when compensation units are
selected, because an impairment of ripple control is not
permitted. Audio frequencies in ripple control are crucial
Medium-voltage network
7
Into the Transformer
for different reactive power compensation types. [2] pre-
network
sents a selection scheme conditional upon the ripple Low voltage
control frequencies and boundary conditions in the net- 8
work. By the electrical power distribution systems being
enhanced to smart grids, audio frequency ripple control From the Into
systems will become less important and planning compen-
sation systems will become easier.
power
converter
filter
circuits
9
∑I(ϑ)
ϑ=5 ϑ=7 ϑ = 11.13
5.4.3 Compensation in Networks with M 10
Harmonic Content
Power converter Filter circuits
In contrast to linear loads such as incandescent lamps,
three-phase motors, or resistance heaters, non-linear loads
TIP04_13_028_EN
11
such as power converters, single-phase, clocked power Fig. 5/20:  Reactor-connected capacitors for reactive power
compensation
supplies, or energy-saving lamps create distortions of the
line voltage as described in section 5.1. The harmonic
currents connected with the distortions are forced upon the
12
network and influence other power consumers in the Reactor-connected capacitors
network.
Together with the inductive loads in the network, the
13
If the proportion of harmonic-generating loads is 15 % and capacitors of the reactive power compensation form a
more (referred to the total load), reactor-connected capaci- resonant circuit as described in section 5.4.1. When the
tors, tuned filter circuits, or active filters should be used for resonance frequency of this resonant circuit coincides with 14
compensation. Tuned filter circuits are used in particular in a harmonic frequency, this causes a resonance increase of
LV systems with extremely high harmonic loads. Active the harmonic voltage and thus an increase of the harmonic
filters for filtering harmonic loads provide advantages when
hardly any reactive power of the fundamental harmonics
current. This might lead to a capacitor overload and addi-
tional loads on the network components and the con-
15
has to be compensated. nected consumers. In order to avoid such resonances, it is
necessary to use choked capacitors (Fig. 5/20).
16

1 The ripple control frequency tables for Germany, Austria, Switzerland, etc. are
17
available at: www.rundsteuerung.de

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 89

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 They are designed similar to filter circuits, but their reso-

nance frequency is below the harmonic of the 5th order.
Thus, the capacitor unit becomes inductive for all harmon-
2 ics present in the converter current and resonance points
can no longer be excited. Choked capacitors and reactive Measured value
power control units are to be used according to the same acquisition

3 criteria; they are to be selected like normal capacitors and

control units. For the choking, the tuning frequency deter-
mines the choking rate and thus the relation between

TIP04_13_029_EN
4 choke reactance XL and capacitor reactance XC at system
frequency. M
XL

XC
1
5 fres = fN ·
p
Non-linear
loads
Linear
loads
Thyristor-switched
compensation

Fig. 5/21:  Harmonic current suppression and reactive power

compensation using filter circuits
6 fres
fN
Resonance frequency in Hz
Line frequency in Hz
p Choking rate of the compensation system in
percent, with p = XL / XC
7
By selecting the appropriate choking rate p, the resonance
frequency can be forced down below the audio frequency
8 AF, for example

AF > 160 Hz: p = 14 % Reactive power Q

9

TIP04_13_030_EN
AF > 250 Hz: p = 7 %

10 AF > 350 Hz: p = 5.67 %

Thyristor-switched compensation (Fig. 5/21) is a special Suppression ∑Ih

variant of choked compensation. With the electronic
11 switching using a thyristor bridge and quick measured
value acquisition, switching current loads as occurring with
a power contactor are avoided. This reduces the interfer- h=
12 ences for sensitive consumers in the network. M
Order h = 5 h=7 11.13

Tuned filter circuits (passive filters) Power converter Filter circuits

13 Tuned filter circuits are built from series resonant circuits Fig. 5/22:  Choked capacitors with thyristor control
which consist of capacitors with upstream-connected
reactors. These resonant circuits are tuned in such a way
14 that they form resistors for the individual harmonic currents
which are near zero and thus smaller than the resistors of
the remaining network. Therefore, the harmonic currents
15 originating from power converters are absorbed by the
filter circuits to a large extent. Only a small rest flows into
the higher-level three-phase system so that the voltage is
16 hardly distorted and a negative influence on other power
consumers is ruled out (Fig. 5/22).

17

90 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

As filter circuits always represent a capacitive resistance for 1

the fundamental component of the three-phase system,
they also absorb a capacitive fundamental current besides
the harmonic currents. At the same time, they thus contrib- 2
ute to reactive power compensation of the power convert-
ers and other power consumers installed in the network.

Filter circuits must always be built up from the lowest

3
occurring ordinal number upwards and connected accord-
ingly. Whereas disconnection is effected from the highest
ordinal number to the lowest. They are used for harmonics 4
of the 5th, 7th, as well as the 11th and 13th order (mostly
in one common absorption circuit). In many cases, filter
circuits for the harmonic of the 5th order only are sufficient. 5
The filter circuits are dimensioned in relation to:
• The harmonic currents of the power consumers
• The harmonic content of the higher-level network voltage
6
• The short-circuit reactance at the point of connection

Please note that filter circuit systems or choked compensa- 7

tion systems must not be operated with non-choked com-
pensation systems in parallel on the same busbar. Other-
wise, unwanted parallel resonances could occur. 8
Active filters

If there are high demands on the power quality or if the

9
harmonics vary considerably with regard to amplitude and
frequency, active filters should be used. For that, self-­
commutated, high-frequency switching power converters 10
are used, mostly with insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs), which can replicate virtually every current or
voltage curve. By constantly feeding in the “negative” 11
(i.e., phase-shifted by 180 °) harmonic range, the network
is impressed an almost sinusoidal waveform.

Attention: Filters must not be installed in the PEN

12
conductor of installation systems.

When the active filter is connected in parallel, a current

13
spectrum that is phased inversely to the harmonic currents
is generated and added to the consumer current, resulting
in an almost sinusoidal line current. Accordingly, with a 14
series connection, the voltage quality for sensitive consum-
ers that are to be protected is improved.
15
Active filters can very well compensate low-frequency
harmonics, for example, harmonics of the 5th, 7th, 11th,
and 13th order, but due to the switching pulse of the
power electronic devices in the kHz range, no harmonics of
16
the 50th order (which corresponds to 2,5 kHz) and higher.

For further information on the dimensioning of compensa- 17

tion systems and filters, please visit: www.modl.de

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 91

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 5.5 Protection Against Lightning protection zone(s) (LPZ) (see Fig. 5/23). For each LPZ, the
Current and Overvoltage geometrical borders, relevant characteristics, lightning
threat data, and kinds of damage to be considered are
2 Overvoltages considerably damage electric and electronic defined. Starting from the unprotected state of the prop-
appliances. This includes even small voltage peaks on the erty, the assumed risk is reduced by taking (further)
supply line. This can be seen from the damage caused to ­protective measures until only an acceptable residual risk
3 lines, circuit boards, or switchgear. Such damage can be
prevented with suitable protective measures against surge
remains. The standard considers not only protective meas-
ures for installations with the persons, electrical and elec-
currents and overvoltages. tronic systems located therein, but also for supply lines.

4 Overvoltages are caused by lightning discharge (LEMP – The protection zones are defined as follows:
lightning electromagnetic pulse), switching operations
(SEMP – switching electromagnetic pulse), and electrostatic Zone 0 (LPZ 0)
5 discharge (ESD). They occur in a fraction of a second only.
Therefore, they are also called transient voltages or tran- Outside the building, direct lightning impact:
sients (from the Latin transire = pass). They have very short –– No protection against lightning strike (LEMP)
6 rise times of a few microseconds (μs) before they drop
again relatively slowly over a period of up to several 100 μs.
–– LPZ 0A: endangered by lightning strikes
–– LPZ 0B: protected against lightning strikes

7 The risk management described in IEC 62305-2

(VDE 0185‑305-2) is preceded by a risk analysis in order to
Zone 1 (LPZ 1)

establish the necessity of lightning protection first and then Inside the building, high-energy transients caused by:
define the technically and economically optimal protective –– Switching operations (SEMP)
8 measures described in IEC 62305-3 (VDE 0185-305-3) and –– Lightning currents
IEC 62305-4 (VDE 0185-305-4). To this end, the property to
be protected is subdivided into a (or several) lightning
9

10
LPZ 0 A

11 LEMP
LPZ 0 B M

12 LPZ 1
LEMP
Room shield
Venti-
lation LPZ 2 Terminal
13 LPZ 3
LEMP

LPZ 2
LPZ 0 B LPZ 0 B
14 IT
network
SEMP

15 Equipotential bonding as lightning

protection, lightning current arrester
Power Local equipotential bonding,
system surge arrester
16
TIP04_13_031_EN

LEMP = lightning electromagnetic pulse

SEMP = switching electromagnetic pulse
LPZ = lightning protection zone

17
Fig. 5/23:  Lightning protection zone concept

92 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Zone 2 (LPZ 2) following overvoltage categories in accordance with 1

Inside the building, low-energy transients caused by: IEC 60664-1 (VDE 0101-1) (see Tab. 5/15).
–– Switching operations (SEMP)
–– Electrostatic discharge (ESD) Overvoltage category IV: Equipment for the use at the 2
connecting point of the installation.
–– An LPZ 2 which is larger than 5 m × 5 m must be
subdivided
Example: Equipment such as electricity meters and primary
overcurrent protection modules.
3
Zone 3 (LPZ 3)
Inside the building:
–– No generation of transient currents or voltages beyond
Overvoltage category III: Equipment in stationary installa-
tions and for such cases in which special demands are 4
the interference limit made on the reliability and availability of the equipment.
–– Protection and separate installation of circuits that
could interact
Example: Equipment such as switches in stationary instal- 5
lations and equipment for industrial use with permanent
–– An LPZ 3 which is larger than 5 m × 5 m must be connection to the stationary installation.
subdivided
In accordance with the IEC 62305-4 (VDE 0185-305-4),
6
for a lightning strike it is usually to be assumed that about
50 % of the lightning current is discharged into earth via
the external lightning protection system (lightning current Direct lightning 7
strike into the
arrester). Up to 50 % of the remaining lightning current building structure
flow into the building via electrically conductive systems
such as the main equipotential bonding conductor (see LPS (lightning
protection system)
8
Fig. 5/24). Therefore, it is always necessary to install an
100 %
­internal lightning protection system in addition to any
existing external lightning protection system.
HV Transformer LV cable
50 %
9
Current splitting, insulating interfaces, and / or surge pro-
50 %
tection devices (SPD) can limit surge currents in the internal
10

TIP04_13_032_EN
lightning protection. The electromagnetic field of lightning
can be dampened by way of spatial shielding. The impulse Earthing system of Earthing system
withstand voltage of the insulating interfaces and the the transformer of the struck
protection level of the SPDs must be coordinated with the building structure 11
Fig. 5/24:  Current splitting for a balanced lightning protection
system

12
Nominal voltage of the power Voltage from conductor to neutral Rated surge voltage
supply system (network) in conductor derived from the rated AC
acc. with IEC 60038
(VDE 0175-1)
or DC voltage up to and including the 13
Overvoltage category

Three-phase Single-phase I II III IV 14

in V in V in V in V in V in V in V
50 330 500 800 1,500
100 500 800 1,500 2,500 15
120 – 240 150 800 1,500 2,500 4,000
230 / 400
277 / 480
300 1,500 2,500 4,000 6,000
16
400 / 690 600 2,500 4,000 6,000 8,000
1,000 1,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 12,000
17
Tab. 5/15:  Overvoltage categories and rated surge voltages in acc. with IEC 60664-1 (VDE 0101-1)

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 93

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Overvoltage category II: Energy-consuming equipment bound overvoltage induction is no longer possible. Within
supplied by the stationary installation. the scope of an efficient and comprehensive protection
concept against overvoltages, the power supply has to be
2 Example: Equipment such as household appliances, porta- considered in the first step. The high-energy overvoltages
ble tools, etc. and similar devices. and surge currents occurring in this area cause flashovers
over clearances in air and creepage distances as well as to
3 Overvoltage category I: Equipment for the connection to
circuits in which measures have been taken for a limitation
earth due to the insulation of live parts and cables. Af-
fected by this is the entire electrical equipment, from the
of the transient overvoltages to a suitable low value. central building supply through to the power consumer.

4 Example: Equipment with electronic circuits and a corre- The measures required to protect the power supply
spondingly low protection level. of ­systems and devices depends on the results of the
hazard analysis. Three protection stages are defined
5 The term “effective protective circuit” describes a seamless (see Tab. 5/16) on which an effective protection concept is
measure for protection against overvoltages. The first step based. The SPDs for the individual stages basically differ in
in the development of such a protection concept is the the magnitude of the discharge capacity (surge current
6 acquisition of all devices and system areas in need of
protection. This is followed by the assessment of the re-
carrying capacity) and the protection level (maximum
remaining instantaneous value of the overvoltage)
quired protection levels of the acquired devices. Generally, ­depending on the relevant protection stage.

7 the different circuit types are differentiated into the follow-

ing fields: For a three-stage concept in which all SPDs are installed at
• Power supply different locations, a setup as shown in Fig. 5/25 Part I
• Instrumentation and control (I&C) results.
8 • Data processing and telecommunication (transmit-
ters / receivers) Moreover, there are three-stage protection concepts
with SPD combinations (Fig. 5/25 Part II) in which stage
9 The system or device to be protected has to be figured
within a protected area. At all points of intersection “line
1 and 2 are combined in one device, and a two-stage
concept (Fig. 5/25 Part III) which can be used in the case of
– protective circuit”, SPDs are to be installed which corre- a low hazard potential and after conscientious examination

10 spond to the rated data of the relevant circuit or interface

of the device to be protected. Thus, the area within the
and assessment of the hazard potential. After conscientious
examination and assessment of the hazard potential for the
protective circuit is protected in such a way that cable-­ property, the installation of a lightning current arrester of
type 1 may be refrained from.
11

12

13

14
Protection stage Designation SPD type Protection level Usual installation location

15 1 Lightning current arrester 1 4 kV Main distribution

2 Surge arrester 2 2.5 kV Sub-distribution board

3 Device protection 3 1.5 kV before the connected device
16 Tab. 5/16:  Protection stages for a three-stage overvoltage protection concept

17

94 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
I)
2

5
type 1 type 2 type 3

6
II)
7

10

11
type 1+2 type 3

III) 12

13

14

15
TIP04_13_033_EN

type 2 type 3
16

Fig. 5/25:  Three protection stages with different  back to page 94 17

installation locations in the power supply

Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply 95

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

96 Totally Integrated Power – Quality of Supply

Chapter 6­
Dimensioning of Power Distribution
Systems
6.1 Circuit Types and Basic Rules 99
6.2 Power System Protection and
Safety Coordination 102
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 6 Dimensioning of Power Distribution

duction
Systems
1 When the basic supply concept for the electricity supply protective device, may have effects on the neighbouring,
system has been established, it is necessary to dimension higher-level, or all lower-level network sections (high
the electrical power system. Dimensioning is the rating testing expense, high planning risk).
2 of all the equipment and components that are to be used
within the electrical network. The dimensioning target Dimensioning principles
is to obtain a technically permissible combination of
3 switching / protective devices and connecting lines for
each circuit in the power system.
For each circuit, the dimensioning process comprises the
selection of one, or more than one switching / protective
device(s) to be used at the beginning or end of a connect-

4 Basic rules ing line, as well as the selection of the connecting line itself
(cable / line or busbar connection) under consideration of
On principle, circuit dimensioning shall be performed the technical features of the corresponding switching / pro-
in compliance with the technical rules / standards listed in tective devices. For supply circuits in particular, dimension-
5 Fig. 6/1. Details will be explained below. ing also includes rating the power sources.

Cross-circuit dimensioning Depending on the circuit type, there may be different focal
6 When selected network components and systems are
points of dimensioning, as demonstrated below. The
dimensioning target of overload and short-circuit protec-
matched, an economically efficient overall system can be tion can be attained in correlation to the mounting location

7 designed. This cross-circuit matching of network compo-

nents may bear any degree of complexity, as subsequent
of the protective equipment. For example, devices mounted
at the end of a connecting line can, at best, ensure over-
modifications to certain components, e.g. a switch or load protection for this line, not, however, short-circuit
protection!
8

9
Overload protection IEC 60364-4-43 VDE 0100-430
10

11 Short-circuit protection IEC 60364-4-43/ VDE 0100-430/

IEC 60364-5-54 VDE 0100-540

12
Protection against electric shock IEC 60364-4-41 VDE 0100-410
13

14 Voltage drop
IEC 60364-5-52 VDE 0100-520
IEC 60038 VDE 0175-1

15
IEC 60364-7-710 VDE 0100-710
TIP04_13_034_EN

16 Selectivity
IEC 60364-7-718
IEC 60947-2
VDE 0100-718
VDE 0660-101
IEC 60898-1 VDE 0641-11

17
Fig. 6/1:  Standards for dimensioning protective devices and routing in circuits

98 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

6.1 Circuit Types and Basic Rules basis for attaining the best possible selectivity towards all 1
upstream and downstream devices.
The basic dimensioning rules and standards listed in
­section 6.1 principally apply to all circuit types. In addition, Distribution circuit 2
there are specific requirements for these circuit types
(see section 6.2) which will be explained in detail below. Dimensioning of cable routes and devices follows the
maximum load currents to be expected at this distribution
level. As a rule:
3
Supply circuits

Ibmax = Σ installed capacity · simultaneity factor

Particularly high requirements apply to the dimensioning of
supply circuits. This starts with the rating of the power 4
sources. Power sources are rated according to the maxi- Switching / protective device and connecting line are to be
mum load current to be expected for the power system, the matched with regard to overload and short-circuit protec-
desired amount of reserve power, and the degree of supply tion. In order to ensure overload protection, you must also 5
reliability required in case of a fault (overload / short circuit). observe the standardised conventional (non-)tripping
currents referring to the device applied. A verification based
Load conditions in the entire power system are established
by taking the energy balance. Reserve power and opera-
merely on the rated device current or the setting value Ir is
not sufficient.
6
tional safety in the vicinity of the supply system are usually
established by building up appropriate redundancies, for
example by
The following basic rules must be observed to ensure
overload protection: 7
• Providing additional power sources (transformer, genera-
tor, UPS) Rated current rule
• Rating the power sources according to the failure princi- 8
ple, n- or (n-1) redundancy: applying the (n–1) principle Non-adjustable protective equipment
means that two out of three supply units are principally
capable of continually supplying the total load for the
power system without any trouble if one power source
IB ≤ In ≤ Iz 9
fails (also see chapter 5) The nominal current In of the selected device must be in
• Rating those power sources that can temporarily be
operated under overload (for example using vented
between the established maximum load current IB and the
maximum permissible load current Iz of the selected trans- 10
transformers) mission medium (cable or busbar trunking system).

Independent of the load currents established, dimension- Adjustable protective equipment 11

ing of any further component in a supply circuit is oriented
to the ratings of the power sources, the system operating IB ≤ Ir ≤ Iz
modes configured and all the related switching states in
the vicinity of the supply system. The setting value of the overload tripping unit Ir of the
12
selected device must be in between the established maxi-
As a rule, switching / protective devices must be selected in
such a way that the planned power maximum can be
mum load current IB and the maximum permissible load
current Iz of the selected transmission medium.
13
transferred. In addition, the different minimum / maximum
short-circuit current conditions in the vicinity of the supply Tripping current rule
system, which are dependent on the switching status, must 14
be determined. When connecting lines are rated (cable or I2 ≤ 1.45 · Iz
busbar trunking system), appropriate reduction factors
must be taken into account, which depend on the number
of systems laid in parallel and the installation type.
The maximum permissible load current Iz of the selected
transmission medium must be above the high test current
15
I2 / 1.45 of the selected device. The high test current I2 is
When devices are rated, special attention should be paid to
their rated short-circuit breaking capacity. You should also
standardised and varies according to type and characteris-
tics of the protective equipment applied.
16
opt for a suitable switch (air circuit-breaker or mould-
ed-case circuit-breaker) with a high-quality tripping unit The following basic rules must be observed to ensure
and variable settings, as this component is an important short-circuit protection: 17

Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 99

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Short-circuit energy Short-circuit time

K2S2 ≥ I2t ta (Ikmin) ≤ 5 s

2
(K = material coefficient; S = cross section) The resulting current breaking time of the selected protec-
tive equipment must ensure that the calculated minimum
3 The amount of energy that is set free from the moment
when a short circuit occurs, until it is cleared automatically,
short-circuit current Ikmin at the end of the transmission line
or protected line is automatically cleared within 5 s at the
must at any time be less than the energy which the trans- latest. Overload and short-circuit protection needn’t neces-

4 mission medium can carry as a maximum before irrepaira-

ble damage is caused. According to IEC 60364-4-43
sarily be provided by one and the same device. If required,
these two protection targets may be accomplished by a
(VDE 0100-430) this basic rule is valid up to a time range of device combination. The use of separate switching / protec-
max. 5 s. Below a short-circuit clearing time of 100 ms, the tive devices could also be considered, i.e. at the start and
5 let-through energy of the protective device must be fac- end of a cable route. As a rule, devices applied at the end of
tored in (see device manufacturer data). a cable route can ensure overload protection for this line
only.
6 When devices with a tripping unit are used, observance of
this rule across the entire characteristic device curve must Final circuits
be verified. A mere verification in the range of the maxi-

7 mum short-circuit current applied (Ikmax) is not always suffi-

cient, in particular, when time-delayed releases are used.
The method for coordinating overload and short-circuit
protection is practically identical for distribution and final
circuits. Besides overload and short-circuit protection, the
protection of human life is also important for all circuits.
8

9
Protection against electric shock

10

11 Disconnection Signalling

12
TN system TT system IT system IT system

13
Overcurrent Overcurrent Insulation Insulation
14 protection devices protection devices monitoring devices monitoring
devices
Residual-current Residual-current Overcurrent
devices (RCD) devices (RCD) protection devices
15 In special cases: Residual-current
fault-voltage-operated devices (RCD)
protective devices
TIP04_13_035_EN

16 In special cases:
fault-voltage-operated
protective devices

17
Fig. 6/2:  Dependency of personal protection on power supply systems back to page 101

100 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Permissible voltage drop An important aspect in this context is the cross-circuit 1

manipulation of dimensioned components owing to their
For cable dimensioning, the maximum permissible voltage technical data, for example, the above mentioned inher-
drop must be factored in. This means that the chain: itance of minimum current breaking times of the non-­ 2
voltage drop – cable diameter – bending radiuses – space stationary load circuit to other stationary load or distribu-
requirements also influences the room size and costs to be tion circuits.
taken into account for planning.
Another aspect is the mutual impact of dimensioning and
3
Protection against electric shock network calculation (short circuit), for example when using

ta (Ik1 min) ≤ ta perm.

short-circuit current limiting devices. Complexity is further
increased by country-specific standards, regulations, and 4
different installation practices applying to the two dimen-
If a 1-phase fault to earth (Ik1 min) occurs, the resulting sioning areas. For reasons of risk minimisation and time
current breaking time ta for the selected protective equip- efficiency, a number of engineering companies generally 5
ment must be shorter than the maximum permissible use advanced calculation software, such as SIMARIS design,
breaking time ta perm. which is required for this circuit to perform dimensioning and verification processes in
according to IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410) to ensure the
protection of persons. As the required maximum current
electrical power systems. 6
breaking time varies according to the nominal line voltage
and the type of load connected (stationary and non-­
stationary loads), protection requirements regarding mini- 7
mum breaking times ta perm. may be transferred from one
load circuit to other circuits. Alternatively, this protection
target may also be achieved by observing a maximum 8
touch voltage. Depending on the power supply system, the
defined protection must be built up as shown in Fig. 6/2.

As final circuits are often characterized by long supply lines,

9
their dimensioning is often greatly influenced by the maxi-
mum permissible voltage drop. As far as the choice of
switching / protective devices is concerned, it is important 10
to bear in mind that long connecting lines are characterized
by high impedances and thus strong attenuation of the
calculated short-circuit currents. 11
Depending on the system operating mode (coupling open,
coupling closed) and the medium of supply (transformer or
generator), the protective equipment and its settings must
12
be configured for the worst case concerning short-circuit
currents. In contrast to supply or distribution circuits where
a high emphasis is placed on the selection of a high-quality
13
tripping unit, final circuits are satisfied with a tripping unit
in LI characteristic for overload and instantaneous short-­
circuit protection (see section 6.2.2). 14
Summary

Basically, the dimensioning process itself is easy to under-

15
stand and can be performed using simple means. Its com-
plexity lies in the procurement of the technical data on
products and systems, which can be found in various
16
technical standards and regulations on the one hand and
numerous product catalogues on the other.
17

Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 101

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 6.2 Power System Protection and

Safety Coordination
2 The objective of power system protection is to detect faults Selectivity
and to selectively isolate faulted parts of the system. It
must also permit short clearance times to limit the fault Selectivity is increasingly called for as standard in invita-
3 power and the effect of arcing faults. tions to tender. Often this characterizes a requirement
placed on two or more overcurrent protection devices
High power density, high individual power outputs, and the which is defined as overcurrent selectivity in the

4 relatively short distances in industrial and building power

systems mean that low-voltage and medium-voltage
IEC 60947-1 (VDE 0660-100) standard. Due to the com-
plexity of this issue, information about the proper selection
networks are closely linked. Activities and processes in the and application of these "selective" protective devices is
LV network (short circuits, starting currents) also have an often insufficient. These requirements as well as the effects
5 effect on the MV network, and vice versa, the control state of full or partial selectivity in power distribution systems
of the MV network affects the selectivity criteria in the within the context of the relevant standard, industry,
secondary power system. It is, therefore, necessary to country, network configuration or type of connection to
6 adjust the power system and its protection throughout the
entire distribution system and to coordinate the protective
earth should be clarified in advance with the network
planners, installation companies, and power system opera-
functions. tors involved. The system interconnection together with

7 the five rules of circuit dimensioning must also be taken

into account (see Fig. 6/1).
6.2.1 Terminology
Electrical installations in a power system are protected Full selectivity is achieved with two series-connected
8 either by protection equipment allocated to the installation protective devices if, when a fault occurs after the down-
components or by combinations of these protective ele- stream protection device, only the downstream device
ments. disconnects from supply. A distinction is made between
9 two types of selectivity:
• Type-tested in accordance with IEC 60947-2
Standby protection
(VDE 660‑101): Overcurrent discrimination of two

10 When a protective device fails, the higher-level device must

take over this protective function.
series-connected overcurrent protection devices, where
the load-side protective device takes over the full protec-
tion task up to a defined overcurrent level without the
Back-up protection other protective device being active
11 • Full selectivity acc. to IEC 60947-2 (VDE 660-101): Over-
If a short circuit, which is higher than the rated switching current discrimination of two series-connected overcur-
capacity of the protective device used, occurs at a particular rent protection devices, where the load-side protective
12 point in the system, back-up protection must provide
protection for the downstream installation component and
device takes over the full protection task without the
other protective device being active
for the protection device by means of an upstream protec-
13 tive device. Note: Full selectivity always refers to the maximum fault
current Ikmax at the mounting location.
Rated short-circuit breaking capacity

14 The rated short-circuit breaking capacity is the maximum

value of the short-circuit current which the protective
device can properly break. The protective device may be
15 used in power systems for rated switching capacities up to
this value.

16

17

102 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

6.2.2 Main Characteristics of the Protective 1

Equipment

In the context of power system protection, we will first

t
definite-time-delayed 2
briefly describe the protective equipment. In section 6.2.3
we will go into details of the selection criteria.
3
Medium-voltage protection equipment
inverse-
Tripping on
time-
• HV HRC fuses (IEC 60282-1; VDE 0670-4)
Current-limiting HV HRC fuses can only be used for
delayed
short circuit
4
short-circuit protection. They do not provide overload
protection. A minimum short-circuit current is, therefore,
required for correct operation. HV HRC fuses restrict the HV HRC fuse Medium-voltage circuit-breaker
with overcurrent-time protection
5

TIP04_13_036_EN
peak short-circuit current. The protective characteristic is
determined by the selected rated current (Fig. 6/3) I
• Medium-voltage circuit-breakers (IEC 62271-100;
VDE 0671-100)
Adjustable characteristic
curves or setting ranges 6
Circuit-breakers can provide time-overcurrent protection
Fig. 6/3:  Protective characteristic of HV HRC fuse and MV
(definite-time and inverse), time-overcurrent protection
with additional directional function, or differential protec-
overcurrent-time protection 7
tion. So far, distance protection has rarely been used in
infrastructure and industrial grids owing to their low
spatial extension
inverse-time delay
8
• Secondary relays
Secondary relays whose characteristic curves are also t
determined by the actual current transformation ratio are
used as protective devices in medium-voltage grids. Static
I 2 t = constant
I 4 t = constant
9
digital protection devices are increasingly preferred
definite-time-delay

Low-voltage protection equipment I 2 t = constant

10
• LV HRC fuses (IEC 60269-2; VDE 0636-2)
Low-voltage high-rupturing-capacity (LV HRC) fuses have
instantaneous
11
a high breaking capacity. They fuse quickly to restrict the
short-circuit current to the utmost degree. The protective
characteristic is determined by the selected utilisation
category of the LV HRC fuse (for example full-range fuse
LV HRC fuse LV circuit-breaker with releases TIP04_13_037_EN
12
I
for overload and short-circuit protection, or back-up fuse Adjustable characteristic
for short-circuit protection only) and the rated current
(Fig. 6/4)
curves or setting ranges
13
• Low-voltage circuit breakers (IEC 60947-2; Fig. 6/4:  Protective characteristic of LV HRC fuse and LV circuit-
VDE 0660‑101) breaker with releases
circuit-breakers for power distribution systems are basi- 14
cally distinguished as follows:
–– Communication capability (capability to transmit data
–– Type design (open or compact design)
–– Mounting type (fixed mounting, plug-in, withdrawable)
to and from the breaker)
–– Utilisation category (A or B, see IEC 60947-2;
15
–– Rated current (maximum nominal current of the VDE 0660-101)
breaker)
–– Current limiting (either current-limiting = MCCB: 16
moulded-case circuit-breaker, or not current-limiting =
ACB: air circuit-breaker)
–– Protective functions (see releases) 17

Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 103

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Releases / protective functions Protective characteristics

The protective function of the circuit-breaker in the power The protective characteristic curve is determined by the
2 distribution system is determined by the selection of the rated circuit-breaker current as well as the setting and the
appropriate release (see Fig. 6/5). Releases can be divided operating values of the releases.
into thermo-magnetic tripping units (TMTU, previously also • Miniature circuit breaker in accordance with IEC 60898-1
3 called electromechanical releases) and electronic tripping
units (ETU).
(VDE 0641-11)
Miniature circuit-breakers (MCBs) can be distinguished by
• Overload protection their method of operation:

4 Designation: L (LT: long-time delay), previously a-release

Depending on the type of release, inverse-time-delay
–– High current-limiting or
–– Low current-limiting capacity
overload releases are also available with optional charac-
teristic curves Their protective functions are determined by electrome-
5 • Neutral conductor protection chanical releases:
Inverse-time-delay overload releases for neutral conduc- –– Overload protection by means of inverse-time-delayed
tors are available in a 50 % or 100 % ratio of the overload overload releases, for example bimetallic releases
6 release
• Short-circuit protection, instantaneous
–– Short-circuit protection by means of instantaneous
overload releases, for example solenoid releases
Designation: I (INST: instantaneous), previously n-release

7 Depending on the application, I-releases can either be

used with a fixed or an adjustable release current Ii as
• Low-voltage protection device combinations
With series-connected distribution boards, it is possible to
well as with a switch-off or non-switch-off function arrange the following protective devices in series relative
• Short-circuit protection, delayed to the direction of power flow:
8 Designation: S (ST: short-time delay), previously z-release –– Fuse with downstream fuse
To be used for a time adjustment of protective functions –– Circuit-breaker with downstream miniature circuit-
in series. Besides the standard curves and settings, there breaker
9 are also optional functions for special applications
–– Definite-time overcurrent releases
–– Circuit-breaker with downstream fuse
–– Fuse with downstream circuit-breaker
For this “standard S function”, the desired delay time
–– Fuse with downstream miniature circuit-breaker
10 (tsd) is defined as of a set current value (threshold Isd)
(definite time, similar to the function of “definite-time –– Several parallel supply systems (with or without
overcurrent-time protection (DMT)” at the medium- coupler units) with downstream circuit-breaker or
voltage level) downstream fuse
11 –– Inverse-time overcurrent releases Current selectivity must be verified in the case of meshed LV
In this optional S function, the product of I2t is always networks. The high- and low-voltage protection for the
constant. In general, this function is used to improve transformers feeding power to the LV network must be
12 the selectivity response (inverse time, similar to the
function of “inverse-time overcurrent-time protection”
harmonized and matched to ensure protection of the sec-
ondary power system. Appropriate checks must be carried
at the medium-voltage level out to determine the effects on the primary MV network.
13 • Earth-fault protection
Designation: G (GF: ground fault), previously g-release In MV systems, HV HRC fuses are normally installed up-
Besides the standard function (definite-time) an optional stream of the transformers in the LV feeding system only.
function (I2t = current-dependent delay) is also available With the upstream circuit-breakers, only time-overcurrent
14 • Fault-current protection protection devices with different characteristics are usually
Designation: RCD (residual current device), previously connected in series. Differential protection does not or only
also DI (differential current interrupter) to detect differen- slightly affects the grading of the other protection devices.
15 tial fault currents up to 3 A, similar to the FI function for
personal protection (max. 500 mA) If dimensioning tools such as SIMARIS design are used for
network design, the current-time diagrams of the switches
16 In addition to this, electronic tripping units offer more
tripping criteria which are not feasible with electromechan-
can be visualized graphically on the PC screen. In addition,
the release characteristics of circuit-breakers can be interac-
ical releases. tively adjusted in SIMARIS design. These changes are
immediately shown in the diagram.
17

104 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Overcurrent release ”L“
L
IrN Standard I2t

1,000
Ir optional I4t 2
S
Short-time delayed
tr
short-circuit release ”S“
100 Standard tsd 3
optional I2t
Instantaneous
I
10
Ig
short-circuit release ”I“
Standard On
4
Isd optional Off
1
N
Neutral conductor protection ”N“
Standard 0,5 –1 • Ir
5
0.1 tg optional Off
tsd
Ii G
Earth-fault release
6

TIP04_13_038_EN
Standard tE
0.01 optional I2t

7
0.5 1 5 10 50 100

8
Fig. 6/5:  Variants of tripping curves back to page 104

6.2.3 Selectivity Criteria release must be less than the lowest short-circuit current
9
• In addition to primary criteria of use such as rated current at the end of the line to be protected. Only this setting of
and rated switching capacity, selectivity is another impor-
tant criterion for optimum supply reliability. The selective
Isd or Ii guarantees that the overcurrent release can fulfil
its operator and system protection functions 10
operation of series-connected protection devices is deter-
mined by the following criteria: Attention: When using these settings, permissible setting
• Time difference for clearance (time grading) only tolerances of ± 20 %, or the tolerance specifications given by 11
• Current difference for operating values (current grading) the manufacturer must be observed!
only
• Combination of time and current grading (inverse-time
grading)
Generally it is required:
Isd or Ii ≤ Ik min –20 %
12
• The requirement that defined tripping conditions be
Direction (directional protection), impedance (distance
protection), and current difference (differential protection)
observed determines the maximum conductor lengths or
their cross sections
13
are also used. • Selective current grading can only be attained if the
short-circuit currents are known
Requirements for selective response of • In addition to current grading, partial selectivity can be 14
protective devices achieved using combinations of carefully matched protec-
tive devices
Protective devices can only act selectively if both the high-
est (Ik max) and the lowest (Ik min) short-circuit currents for
• In principle, the highest short-circuit current can be both
the three-phase and the single-phase short-circuit current
15
the relevant system points are known at the project config- • When feeding into LV networks, the single-phase fault
uration stage. As a result:
• The highest short-circuit current determines the required
current will be greater than the three-phase fault current
if transformers with the Dy connection are used
16
rated short-circuit switching capacity of the cir- • The single-phase short-circuit current will be the lowest
cuit-breaker. Criterion: Icu respectively Ics > Ik max fault current if the damping zero phase-sequence imped-
• The lowest short-circuit current is important for setting ance of the LV cable is active 17
the short-circuit release; the operating value of this

Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 105

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Since the selectivity response of protection and switching Significant tripping times
devices made by different manufacturers is not known,
products supplied by one manufacturer only should be For the sake of clarity, only the delay time tsd is plotted for
2 installed throughout if the planning criterion of "selectivity" circuit-breakers with definite-time-delay overcurrent re-
is to be fulfilled. With large installations, it is advisable to leases (S), and only the opening time to for circuit-breakers
determine all short-circuit currents using a special com- with instantaneous overcurrent releases (I).
3 puter program. Here, our SIMARIS design dimensioning and
calculation software comes as the optimum solution. Grading principle

4 Grading the operating currents with time grading Delay times and operating currents are graded in the
opposite direction to the flow of power, starting with the
Time grading also includes grading the operating currents. final circuit.
This means that the operating value of the overcurrent • Without fuses, for the load breaker with the highest
5 release belonging to the upstream circuit-breaker must current setting of the overcurrent release
generally be set with a factor of 1.5 higher than that of the • With fuses, for the fused outgoing circuit from the busbar
downstream circuit-breaker. Tolerances of operating cur- with the highest rated fuse-link current
6 rents in definite-time-delay overcurrent S-releases (±20 %)
are thus compensated. When the manufacturer specifies Circuit-breakers are used in preference to fuses in cases
narrower tolerances, this factor is reduced accordingly. where fuse links with high rated currents do not provide

7 Plotting the tripping characteristics of the graded protective

selectivity vis-à-vis the definite-time-delay overcurrent
release (S) of the transformer feeder circuit-breaker, or only
devices together with their tolerance bands and breaker with very long delay times (tsd = 400 to 500 ms). Further-
time to contact separation values in a grading diagram will more, circuit-breakers are used where high system availa-
8 help to verify and visualize selectivity. bility is required as they help to clear faults faster and the
circuit-breakers’ releases are not subject to ageing.
6.2.4 Preparing Current-Time Diagrams
9 (Grading Diagrams)
When characteristic tripping curves are entered on log-log

10 graph paper, the following must be observed:

• To ensure positive selectivity, the tripping curves must
neither cross nor touch
• With electronic inverse-time-delay (long-time delay)
11 overcurrent releases (L), there is only one tripping curve,
Q1 Q2 Ikmin Ikmax
as it is not affected by pre-loading. The selected charac- 120
teristic curve must, therefore, be suitable for the motor or 100 TIP04_13_039_EN
40
12 transformer at operating temperature
• With mechanical (thermal) inverse-time-delay overload
t 20
min 10
L (cold)
4
releases (L), the characteristic curves shown in the manu- 2

13 facturer catalogue apply to cold releases. The opening 1

times are reduced by up to 25 % at normal operating 20

s 10
temperatures 4
2
14 Tolerance range of tripping curves 400
1

200
S
• The tripping curves of circuit-breakers given in the manu- ms
100
t st 150 ms
t sd 180 ms

15 facturer catalogues are usually only average values and 40

20
I
t i < 30 ms
must be extended to include tolerance ranges 10
• With overcurrent releases – instantaneous (I) and 2

16 ­definite-time delayed (S) releases – the tolerance of the

variation areas may be ± 20 % of the current setting
101 2 3 4 6 102 2 3 4 6 103 2 3 4 6 104 2 3 4 6 105
Current I – r.m.s. value (in A)
(according to IEC 60947-2 / VDE 0660 Part 101)

17 Fig. 6/6:  Example of a grading diagram with  back to page 107

tripping curves of two circuit-breakers Q1 and Q2

106 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In the case of selectivity involving two or more voltage Medium-voltage time grading 1
levels (for example for transformer protection), all currents
and tripping curves on the high-voltage side are converted Tripping command and grading time
and referred to the low-voltage side on the basis of the 2
transformer’s transformation ratio. When determining the grading time tst, it must be kept in
mind for the medium-voltage level that the set time elapses
Tools for preparing grading diagrams after the protective device was energized, before this
device issues the trigger command to the shunt or under-
3
• Standard forms with paired current values for commonly voltage release of the circuit-breaker (command time tk).
used voltages, for example for 20 / 0.4 kV, 10 / 0.4 kV,
13.8 / 0.4  kV
The release causes the circuit-breaker to open. The
short-circuit current is interrupted when the arc has been 4
• Templates for plotting the tripping characteristics extinguished. Only then does the protection system revert
to the normal (rest) position (release time) (Fig. 6/7).
Fig. 6/6 shows a typical grading diagram, which could also 5
be drawn manually, with the tripping curves of two se- The grading time tst between successive protection devices
ries-connected circuit-breakers that considers tolerances. must be greater than the sum of the total clearance time tg
When the SIMARIS design planning software is used, a
manual preparation of grading diagrams is no longer
of the breaker and the release time of the protection sys-
tem. Since response time tolerances, which depend on a
6
necessary. number of factors, have to be expected for the protective
devices (including circuit-breakers), a safety margin is
incorporated in the grading time. Whereas grading times of 7
less than 400 to 300 ms are not possible with protective
devices with mechanical releases, electronic releases have
grading times of 300 ms, and digital releases used with 8
modern vacuum circuit-breakers even provide grading
times of only 250 to 200 ms.
9

10
Current I

Short-circuit
Protection
Time setting of the overlaid protection
11
current Grading time tst
time setting
Command time tk
12
Operating
current
Variation time Variation time Variation time
of protection of circuit-breaker of protection
13
Load current

14
Current-breaking
time
Release
time
Safety
margin 15
TIP04_13_040_EN

of circuit-breaker

Total current-breaking
16
time tg of circuit-breaker

Fig. 6/7:  Time grading in medium-voltage switchgear 17

Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 107

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Low-voltage time grading Back-up protection

Grading and delay times In Germany, circuit-breakers must have back-up fuses with
2 a maximum current rating of 100 A to protect them against
Only the grading time tst and delay time tsd are relevant for damage by short-circuit currents. This is laid down in the
time grading between several series-connected cir- Technical Supply Conditions (TAB, German: Technische
3 cuit-breakers or in conjunction with LV HRC fuses (Fig. 6/8).
The grading time tsd2 of breaker Q2 can roughly be equal-
Anschlussbedingungen) of the distribution system opera-
tor. According to standards (IEC, VDE), it is also permitted
ized to the grading time tst2 and the delay time tsd3 of that a switching device be protected by one of the up-

4 breaker Q3 is received from the sum of grading times tst2 +

tst3. The resulting inaccuracies are corrected by the calcu-
stream protective devices with an adequate rated short-­
circuit switching capacity if both the branch circuit and the
lated safety margins, which are added to the grading times. downstream protective device are also protected.

5 Proven grading times tst

Series-connected circuit-breakers: Those so-called “proven

6 grading times” are guiding values. Precise information must
be obtained from the device manufacturer.
• Grading between two circuit-breakers with electronic

7 overcurrent releases should be about 70-80 ms

• Grading between two circuit-breakers with different
release types (ETU and TMTU) should be about 100 ms
• For circuit-breakers with ZSI (zone-selective interlocking,
8 i.e. short-time grading control), the grading distance of
the unblocked release has been defined as 50 ms. If the
release is blocked, the breaker trips within the set time tsd
9 Irrespective of the type of S-release (mechanical or elec-
tronic), a grading time of 70 ms to 100 ms is necessary

10 between a circuit-breaker and a downstream LV HRC fuse.

11

12
Q3
tö1 opening time of breaker Q1
L
tsd3 tst2 grading time for breaker Q2
13 S
tsd3 ≈ tst2 + tst3 tst3
tsd2
grading time for breaker Q3
delay time for breaker Q2
tsd3 delay time for breaker Q3
tst3
14 L
Q2
tsd2
L
S
inverse-time delayed, Ir
definite-time delayed, Isd, tsd
S Safety I instantaneous, Ii
tsd2 ≈ tst2
margin

15 Breaker response time

tö1
Q1 Breaker time to contact separation
L
16 I Safety
margin
Breaker arc duration

M Time t TIP04_13_041_EN

17
Fig. 6/8:  Time grading of several series-connected circuit-breakers

108 Totally Integrated Power – Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems

Chapter 7
Protective Devices
for Low-Voltage Distribution
7.1 Circuit-breakers
with Protective Functions 112
7.2 Fuses 116
7.3 Switchgear Assemblies 117
7.4 Miniature Circuit-breaker 129
7.5 Selectivity in Low-Voltage Grids 134
7.6 Protection of Low-Voltage Capacitors 147
7.7 Protection of Distribution Transformers148
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 7 Protective Devices for Low-Voltage

duction
Distribution
1 Overcurrent protection devices must be used to protect Tab. 7/1 and Tab. 7/2 provide an overview of the typical
lines and cables against overheating which may result from protective devices in low-voltage grids. Tab. 7/1 also lists
operational overloads or dead short circuits. The protective the protective devices of the transformer branch circuits in
2 switching devices and safety systems dealt with in this the medium-voltage grid.
chapter are further described in chapter  8 and 11.

3
Protective devices used in  MV Switch-disconnectors, Circuit-­breaker, current
HV HRC fuses transformer, overcurrent
4 protection
LV Circuit-­breakers or Tie breakers Circuit-­breaker
LV HRC fuses

5 Medium-voltage side
I> I> I>
HV HRC
6 HV HRCHV HRC I >> I >> I >>

MV MV MV MV
Transformers with temp. detectors or thermal MV MV
LV
7 protection LV LV LV
LV LV

Low-voltage side with series connection of various Normally Normally

Normally Normally
8 protective devices in radial networks single and
parallel
optionally
NormallyNormally optionally
single and
≤
single and
630 A
optionally
≤ 630 A≤ 630 A
single and
parallel
single and
single and
parallelparallel
parallelparallel operation
operation operation operation
operation
operation

9 LV
HRC
LV LV
HRC HRC

10

11

12
HV HRC or LV HRC fuse
HV HRC or HRC
HV LV HRC fuse
or LV HRC fuse Circuit-breakerCircuit-breaker
Circuit-breaker

13 I>
I >>
Independent overcurrent-time
I>
two-level
I >>
II >
I >> two-level > and
two-level
protection,
Independent overcurrent-time
> and I >>, Independent
at IcurrentIItransformer
>>>,
andat current
protection,
overcurrent-time protection,
transformer
I >>, at current transformer
Withdrawable Withdrawable
circuit-breakercircuit-breaker
Withdrawable circuit-breaker
(with cut-off point)
(with cut-off point) point)
(with cut-off
Reactive-power control unit
Reactive-power control unit
Reactive-power control unit
14
TIP04_13_044_EN

TIP04_13_044_EN

Switch disconnector Contactor Contactor

Contactor
Switch Switch
disconnector
disconnector

15 Overload relayOverload relay relay

Overload

16 Tab. 7/1:  Overview of protection grading schemes for transformer and LV circuits

17

110 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Protective devices Standard Overload protec- Short-circuit pro- Excess tempera- 1

tion tection ture protection
Fuses gG IEC  60269-1 / VDE  0636-1 × × –
Miniature Circuit-­breaker IEC  60898-1 / VDE  0641-11 × × – 2
Circuit-­breakers with overcurrent releases IEC  60947-2 / VDE  0660-101 × × –
Partial range fuses
motor protection aM
IEC  60269-1 / VDE  0636-1 – × –
3
Switchgear assembly consisting of line- IEC  60269-1 / VDE  0636-1 – × –
side fuse in operational class gG or aM
and contactor with overload relay or IEC  60947-4-1 / VDE  0660-102 × – – 4
starter protectorand contactor with IEC  60947-2 / VDE  0660-101 – × –
overload relay IEC  60947-4-1 / VDE  0660-102 × – –
Thermistor motor protection devices IEC  60947-8 / VDE  0660-302 – – × 5
× Protection ensured   – protection not ensured

Tab. 7/2:  Overcurrent protection devices for cables and lines and their protection task  back to page 110
6

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 111

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.1 Circuit-­breakers with Protective

Functions
2 Circuit-­breakers mainly serve for overload and short-circuit Zero-current interrupters / current limiters
protection and belong to the category of low-voltage
switching devices. The standard basis for low-voltage Depending on their method of operation, circuit-­breakers
3 switching devices in general is IEC 60947‑1
(VDE 0660‑100). It lists and describes their characteristic
can be designed as
• Zero-current limiters or
features. • Current limiters

4 In order to increase the degree of protection further, circuit-­ Selective networks can more easily be designed using
breakers can also be equipped with additional releases, for zero-current interrupters than by upstream protective
example for disconnecting upon undervoltage, or with devices, since zero-current interrupters can work with a
5 supplementary modules for detecting fault / residual cur- tripping time delay across a wider current range (time
rents. They are distinguished according to their protection selectivity). With current-limiting circuit-­breakers this range
task as follows: covers only up to 10 to 12 times the nominal current.
6 • Circuit-­breakers for system protection acc. to IEC 60947-2 /
(VDE 0660-101)
Above that energy selectivity must considered. High selec-
tivity values for energy selectivity can only be attained by
• Circuit-­breakers for motor protection acc. to IEC 60947-2 / using high-quality and technically complex tripping mecha-

7 (DIN VDE 0660-101)
• Circuit-­breakers used in motor starters acc. to
nisms. Tab. 7/3 gives an overview of the overcurrent protec-
tion releases for circuit-­breakers.
IEC 60947‑4-1 (VDE 0660-102)
• Miniature circuit-­breakers for cable and line protection With regard to the tripping function of circuit-­breakers two
8 acc. to IEC 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) types, with corresponding current-time characteristics, can
be distinguished:
• Thermal magnetic trip unit, TMTU
9 • Electronic trip unit (ETU) with adjustable I2t or I4t charac-
teristics

10
Protective function Code Delay type of the release Symbols acc. to IEC 60617 / DIN 40713
Schematic symbol or Graphic symbol
11 Overload protection L Inverse time delay (electronic
LT with I2t or I4t or thermal
(long time) curve of the bimetal,
12 see Fig. 7/1)
Selective short-circuit S1) Definite time delay by time
protection (with delay) ST element or I2t-dependent I>
(short time) delayed
13
Earth-fault protection G1) Definite time delay or I2t-
GF dependent delayed I
(ground fault)
14
Short-circuit protection I not delayed
(instantaneous) INST I>
>>
15 (instantaneous)

1)  or 3WL and 3VA- / 3VL circuit-­breakers by Siemens also with zone-selective interlocking (ZSI acc. to IEC / TR 61912-2).
F
In the following sections, combinations of releases will only be referred to by their codes as L-, S-, and I-releases, etc.

16 Tab. 7/3:  Symbols for releases according to protective function

17

112 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
TMTU ETU
2
inverse-time
L delay
t thermal 3
L inverse-time
delay
I2t = constant

I4t = constant
5
inverse-time-
S delay
6
I2t = constant

7
I definite-time I
instantaneous delay instantaneous 8

I
9
Adjustable characteristic curves or setting ranges
TIP04_13_168_EN

10
Fig. 7/1:  Characteristic tripping curves for low-voltage circuit-­breakers

11
Typical characteristic curves of circuit-­breakers with ETU ETU allow the choice between I2t and I4t characteristics.
and TMTU are depicted in Fig. 7/1. The different tripping
functions are described in the following sections.
Possible setting ranges are schematized in Fig. 7/1. 12
Mechanical (thermal), inverse-time-delay overload releases
Thermal magnetic trip units have either fixed or adjustable
settings, whereas the electronic trip units used in Siemens
are not always suitable for networks with a high harmonic
content. Circuit-­breakers with electronic trip units must be
13
circuit-­breakers all have adjustable settings. The overcur- used in such cases.
rent releases can either be integrated in the circuit-­breaker
or supplied as separate modules for retrofitting or replace- 14
ment. For exceptions, please refer to the manufacturers'
specifications.
15
Overload protection with long-time delay (L-) release

In a TMTU, inverse-time-delay overcurrent tripping (long

16
time delay release) for overload protection is performed
according to the thermal bimetal characteristic (Fig. 7/1). In
Siemens circuit-­breakers, the operating values for current IR 17
and time tR can be set. Circuit-­breakers with higher-value

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 113

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • Rated short-circuit making (Icm) and rated short-circuit

breaking capacity(Ics) as well as rated ultimate
short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu)
2 Circuit-breaker
• Rated and maximum load currents
Q2
with I-release
The number of phases and the type of current, AC or DC,
3 and must be indicated for the type of circuit-­breaker. For AC,
the rated frequency and the number of phase conductors
circuit-breaker must be given.
Q1

TIP04_13_047_EN
with LI-release
4 The system voltage and system frequency are crucial
K factors for selecting the circuit-­breakers according to the
• Rated insulation voltage Ui and
5 • Rated operating voltage Ue
Fig. 7/2:  Setting possibilities for Siemens circuit-­breakers
Rated insulation voltage Ui
6 Short-circuit protection with short-time-delay (S) and The rated insulation voltage Ui is the standardised voltage
instantaneous (I) releases value for which the insulation of the circuit-­breakers and

7 If circuit-­breakers with definite-time-delay (i.e. short-time-

their associated components is rated in accordance with
IEC 60664-1 (VDE 0110-1).
delay) overcurrent releases (S) are used for time-selective
short-circuit protection with ETU, it should be kept in mind Rated operating voltage Ue
8 that the circuit-­breakers are designed for a specific maxi-
mum permissible thermal and dynamic load. If the time The rated operating voltage Ue of a circuit-­breaker is the
delay causes this load limit to be exceeded in the event of a voltage value to which the rated short-circuit making and
9 short circuit, an instantaneous release (I) must also be used
to ensure that the circuit-­breaker is disconnected instanta-
breaking capacities and the short-circuit performance
category refer.
neously in case of very high short-circuit currents (Fig. 7/2).

10 The information supplied by the manufacturer should be

consulted when selecting an appropriate trip unit. Option-
The following must be specified to characterize the require-
ments placed on a circuit-­breaker as short circuit protective
ally, an I2t characteristic can be used for the S-release of an device (SCPD):
ETU. The electromagnetic I-releases of a TMTU can be set.
11 Rated short-circuit making capacity Icm1)
Reclosing lockout after short-circuit tripping
The rated short-circuit making capacity characterizes the
12 Some circuit-­breakers can be fitted with a mechanical
and / or electrical reclosing lockout. It prevents reclosing to
current which an open circuit-­breaker is capable of making
at a voltage which corresponds to the rated voltage. It is
the short circuit after tripping on this fault. Only if the fault expressed as the maximum peak value of the solid current.
13 was cleared and the lockout was unlatched manually, the
circuit-­breaker can be closed again.
The following applies to Icm for alternating voltage:

Icm ≥ n ∙ Icu (with n from Tab. 7/4)

14 Selection criteria for circuit-­breakers For direct voltage:

When selecting the appropriate circuit-­breakers for system Icm ≥ Icu

15 protection, special attention must be paid to the following
characteristics (IEC 60947‑2, VDE 0660‑101):
• Type of circuit-­breakers and their trip units according to
16 the respective protective function and tasks, as described
above
• Rated voltages

17 1 A current-limiting circuit-­breaker has no Icm value

114 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Short-circuit Power factor Minimum value for n:

1
Rated current Rated short-time withstand current Icw
breaking capacity cos φ Short-circuit In Minimum values
Icu making capacity
(r.m.s.value in kA) n= –––––––––––––––––––––
Short-circuit
In ≤ 2,500 12 · In, but at least 5 kA
2
breaking capacity In ≤ 2,500 30 kA

4.5 < Icu ≤ 6 0.7 1.5 Tab. 7/5:  Minimum requirement for circuit-­breakers with regard to

6 < Icu ≤ 10 0.5 1.7

rated short-time withstand current 3
10 < Icu ≤ 20 0.3 2.0
20 < Icu ≤ 50 0.25 2.1
4
50 < Icu 0.2 2.2

Tab. 7/4:  Minimum values for the ratio n of  back to page 114
short-circuit making and ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity 5

Rated short-circuit breaking capacity short-circuit release with time delay. According to
6
IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101), Icw must observe the mini-
The short-circuit breaking performance of the circuit-­
breaker is verified in accordance with IEC 60947-2
mum values of Tab. 7/5. In product data, the tcw value for
an Icw value must always be indicated. 7
(VDE 0660-101) and can be characterized by two values:
• Rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu) Cut-off / let-through values
test sequence III (switching sequence: O –t – CO with 8
O = open, t = time, CO = closing and opening): For zero-current interrupters, the cut-off current ID of the
–– Proof of overload release (test current = twice the circuit-­breaker is equal to the solid short-circuit current. The
current set value) current-limiting circuit-­breaker reaches the cut-off current
as the maximum momentary value during disconnecting,
9
–– Testing of ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity
–– Proof of dielectric strength dependent on the solid short-circuit current. The short-­
–– Proof of tripping on overload
circuit trip unit shall trip within a limit range of ± 20 % of
the set trip value. The manufacturer usually provides 10
(test current = 2.5-fold current set value)
characteristic curves for the different tripping times.
Test sequence  V applies to circuit-­breakers with inte-
grated fuse (see IEC 60947-2, VDE 0660-101)
The Joule integral (I2t during disconnecting) is referred to 11
• Rated service short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu) as let-through energy. With increasing current, the let-
test sequence II (switching sequence: O – t – CO – t – CO through energy of the circuit-­breaker also rises. In analogy
with O = open, t = time, CO = closing and opening): to the cut-off current, the let-through energy of a current-­
limiting circuit-­breaker is significantly lower than for the
12
–– Testing of service short-circuit breaking capacity
–– Proof of operating performance sine halfwave with solid short-circuit current.
–– Proof of dielectric strength
Rated circuit-­breaker currents
13
–– Proof of heating
–– Proof of tripping on overload (test current = 1.45-fold The rated current In of circuit-­breakers corresponds to
current set value, all phases in series or with 3-phase
current)
the rated continuous current Iu from IEC 60947-1 14
(VDE 0660‑100) and is equal to the conventional free-air
thermal current Ith. The conventional enclosed thermal
Rated short-time withstand current Icw current Ithe must be specified if it deviates from the rated
current.
15
The rated short-time withstand current characterizes the
permissible thermal fault withstand capability. The device
can carry the specified r.m.s. value of the short-time cur-
16
rent under the test conditions IEC 60947-1 (VDE 0660‑101)
for a given period of time tcw without getting harmed. To
do so, the circuit-­breaker must be equipped with a 17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 115

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.2 Fuses
Low-voltage high-rupturing-capacity (LV HRC) fuses have a Functional category g (full-range fuses)
2 high short-circuit breaking capacity. They fuse quickly to
limit the short-circuit current. The protective characteristic Functional category g applies to full-range fuses which can
is given by the selection of the operational class (see "Type" interrupt currents from the minimum fusing current up to
3 in Tab. 7/6). the rated short-circuit breaking current.

The fuse classification according to application and operat- Operational class gG

4 ing voltages is specified in accordance with CLC / TR
60269-5 (VDE 0636-5) in Tab. 7/6. Full-range fuses (g) Fuses for interrupting overcurrents in lines and installa-
switch all overcurrents up to the rated breaking capacity, tions belong to this class. For their selection the highest
which results in fusing the fusible element. Partial range operating voltage and the operating current of the circuit
5 fuses (a) as back-up fuses must only be used for tripping in are determined first. According to IEC 60364-4-43
case of short-circuit currents and thus as protection for (VDE 0100‑430) the following applies to the rated
downstream motor starters or circuit-­breakers. ­current of a gG fuse:
6 Special full-range fuse-links for photovoltaic systems must
comply with IEC 60269-6 (VDE 0636-6) in order to be • IB ≤ In ≤ IZ (rated current rule)
7 classified as operational class gPV. Here, the rated voltage
can be up to 1,000 V AC / 1,500 V DC in accordance with
• I2 ≤ 1.45 ∙ IZ (tripping current rule)
IEC 60269-1 (VDE 0636-1). Where

8 Classification of LV HRC fuses and comparison of IB  Operating current of the circuit
characteristics of gG and aM operational classes IZ  Continuous current carrying capacity of the line
In Rated current of the protective device
9 LV HRC fuses are divided into interruption range (functional
categories) and operational classes according to their type.
(here: fuse)
I2 Current for effective interruption of the protective
They can continuously carry currents up to their rated device within the fixed time

10 current. (conventional tripping current, now If)

11 Type Application (characteristic curve) Interruption Rated voltage V AC Maximum operating

range voltage V AC

12 gG
gM
General applications
Protection of motor circuits
Full range
Full range
230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V
230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V
253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V
253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V
aM Short-circuit protection of motor circuits Partial range 230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V 253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V

13 gN North American fuse for general application and

(back-up)
Full range 600 V 600 V
cable and line protection

14 gD North American delayed fuse for general

application
Full range 600 V 600 V

aR Protection of semiconductor components Partial range 230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V 2) 253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V 1)

(back-up)
15 gR, gS Protection of semiconductor components and Full range 230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V 2) 253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V 1)
cables and lines
gU Full-range fuses for cable and line protection Full range 230 / 400 / 500 / 690  V 253 / 440 / 550 / 725  V
16 gL, gF, gI, gII Previous cable and line protection fuses Full range
(replaced by gG)
1) In North American networks applies Maximum operating voltage = Rated voltage  2) Application-related rated voltages are possible

17
Tab. 7/6:  Classification of LV HRC fuses based on their functional characteristics defined in CLC / TR 60269-5 (VDE 0636-5)

116 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7.3 Switchgear Assemblies 1

Functional category a (partial-range fuses) Switchgear assemblies are series-connected switching and
protection devices which perform specific tasks for protect- 2
Functional category "a" applies to fuses for partial-range ing a system component; the first device (relative to the
protection, which can interrupt currents above a specified flow of power) provides the short-circuit protection.
multiple of their rated current up to the rated short-circuit
breaking current.
3
7.3.1 Switchgear Assemblies with Fuses
(Fuse-protected Design)
Operational class aM 4
Operational class aM applies to partial-range fuses for Fuses and moulded-case circuit-­breakers
back-up protection of switching devices and motor starters
whose minimum breaking current is approximately four If the prospective short-circuit current Ik exceeds the rated 5
times the rated current. Therefore, these fuses are only ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu of the circuit-­
intended for short-circuit protection. The same applies to breaker at its mounting location, the latter must be pro-
partial-range semiconductor fuses aR, which shall typically
trip as of the 2.7-fold of their rated current. For this reason,
vided with line-side fuses (Fig. 7/4). 6
fuses of functional category “a” must not be used above Each device of the switchgear assembly is assigned a
their rated current. A means of overload protection, for
example a thermal time-delay relay, must always be pro-
specific protective function. The L-release monitors over-
load currents, while the I-release detects short-circuit 7
vided. The prearcing-time / current characteristics of LV HRC currents roughly up to the rated ultimate short-circuit
fuses of operational class gG and aM for about 200 A are breaking capacity of the circuit-­breaker. This means, the
compared in Fig. 7/3. circuit-­breaker provides protection against all overcurrents 8
up to its rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu
and ensures all-pole opening and reclosing.

The fuses will only be responsible for interrupting the

9
Prearcing time in s short-circuit, when higher short-circuit currents Ik are
104
present. In this case, the circuit-­breaker also disconnects
10
TIP04_13_042_EN

all-pole almost simultaneously through its I-release, trig-

gered by the cut-off current ID of the fuse. The fuse must,
103
ts
11
102 Operational class
gG
Circuit-
breaker
Fuse
12
aM t Fuse
101
L

A
Circuit-
breaker
13
100
A

10-1
Ik 14
I Icu Ik

10-2 15
TIP04_13_043_EN

I
8 Response L-release I-release Fuse
10-3
4 102 103 104 5 Disconnection Circuit-breaker Fuse + 16
Circuit-breaker
I in A

Fig. 7/3:  Comparison of characteristic curves pertaining to LV HRC Fig. 7/4:  Switchgear assembly comprising fuse and circuit-­breaker 17
fuses of operational classes gG and aM (rated current 200 A)

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 117

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 therefore, be selected such that its cut-off current ID is less • Coordination type 1: Destruction of contactor and over-
than the rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu of load relay are permissible. The contactor and / or overload
the circuit-­breaker. relay must be replaced if necessary
2 • Coordination type 2: The overload relay must not be
damaged. Contact welding at the contactor is, however,
Fuse, contactor, and thermal inverse-time-delay permissible, given the contacts can easily be separated or
3 overload relay the contactor can easily be replaced

The switchgear assembly comprising contactor and over- Protection and operating ranges of equipment
4 load relay is referred to as a motor starter or, if a three-
phase motor is started directly, a direct-on-line starter. The
contactor is used to switch the motor on and off. The Grading diagram for a motor starter
overload relay protects the motor, motor supply conduc-
5 tors, and contactor against overloading. The fuse upstream The protection ranges and the relevant characteristics of
of the contactor and overload relay provides protection the equipment constituting a switchgear assembly used
against short circuits. For this reason, the protection ranges as a motor starter are illustrated in the grading diagram in
6 and characteristics of all the components (Fig. 7/5) must be
carefully coordinated with each other.
Fig. 7/5. The fuses in this assembly must satisfy a number
of conditions:
• The time-current characteristics of fuses and overload

7 Specifications for contactors and motor starters relays must allow the motor to be run up to speed
• The fuses must protect the overload relay from being
The IEC 60947-4-1 (VDE 0660-102) standard applies destroyed by currents approximately 10 times higher
to contactors and motor starters up to 1,000 V for than the rated current of the relay
8 ­direct-on-line starting (with maximum voltage). When • The fuses must interrupt overcurrents beyond the capa-
short-circuit current protection equipment is selected for bility of the contactor (i.e. currents approximately
switchgear assemblies, a distinction is made between 10 times higher than the rated operating current Ie of
9 various types of protection according to the permissible
degree of damage as defined in IEC 60947-4-1 (VDE 0660-
the contactor)
• In the event of a short-circuit, the fuses must protect the
102): contactor such that any damage does not exceed the

10

11
1 Tripping curve of (thermal)

12 t
Module with
LV HRC fuse,
inverse-time-delay
overload relay
contactor 2 Destruction curve
and thermal of thermal overload relay

13 1
overload relay
(motor starter)
3 Rated breaking capacity
of contactor
1 min 4 Characteristic contactor
curve for easily separable
2
14 5
contact welding
Prearcing-time/current
B characteristic curve of the fuse,
A 4 (dependent on operational class aM
15 current limiting
performed by fuse)
6 Total clearing time curve
of fuse, class aM
TIP04_13_045_EN

16 3 C
6
A, B, C Safety margins
in case of proper
short-circuit protection
1 ms
I
17
Fig. 7/5:  Switchgear assembly comprising fuse, contactor, and thermal inverse-time-delay overload relay

118 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

specified degrees of damage (see above). Depending on 1

the rated operating current Ie, contactors must be able
to withstand motor starting currents of 8 to 12 times
the rated operating current Ie without the contacts 2
being welded

To satisfy these conditions, safety margins (A, B, and C

described below) must be maintained between certain
3
characteristic curves of the devices.

Protection of overload relay

4
In order to protect the overload relay, the prearc-
ing-time / current characteristic of the fuse must lie in 5
margin A below the intersection of the tripping curve of the
overload relay (1) with its destruction curve (2) (an LV HRC
switchgear fuse of operational class aM was used in this
example).
6
Protection of contactor 7
In order to protect the contactor against excessively high
breaking currents, the prearcing-time / current characteristic
of the fuse from the current value, which corresponds to 8
the breaking capacity of the contactor (3), must lie in
margin B below the tripping characteristic of the overload
relay (1). 9
In order to protect the contactor against contact welding,
time-current characteristics, up to which load currents can
be applied, can be specified for each contactor, which 10
either result in
• No welding or
• Welded contacts that can easily be separated 11
(characteristic curve 4 in Fig. 7/5)

In both cases, therefore, the fuse must respond in good

time. The total clearing time curve of the fuse (6) must lie
12
in margin C below the characteristic curve of the contactor
for easily separable contact welding (4) (total fault clearing
time = prearcing time + extinction time).
13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 119

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.3.2 Switchgear Assemblies without Fuses

(Circuit-­breaker Protected Design)

2 Back-up protection (cascade-connected circuit-­breakers) Q2 Circuit-breaker

with I-release

If two circuit-­breakers with I-releases of the same type are and

3 connected in series along one conducting path, they will

open simultaneously in the event of a fault (K) in the Q1
circuit-breaker

TIP04_13_047_EN
with LI-release
vicinity of the distribution board (Fig. 7/6). The short-circuit

4 current is thereby detected by two series-connected inter-

rupting devices and effectively extinguished. If the up-
K

stream circuit-­breaker is current-limiting, the downstream

circuit-­breaker can be installed with a lower rated switching
5 capacity than the maximum short-circuit current that is
Fig. 7/6:  Block diagram for a back-up protection circuit (cascade
connection)
possibly present at its mounting location. Fig. 7/6 shows
the block diagram and Fig. 7/7 the principle of a cascade
6 connection.

The rated current of the upstream circuit-­breaker Q2 is ip

7 selected according to its rated operating current and thus

used as main circuit-­breaker or as group switch for several I
ID1
circuits in sub-distribution boards, for example. Its I-release
is set to a very high operating current, if possible up to the
8 rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu of the ID(1+2)
downstream circuit-­breakers. Branch circuit-­breaker Q1
provides overload protection and also clears autonomously
9 relatively low short-circuit currents, which may be caused
by short circuits to exposed conductive parts, insulation
faults or short circuits at the end of long lines and cables. t
10 The upstream circuit-­breaker Q2 only opens at the same
time if high short-circuit currents flow as a result of a dead
short circuit in the vicinity of branch circuit-­breaker Q1.
U Ue
11 UB(1+2)

UB1

12
t

13
TIP04_13_048_EN

14
ip Peak short-circuit current (maximum value)
ID1 Cut-off current of circuit-breaker Q1

15 ID(1+2) Actual cut-off current (lower than ID1)

Ue Driving voltage (operating voltage)
UB(1+2) Sum of the arc voltages of the
16 upstream circuit-breaker Q2 and branch circuit-breaker Q1
UB1 Arc voltage of branch circuit-breaker Q1

17 Fig. 7/7:  Principle of a back-up protection circuit (cascade

connection)

120 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Circuit-­breakers with L- and I-releases and contactor 1

The circuit-­breaker provides overload and short-circuit
protection – also for the contactor – while the contactor Circuit-breaker
2
performs switching duties (Fig. 7/8). The requirements that t
with I-releases
must be fulfilled by the circuit-­breaker are the same as
those that apply to the fuse in switchgear assemblies
comprising fuse, contactor, and thermally inverse-time-­
L Contactor 3
delayed overload relay (see Fig. 7/5). 1 2

4
Starter circuit-­breaker with I-release, contactor, and
overload relay I 3 Icu
5

TIP04_13_049_EN
Overload protection is provided by the overload relay in
conjunction with the contactor, while short-circuit protec-
tion is provided by the starter circuit-­breaker ("starter
protector"). The operating current of its I-release is set as
I 6
low as the starting cycle will permit, in order to include low
1 Rated breaking capacity L Characteristic curve
short-circuit currents in the instantaneous breaking range
as well (Fig. 7/9). The advantage of this switchgear assem-
of contactor
2 Rated making capacity
of inverse-time-delay
overload release
7
bly is that it is possible to determine whether the fault was of contactor I Characteristic curve
an overload or short circuit according to whether the 3 Characteristic contactor of instantaneous
contactor, triggered by the overload relay, or the starter curve for easily separable
contact welding
electromagnetic
overcurrent releases
8
circuit-­breaker has opened. Further advantages of the Icu Rated short-circuit breaking
starter circuit-­breaker following short-circuit tripping are capacity of circuit-breaker
three-phase circuit interruption and immediate readiness
for reclosing. Switchgear assemblies with starter circuit-­
9
breakers are becoming increasingly important in control Fig. 7/8:  Switchgear assembly comprising circuit-­breaker and
units without fuses. contactor
10

Circuit-breaker
11
with I-release
t for starter assemblies
L
Contactor 12
Inverse-time-delay
overload relay

I
with L-release
13
Setting range
Icu
14
TIP04_13_050_EN

Trip L-release I-release I

Disconnection Contactor Circuit-breaker

15

16
L Characteristic curve of I Characteristic curve of
(thermal) inverse-time- adjustable instantaneous
delay overload relay overcurrent release

Fig. 7/9:  Switchgear assembly comprising circuit-­breaker, 17

adjustable I-release, contactor, and overload relay

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 121

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.3.3 Switchgear Assemblies with thermistor motor-protection devices without overload

Thermistor Motor Protection Devices relays. Feeder cables are protected against short circuits
and overloads either by fuses and circuit-­breakers
2 Overload relays and releases cease to provide reliable (Fig. 7/10 a) or only by fuses (Fig. 7/10 b).
overload protection when it is no longer possible to estab-
lish the winding temperature from the motor current. This Motors with thermally critical rotors
3 is the case with:
• High switching frequency Motors with thermally critical rotors, even if started with a
• Irregular, intermittent duty locked rotor, can only be provided with adequate protection

4 • Restricted cooling
• High ambient temperature
if they are fitted with an additional overload relay or re-
lease. The overload relay or release also protects the ca-
bling against overloads (Fig. 7/10 a, c, and d).
In these cases, switchgear assemblies with thermistor
5 motor protection devices are used. The switchgear assem- Note: We recommend the use of an electronic motor
blies are designed with or without fuses depending on the protection system such as SIMOCODE (with or without
plant configuration. The degree of protection that can be thermistor protection) for motors. Advantages are: broad
6 attained depends on whether the motor to be protected
has a thermally critical stator or rotor. The operating tem-
performance range, comprehensive control functionality,
bus interfacing (PROFIBUS DP), etc.
perature, coupling time constant, and the position of the

7 temperature sensor in the motor winding are also crucial

factors. They are usually specified by the motor manufac-
turer.

8 Motors with thermally critical stators

Motors with thermally critical stators can be adequately

9 protected against overloads and overheating by means of

10

11
a) b) c) d)

Fuse Fuse
12 Circuit-breakers Circuit-breakers Circuit-breaker
with L- and I-releases with L- and I-releases with I-releases

13 Contactor Contactor Contactor

Overload relay Overload relay

14 Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
TIP04_13_051_EN

M M M M

15 +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ

16
Fig. 7/10:  Switchgear assembly comprising comprising thermistor motor protection plus additional overload relay or release (schematic
circuit diagram)
17

122 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7.3.4 Selecting Protection Equipment 1

100
Branch circuits in distribution boards and control units can
be provided with short-circuit protection by means of fuses
cosφ 0.25

ip
2
or by means of circuit-­breakers without fuses. The level of ip, ID in kA
cosφ 0.3
anticipated current limiting, which is higher in fuses with
low rated currents than in current-limiting circuit-­breakers
with the same rated current, may also be a crucial factor in 13
cosφ 0.5
63 A I
D 100 A 3
10 ID 63 A
making a choice in favour of one or the other solution. 8
ID

Comparing the protective characteristics of fuses with

cosφ 0.7 4
those of current-limiting circuit-­breakers

TIP04_13_052_EN
The following should be taken into consideration when
comparing the protection characteristics of fuses and 1
circuit-­breakers: 1 10 22 100
• The rated short-circuit breaking capacity, which can vary
considerably
Short-circuit currents Ik in kA
6
ID Cut-off current For example for Ik = 10 kA:
• The level of current limiting which is always higher with
ip Peak short-circuit current ID Fuse (100 A) 7.5 kA
fuses of up to 400 A than for current-limiting circuit-­
breakers with the same rated current
ID Circuit-breaker 8 kA 7
• The shape of the prearcing-time / current characteristics of
fuses and the tripping characteristics of circuit-­breakers
• The disconnection conditions acc. to IEC 60364-4-41 Fig. 7/11:  Current-limiting characteristics of circuit-­breaker (63 A)
and LV HRC fuses (63 A or 100 A)
8
(VDE 0100-410)

Comparison of current-limiting characteristics of LV HRC 9

fuses and circuit-­breakers

Fig. 7/11 shows the current-limiting effect of a circuit-­

breaker (rated continuous current 63 A at 400 V, 50 Hz) 2h 10
compared to LV HRC fuses (type 3NA by Siemens, opera-
tional class gG, with rated currents 63 A and 100 A). Owing t
to the high motor starting currents, the rated current of the
10 s
a‘
11
fuse must be higher than the rated operating current of the a, a‘
motor, this means a circuit-­breaker with a minimum rated
a
12
b
current of 63 A or a fuse with a minimum rated current of
100 A is required for a 30-kW motor. 1 2 3

b B A
Comparison between the tripping curves of fuses with 10 ms Icu
13
TIP04_13_053_EN

those of circuit-­breakers of the same current rating

1 Ir (Ie) Ikmin Ikmax 100
The prearcing-time / current characteristic curve a of the
63-A fuse-link, operational class gG, and the LI tripping
B: 1.05–1.2 · In A: 1.25–1.6 · Ir
I in kA 14
curve "b" of a circuit-­breaker are plotted in the time-current 1 Limit current range B Test range for the
diagram in Fig. 7/12. The setting current for the in- 2 Overload range limiting tripping currents
verse-time-delay overload release of the circuit-­breaker
corresponds to the rated current of the fuse-link.
3 Short-circuit current range
Icu
of the circuit-breaker
Rated ultimate 15
A Test range for fuse currents short-circuit breaking
capacity
In order to evaluate the different tripping performance in
terms of their current dependence, three current ranges
16
(marked with 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 7/12) are distinguished: Fig. 7/12:  Characteristic curves and rated switching capacities of a
fuse (a) and circuit-­breaker (b) with LI-releases
17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 123

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • Limit current range (1) Selecting circuit-­breakers for circuits with and
The typical test range for fuse currents (A) is, for example, without fuses
between 1.25 and 1.6 times the rated current while the
2 test range for the limit tripping currents of the overload Circuits and control units can be designed with or without
release (B) is between 1.05 and 1.2 times the current fuses.
setting. The adjustable overload release allows for the
3 current setting and, therefore, the limit tripping current
to be matched more closely to the continuous current
Circuits with fuses (fuse-protected design)

carrying capacity of the equipment to be protected than it The standard design with fuses intended for system protec-

4 would be possible with a fuse, whose current ratings are

graded more widely, so that this would only permit
tion includes fuse-switch disconnectors, switch disconnec-
tors with fuses, and fuse and base arrangements (Tab. 7/9).
approximate matching. Although the limit current of the
fuse is adequate for providing overload protection of lines The feed-in circuit-­breaker provides overload protection and
5 and cables, it is not sufficient for the starting current of selective short-circuit protection for the transformer and
motors, where a fuse with the characteristic a’ would be distribution board. 3WL circuit-­breakers are suitable for this
needed purpose. A 3VA moulded-case circuit-­breaker may also be
6 • Overload range (2)
In the overload range (2), the prearcing-time / current
used for transformers with lower rating, or a 3VL if no
selectivity is required. The fuse for system protection
characteristic of the fuse is steeper than the tripping protects the lines to the sub-distribution board against

7 characteristic of the overload release. This is desired for

the overload protection of cables and lines. For the
overloads and short circuits as well as those to non-motor
consumers.
overload protection of motors, however, the slow charac-
teristic b is required The switchgear assemblies comprising fuse and circuit-­
8 • Short-circuit current range (3) breaker, which provide motor protection, as well as fuses,
In the short-circuit current range (3), the instantaneous contactor, and overload relay protect the motor feeder
release of the circuit-­breaker detects short-circuit currents cable and the motor against overloads and short circuits.
9 above its operating value faster than the fuse. Higher
currents are broken more quickly by the fuse. And for this Circuits without fuses (circuit-­breaker protected design)
reason, a fuse limits the short-circuit current more effec-

10 tively than a circuit-­breaker In the case of distribution boards without fuses (Tab. 7/10),
short-circuit protection is provided by circuit-­breakers for
This results in an extremely high rated breaking capacity for system protection. In such configurations, circuit-­breakers
fuses of over 100 kA at an operating voltage of 690 V AC. are also used as load switches, for motor protection only, or
11 As compared to this, the rated ultimate short-circuit break- for starter assemblies together with the contactor. The
ing capacity Icu depends on several factors, such as the protection ranges of the switchgear assemblies comprising
rated operating voltage Ue and the type of construction. circuit-­breaker, contactor, and overload relay have already
12 A comparison between the protection characteristics of
been dealt with. Further technical data can be found in the
literature supplied by the manufacturer.
fuses, circuit-­breakers, and their switchgear assemblies is
13 compiled in Tab. 7/7 and Tab. 7/8.

14

15

16

17

124 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Characteristic Fuse Circuit-­breaker 1

Rated switching capacity at alternating voltage 100 kA, 690 V f (Ir Ue type 1))
Current limiting
Additional arcing space
f (In Ik)
None
f (Ir Ik Ue type 1))
f (Ir Ik Ue type 1))
2
Clearly visible indication of operability Yes No
Operationally safe actuation With expense 2) Yes 3
Remote switching No Yes
Automatic all-phase opening With expense 3) Yes
Signalling option With expense 4) Yes
4
Interlocking No Yes
Readiness for reclosing after:
Disconnection on overload No Yes 5
Disconnection on short circuit No f (condition)
Service interruption Yes f (condition)

Maintenance expense No
f (no. of switching operations 6
and condition)
Selectivity No expense Extra expense required
Replaceability Yes 5) if the same make 7
Short-circuit protection:
Cable and line Very good Good
Motor Very good Good 8
Overload protection:
Cable and line Sufficient Good

1)
Motor Not possible
Type of construction may be: arc quenching method, short-circuit strength owing to specific resistance, constructive design
Good
9
2) For example by means of shock-hazard protected fuse-switch disconnectors with high-speed closing
3) By means of fuse monitoring and dedicated circuit-­breaker

10
4) By means of fuse monitoring
5) Because standardised

Tab. 7/7:  Test range limits for the tripping performance of protective equipment (f(…) denotes a functional  back to page 124
dependence of the characteristic from the quantities and parameters in brackets)
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 125

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Protective devices with fuses

Fuse
2
Circuit-­breaker

Contactor
3 Protected items
and switching
frequency Overload
protection
4 Thermistor motor
protection M M M M
M M
3~ 3~

5 +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ

Overload protection
– Cable and line + +  + +  +  +  + +  + + 

6 – Motors (with thermally critical stators)

– Motors (with thermally critical rotors)
+ + 1)
+ + 1)
+ + 
+ + 
+ + 
+ 
+ + 
+ 
+ + 
+ + 
+ + 
+ + 
Short-circuit protection
– Cable and line + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 
7 – Motor + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 
Switching frequency – + +  – + +  – + + 
Protective devices without fuses
8
–

9 Circuit-­breaker

Contactor
Protected items

10 and switching
frequency
Overload
protection

Thermistor / 
11 SIMOCODE motor
protection
M
3~
M
3~
M M M
3~
M

+ϑ +ϑ +ϑ

12 Overload protection
– Cable and line + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + 
– Motors (with thermally critical stators) + + 1) + +  + +  + +  + + 1) + + 
– Motors (with thermally critical rotors) + + 1) + +  + +  + +  + + 1) + + 
13 Short-circuit protection
– Cable and line + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 
– Motor + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 

14 Switching frequency
1)
+  +  +  +  – –
Protection with minor restriction in the event of a line failure  + + very good  + good  – minor

Tab. 7/8:  Comparison between the protective characteristics of different switchgear assemblies (schematic circuit  back to page 124
15 diagrams)

16

17

126 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Type of release or relay 1

Rated ultimate short-circuit

breaking capacity Icu
2

Fixed setting

Fixed setting
Adjustable

Adjustable

Adjustable
Tripping
3

Fuse
No. Type of circuit-­breaker characteristic 1)

S
L

I
Feed-in circuit-­breaker
1 Circuit-­breaker for ≥ Ik1 × – × – × 4
system protection with Icu
1
selectivity requirement t
Ik1
Ik1 I
5
Distribution circuit-­breaker
2 Fuse for system ≥ Ik2 – – – – – × 6
2 protection Icu
t

Ik2 Ik2
Ik2 I
7
Ik2
Load circuit-­breaker
3 Fuse and circuit-­ ≥ Ik3 – – – – – ×
8
breaker for motor ≤ Ik3 × – – × – – Icu
protection t

Ik3 I
9
3 4 5

Ik3 Ik3 Ik3

4 Fuse and direct on-line
starter for motor
≥ Ik3
≤ Ik3
–
×
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
×
– Icu 10
V protection t
M M
3~ 3~ Ik3 I
11
5 Fuse for power ≥ Ik3 – – – – – ×
consumer Icu
t 12
Ik3 I

1)  Adjustable release 13

Tab. 7/9:  Distribution boards combining fuses and circuit-­breakers back to page 124

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 127

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Type of release or relay

Rated ultimate short-circuit

breaking capacity Icu
2

Fixed setting

Fixed setting
Adjustable

Adjustable

Adjustable
3 Tripping charac-
No. Type of circuit-­breaker teristic 1)

S
L

I
Feed-in circuit-­breaker
4 1 Circuit-­breaker for system ≥ Ik1 × – × – ×
protection with selectivity Icu
requirement t

5 1
Ik1 I
Ik1

Distribution circuit-­breaker
6 22) Circuit-­breaker for system ≥ Ik2 – × – × –
protection without Or Icu
selectivity requirement × – – × – t

7 2 3 × –
Or
– – ×
Ik2 I

Ik2 Ik2 3 Circuit-­breaker for system ≥ Ik2 × – × – ×

8 protection with selectivity Icu
requirement t

9 Ik2 I

Load circuit-­breaker

10 4 Circuit-­breaker for motor

protection
≥ Ik3 × – – × –
Icu
t

11 Ik3 I

4 5
5 Circuit-­breaker and direct ≥ Ik3 – – – × –
Ik3 Ik3 on-line starter for motor ≥ Ik3 × – – – – Icu

12 protection t
M M
3~ 3~ Ik3 I

13 1)  Adjustable release

2)  3 Variants possible, variant 3 depicted

Tab. 7/10:  Power distribution with circuit-­breaker without fuse back to page 124
14

15

16

17

128 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7.4 Miniature Circuit-­breaker 1

Miniature circuit-­breakers (MCBs) are mainly designed for safety, the relevant standards, for example concerning fault
the protection of cables and lines against overload and clearing requirements in accordance with IEC 60364-4-41 2
short circuit, thus ensuring the protection of electrical (VDE 0100-410), have to be met.
equipment against excessively high heating in compliance
with the relevant standards, for example IEC 60364-4-43
(VDE 0100-430). Under certain conditions, MCBs in a TN
Versions 3
system also provide protection against electric shock at MCBs are available in many different versions: 1-phase,
excessively high contact voltage due to wrong insulation,
e.g. according to IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410).
2-phase, 3-phase, and 4-phase as well as with switched
neutral conductor 1-phase+N and 3-phase+N. 4
Miniature circuit-­breakers are used in distribution networks, Depending on the device type, the following items can be
both for commercial buildings and industrial buildings. Due retrofitted: 5
to a wide range of versions and accessories (for example • Auxiliary switch (AS)
auxiliary contacts, fault signal contacts, shunt trips etc.), • Fault-signal contact (FC)
they are able to meet the various requirements of the most
diverse areas of application.
• Shunt trip (ST)
• Undervoltage release (UR)
6
• Residual current protective device (RCD)
Tripping characteristics
By fitting an RCD to an MCB, an RCBO assembly is created. 7
Four tripping characteristics (A, B, C, and D) are available As a complete system, it can be used for cable and line
for any kind of application; they correspond to the equip- protection as well as for protection against personal injury
ment being connected in the circuit to be protected. in the event of direct or indirect contact voltages. Special 8
• Tripping characteristic A is particularly suitable for the arc-fault detection units, for example from the 5SM6 series,
protection of transducers in measuring circuits, for cir- identify operational and dangerous arcing faults, which
cuits with electronic control and where disconnection
within 0.4 s is required in accordance with
enables reliable circuit disconnection when a dangerous
arcing fault occurs. These arc-fault detection units are also
9
IEC 60364‑4‑41 (VDE 0100‑410) available in versions which are combined with MCBs and
• Tripping characteristic B in accordance with IEC 60898-1
(VDE 0641-11) is the standard characteristic for socket
RCBOs.
10
circuits in residential and commercial buildings Auxiliary switches (AS) signal the switching state of the
• Tripping characteristic C in accordance with IEC 60898-1 MCB and indicate whether it has been switched off manu-
(VDE 0641-11) has advantages when used with equip- ally or automatically. Fault-signal contacts (FC) indicate 11
ment with higher inrush currents such as luminaires and tripping of the MCB due to overload or short circuit.
motors Open-circuit shunt releases (ST) are suitable for remote
• Tripping characteristic D in accordance with IEC 60898-1
(VDE 0641-11) is adapted to intensely pulse-generating
switching of MCBs. Undervoltage releases protect devices
connected in the circuit against impacts of insufficiently
12
equipment such as transformers, solenoid valves or low supply voltage.
capacitors
By connecting the AS and the FC to an instabus KNX binary
13
Operating method input, the signals may also be read into an instabus KNX
system (for example GAMMA instabus). When using an
Miniature circuit-­breakers are manually operated protective instabus KNX binary output, the MCB, which is tripped via 14
switches providing remote overcurrent tripping (instanta- the shunt trip, can also be remotely tripped via instabus
neous thermal overcurrent release). Multi-phase devices KNX.
are coupled mechanically at the outside through the han-
dles and also inside through their releases. Depending on the device type, miniature circuit-­breakers by
15
Siemens have the following features:
Standards • Very good current-limiting performance
• Identical terminals on both sides for optional feeding
16
International basic standards are IEC 60898-1 and from the top or bottom
IEC 60898-2. In Germany, the national standards • Installation and dismantling without the use of tools
VDE 0641-11 and VDE 0641-12 are based on them. The • Rapid and easy removal from the system 17
sizes are described in DIN 43880. Regarding personal

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 129

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • Terminals safe-to-touch by fingers or the back of the hand For line-overcurrent protection, the MCBs usually have two
in accordance with EN 50274 (VDE 0660-514) independent releases. In the event of overload, a bimetal
• Combined terminals for simultaneous connection of contact opens inverse-time-delayed corresponding to the
2 busbars and feeder cables current value. If a certain threshold is exceeded in the
• Main switch quality in accordance with IEC 60204-1 event of a short circuit, however, an electromagnetic
(VDE 0113-1) overcurrent release instantaneously trips. The tripping
3 • Separate switch position indicator range (time-current threshold zone) of the MCBs, following
IEC 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) is determined by the parame-
Alternating-current type MCBs are suitable for all AC and ters I1 to I5 (see Fig. 7/13). Parameters IB and Iz of the line

4 3-phase networks up to a nominal voltage of 240 / 415 V

and all DC networks up to 60 V (1-phase) and 120 V (2-
are correlated to the above.

phase). The MCB voltage rating is 230 / 400 V AC. AC / DC The tripping conditions of the MCBs for characteristics B, C,
current type MCBs may also be used for 220 V DC (1-phase) and D from the IEC 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) standard
5 and 440 V DC (2-phase). In order to avoid damaging of the facilitate assigning them to conductor cross sections. In the
conductor insulation in case of faults, temperatures must relevant standards, for example IEC 60364-4-43
not rise above certain values. For PVC insulation, these (VDE 0100‑430), the following conditions are listed:
6 values are 70 °C permanently or 160 °C for a maximum
of 5 s (short circuit). Rated current rule

IB ≤ In ≤ Iz
7

8 1st Condition 2nd Condition IB Operating current to be expected, i.e. current drawn
I B ≤ In ≤ I z I2 ≤ 1.45 · Iz by the power consumer under normal operating conditions
IB Iz
Iz Permissible continuous load current for a conductor,
9 when the maximum continuously applied temperature
of the insulation is not exceeded
1.45 · Iz I
In I2
1,45 · Iz Maximum permissible overload current of limited duration,
10 Time t
Int It
at which a sudden, temporary exceeding of the maximum
continuously applied temperature does not yet result
I1 I2 in a safety-relevant reduction of insulation properties

11 In Rated current, meaning the current for which the

miniature circuit-breaker is rated and to which other
rating parameters refer (setting)

12 I3
Int Specified non-tripping current (previously conventional
non-tripping current I1), meaning the current which
does not result in disconnection under defined conditions

13 It Specified tripping current (previously conventional tripping

current I2), meaning the current which is broken within one
(In ≤ 63 A or two hours In > 63 A) under defined conditions

I3 Tolerances narrowed down for tripping time:

14 I3 1 s ≤ t ≤ 60 s at I = 2,55 · In (≤ 32 A)
1 s ≤ t ≤ 120 s at I = 2,55 · In (> 32 A)

Withstand current of the instantaneous electromagnetic

15
I4
overcurrent release (short-circuit release)

I5 I5 Tripping current of the instantaneous electromagnetic

I4 overcurrent release (short-circuit release)
16
TIP04_13_054_EN

17
Fig. 7/13:  Schematic reference value diagram of lines and their protective devices

130 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Tripping current rule Temperature impact 1

I2 ≤ 1.45 ∙ Iz The tripping characteristics are standard defined at an
ambient temperature of +30 °C. At higher temperatures, 2
Since the tripping current rule is automatically fulfilled the thermal tripping curve in Fig. 7/14 shifts to the left and
because of I2 = 1.45 ∙ Iz, it suffices for the analysis of MCB to the right at lower temperatures. This means that tripping
characteristics if the rated current In of the MCB is less or
equal to the conductor's permissible continuous load
becomes effective even with lower currents present (higher
temperatures) or only with higher currents (lower tempera-
3
current Iz. tures).

Resulting from this, an assignment of rated currents for This has to be taken into account in particular for an instal- 4
MCBs to conductor cross sections can be given (Tab. 7/11), lation in hot rooms, in encapsulated distribution boards
related to an ambient temperature of + 30 °C, as it is con- where, owing to the current-induced heat losses of the
sidered appropriate in IEC 60364-4-43 (VDE 0100-430), built-in devices, higher temperatures may prevail and for 5
and in relation to the type of installation and accumulation distribution boards installed outdoors. MCBs can be used at
of equipment. temperatures ranging from –25 °C to +55 °C. The relative

Example: flat-webbed cable, stranded cable, on or in the

humidity may be 95 %. 6
wall, installation type C 1 at + 30 ºC ambient temperature Resistance to climate

Siemens MCBs are available with the tripping characteris- Siemens miniature circuit-­breakers are resistant to climate 7
tics B, C, and D, bearing, inter alia, the VDE mark based in accordance with IEC 60068-2-30. They were successfully
upon the CCA procedure (CENELEC Certification Agree- tested in six climatic cycles.
ment). 8
All tripping characteristics are depicted in Fig. 7/14. Due to 300
the position of the tripping bands, the following applies
from curve A to D: I1 I2
MCB tripping characteristics B, C, D acc.
to IEC 60898-1 / VDE 0641-11 9
A1)
Time t

B C D
• Current pulse withstand strength rises 60
I1 (t > 1h) 1.13 · In 1.13 · In 1.13 · In 1.13 · In
• Permissible line and cable length for the protection of
10
Minutes

I2 (t < 1h) 1.45 · In 1.45 · In 1.45 · In 1.45 · In

persons decreases I4 (t > 0.1 s) 2 · In 3 · In 5 · In 10 · In
10
I5 (t < 0.1 s) 3 · In 5 · In 10 · In 20 · In

1 Installation type C in accordance with EC 60364-5-52 (VDE 0298-4): cables are

fixed in such a way that the spacing between them and the wall surface is less I3
11
than 0.3 times the outer cable diameter. 1

10
12
Rated cross Iz (line) 5
2)
section qn Rated MCB current In permissible continuous
for protection of load current in case of
I3 13
Seconds

2 3 2 3 1
conductors conductors conductors conductors
under load under load under load under load 0.4
in mm2 in A in A in A in A
A B
I5
C
I5
D
I5 I5
14
1.5 16 16 19.5 17.5 0.1
I4 I4 I4 I4
TIP04_13_055_EN

2.5 25 20 27 24
4 32 32 36 32 15
6 40 40 46 41 0.01
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
10 63 50 63 57
16 80 63 85 76 1)
Multiple of rated current In
16
Meets the requirements of IEC 60364-4-41/ VDE 0100-410
25 100 80 112 96 2) Disconnect condition acc. to 60364-4-41/ VDE 0100-410
for TN networks with Un = 400 V
35 125 100 138 119
17
Tab. 7/11:  MCB and conductor cross section matrix Fig. 7/14:  Time-current limit ranges of MCBs

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 131

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Degree of protection mention a current limiting class and only refers to the I2t
characteristic to describe the MCB in general terms.
As MCBs are mainly installed in distribution boards, their
2 degree of protection must meet the requirements of the In Germany, the Technical Supply Conditions (TAB) of the
respective type of environment. MCBs without an encapsu- German distribution system operators (DSO) apply. TAB
lation can reach IP30 according to IEC 60529 (VDE 0470-1) stipulates for residential and commercial buildings that
3 provided that they have adequate terminal covers. MCBs
can be equipped with a snap-on fixing for rapid fitting on
only class 3 MCBs with a rated switching capacity of at least
6,000 A be used in distribution boards connected down-
35-mm wide standard mounting rails. Some versions may stream of the electricity meter, since the service entrance

4 additionally be screwed on mounting plates. fuse per residential unit is always ≤ 63 A, thus ensuring
back-up protection.
Installation
Devices must be labelled 6000 .
5 Moreover, some type series are available with a rapid 3
wiring system for manual handling without the use of Selectivity
tools, which even enables the removal of individual MCBs
6 from the busbar system. Selectivity means that only that protective device will trip
in the event of a fault which is closest to the fault location
in the current path. This way the energy flow can be
Rated switching capacity Icn
7 ­maintained in circuits which are connected in parallel. In
Fig. 7/15, the current curve in a disconnection process is
Besides a reliable adherence to characteristic curves, an shown schematically with regard to current-limiting classes.
important performance feature of MCBs is their rated Siemens MCBs of type B16 reduce the energy flow to
8 switching capacity. On the basis of IEC 60898-1 much lower values than defined for current limiting class 3.
(VDE 0641‑11), it is divided into switching capacity classes Fig. 7/15 shows the selectivity limits of MCBs with different
and indicates up to which level short-circuit currents can be current limiting classes as the intersection of the MCB
9 broken. Standard values for the rated short-circuit breaking
capacity are 1,500 A, 3,000 A, 4,500 A, 6,000 A, 10,000 A,
tripping curve with the prearcing characteristic of the fuse.
The highly effective current limitation of the MCB can also
15,000 A, 20,000 A, and 25,000 A. Siemens MCBs provide be noted as a better selectivity towards the line-side fuse.

10 rated switching capacity values up to 25,000 A with VDE

approval, dependent on the version.
Back-up protection

11 Current limiting classes If the short-circuit current exceeds the rated MCB switching
capacity at the point where the MCB is installed, another
In order to obtain information about the selectivity of MCBs short-circuit protecting device has to be connected up-
12 to line-side fuses, current limiting can be considered ac-
cording to the I2t characteristic. Tab. 7/12 lists the I2t values
stream. Without impairing the operability of the breaker in
such cases, the switching capacity of such an assembly will
of current limiting class 3 for type B and C miniature circuit-­ be increased up to 50 kA.
13 breakers up to a rated current of 63 A which are permitted
in the European region. The basis is change A13 of the EN In some countries, circuit-­breakers rather than LV HRC fuses
60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) standard. IEC 60898-1 does not are increasingly connected upstream, which – depending

14
Rated short-circuit breaking capacity ≤ 16 A 20, 25, 32 A 40 A 50, 63 A
15 in A
Type B Type C Type B Type C Type B Type C Type B Type C
3,000 15,000 17,000 18,000 20,000 21,600 24,000 28,000 30,000
4,500 25,000 28,000 32,000 37,000 38,400 45,000 48,000 55,000
16 6,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 52,000 54,000 63,000 65,000 75,000
10,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 108,000 120,000 135,000 145,000

17 Tab. 7/12:  According to EN 60898-1 / A13 (VDE 0641-11 / A13): permissible I2t-(let-through) values of current limiting class 3 (in A2s) for
MCBs type B and C up to 63 A

132 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

on the type – reduces the combined switching capacity 1

considerably. Although circuit-­breakers have a high inher-
ent rated breaking capacity, they still do not switch suffi-
ciently current-limiting in the range of the MCB switching 2
capacity limit (6 kA / 10 kA) so that they can provide less
support in relation to a fuse.
3

10
Permisssible I2t value of 1.5 mm2 line
Transformer
11
I2t in A2s

DIAZED 50 A 1 2 3
Fuse

MCB
B 16
12
104

Ik i
13
Ieff
I in A

14
TIP04_13_056_EN

B 16 3 2 1 Sine half-wave
15
103
0 5 10 10-1 0.3 0.6 1 3 6 101

t in ms Ik in kA 16

Fig. 7/15:  Selectivity of MCBs in current limiting classes 1, 2, and 3 towards back-up fuses (curve B16 applies to Siemens  back to page 132 17
model 16 A, tripping characteristic B)

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 133

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.5 Selectivity in Low-Voltage Grids

Some descriptive standards about setting up low-voltage Comparing characteristic curves
2 installations, in particular IEC 60364-7-710 (VDE 100-710)
and IEC 60364-7-718 (VDE 0100-718) ask for proof of Three diagram types can be used for comparing character-
selectivity. Full selectivity is achieved with series-connected istic curves:
3 protective devices if only the device in the immediate
vicinity upstream of the fault location disconnects from
• Time-current diagram
• Cut-off current diagram
supply. • Let-through energy diagram

4 A distinction is made between two types of selectivity: Since these characteristic curves are compared over several
• Partial selectivity according to IEC 60947-2 orders of magnitude, they are traditionally plotted on
(VDE 0660‑101): log-log paper. In the overload range, operating and total
5 If there are two series-connected overcurrent protection clearance times are approximately the same and can be
devices, the load-side protection device protects up to a plotted on one time-current diagram.
given overcurrent value by overcurrent discrimination
6 without the other protection device being active
• Full selectivity according to IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101):
Selectivity in the event of a short circuit can be evaluated
for the time range ≥ 100 ms by comparing characteristic
Overcurrent discrimination of two series-connected curves in the L or respectively the S section. Among other

7 overcurrent protection devices, where the load-side

protection device protects up to the maximum
things, tolerances, required protective settings, and a
scaled plotting of the curves must be observed.
short-circuit current present there without the other
protection device being active For the time range shorter than 100 ms, selectivity must be
8 verified by testing or by a so-called "desk study" (see
Selectivity types IEC 60947-2 Edition 4.2, 2013). In a "desk study", a com-
plex simulation is performed which considers the dynamic
9 • Current selectivity (current discrimination):
Selective current breaking capacity by grading the instan-
response of the switching devices with the corresponding
let-through and operating energies, respectively currents.
taneous short-circuit releases (Ii releases) Due to the fact that the time and cost expense involved in

10 • Time selectivity:
Grading of the adjustable tripping times (tsd in the S-part)
testing or a desk study is usually very high if different
devices are used in the power distribution system, selectiv-
of the short-circuit releases This applies to standard as ity limits can often be obtained from renowned equipment
well as to current-dependent characteristics. Regarding manufacturers only. Then, the respective cut-off currents or
11 circuit-­breakers with LSI characteristic, time selectivity is let-through energies can be compared to the operating
frequently used in main distribution boards and at inter- currents, respectively the let-through energies, of the
faces between devices of different manufacturers protective devices in practice. The prerequisite being that
12 • Dynamic / energy selectivity
Selectivity based on the evaluation of the let-through
the relevant data is available from the equipment manufac-
turer and that it is analysed thoroughly. For the reasons
energy or respectively, the cut-off current, of the down- given above, a selectivity evaluation requires the strict use
13 stream device and the tripping energy or tripping current
of the upstream protective device.
of products by one manufacturer only.

All characteristic curves must – if not already specified by

Determining the selectivity type the manufacturer – be assigned a tolerance band to ensure
14 dependable selectivity determination. IEC 60947-2
As a rule, the selective behaviour of two series-connected (VDE 0660-101) requires for switching devices that a
protection devices can be determined in one of the two tolerance of ± 20 % be allowed for the instantaneous
15 ways: overcurrent release. The operating times, which are some-
• Comparing characteristic curves (with reservations, as times considerably shorter at normal operating tempera-
demonstrated below) tures, must be considered for electromechanical overload
16 • Experimental selectivity measurement (alternatively,
a complex simulation of the selectivity conditions –
releases.

a so-called "desk study" in accordance with IEC 60947-2

Edition 4.2, 2013 – can be performed)
17

134 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Determination of the selectivity limit
2

TIP04_13_057_EN
As a rule, all selectivity limits between two protective ts in s
200 A
devices can be determined by carrying out measurements (160) 100 A 200 A
or tests. These measurements are virtually indispensable,
particularly when assessing selectivity in the event of a
Ik=1,300 A Gr.00 Gr.1 3
short circuit, owing to the extremely rapid switching opera- 1.4
50 A 50 A 100 A
tions when current-limiting protection equipment is used.
The measurements can, however, be very costly and com- Ik = 0.03
1.37 s
4
1,300 A
plicated, which is why many manufacturers publish selec-
tivity tables for their switchgear. If SIMARIS design is used,
the software automatically takes all these criteria for
K1 101 102 103
1.3
10 4
5
Siemens products into account. I in A

An approximation of minimum selectivity limits for switch-

gear assemblies can be performed as follows:
a) Selective isolating of the
short-circuit location K1
b) Prearcing times at Ik = 1,300 A
6
• With supply-side circuit-­breaker
by comparing the cut-off current characteristic of the
nearest load-side device with the operating value of the Fig. 7/16:  Selectivity between series-connected LV HRC fuses with 7
identical operational classes (example)
instantaneous short-circuit release for the line-side device
• With upstream fuse
Selectivity prevails, as long as the let-through energy of 8
the downstream protective device does not exceed the
prearcing energy of the fuse
time-current diagram can be omitted for fuses of the
same operational class
9
• Selectivity between series-connected fuses with different
7.5.1 Selectivity in Radial Networks
operational classes:
Since the shape of the time-current characteristics differ 10
Selectivity between series-connected fuses for different operational classes (for example aM and gG)
a comparison of characteristics is necessary. The associ-
The feeding line and the outgoing circuits branching from ated data must be provided by the manufacturer. For 11
the busbar of a distribution board carry different operating LV HRC fuses by Siemens the data for computer-based
currents and, therefore, also have different cross sections. selectivity determination is integrated in SIMARIS design
Consequently, they are usually protected by fuses with
different rated currents, which ensure selectivity on ac- The Joule integral (I2t values) should be compared in the
12
count of their different response behaviours. case of high short-circuit currents. In the example shown in
• Selectivity between series-connected fuses with identical
operational class:
Fig. 7/16, an LV HRC fuse with 160 A would also be fully
selective towards a fuse with 100 A.
13
When fuses of the operational class gG or gL are used,
selectivity is generally ensured across the entire overcur- Selectivity between series-connected circuit-­breakers
rent range up to the rated switching capacity (full selec- 14
tivity) if the rated currents differ by a factor of 1.6 or The different releases of circuit-­breakers allow to attain
higher (Fig. 7/16). When grading rating currents in the selectivity by proceeding in different ways when grading:
ratio 1:1.6, a comparison of characteristics in the • Current selectivity
• Dynamic selectivity (energy selectivity)
15
• Time selectivity
• Time-reduced selectivity control for zone-selective inter-
locking (ZSI)
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 135

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The different selectivity evaluations shall be dealt with ally be set to less than Ikmin -20 % so that even very small
briefly below. short circuits are cleared at the input terminals of the
downstream circuit-­breaker Q1 within the required time
2 Current selectivity (grading the operating currents of
I-releases) Only partial selectivity can be established by comparing
characteristic curves for current grading, since the curve in
3 Selectivity can be achieved by grading the operating cur-
rents of I-releases (Fig. 7/17).
the range < 100 ms – which is frequently, and quite rightly
represented by broken lines – owing to the complicated
dynamic switching and tripping operations, does not

4 Prerequisites for this are:

• Current grading with different short-circuit currents
permit any conclusions with regard to selectivity.

The short-circuit currents are sufficiently different in the

event of a short circuit at the respective mounting loca- Selectivity through circuit-­breaker coordination
5 tions of the circuit-­breakers (dynamic selectivity)
• Current grading with differently set I-releases
The rated currents and, therefore, the I-release values of With high-speed processes, for example in the event of a
6 the upstream and downstream circuit-­breakers differ
accordingly
short circuit, and the interaction of series-connected pro-
tective devices, the dynamic processes in the circuit and in
• 5-second disconnect and line-protection conditions the electromechanical releases have a considerable effect

7 In consideration of the 5-second disconnect condition

specified in IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410) or the
on selectivity behaviour, particularly if current limiters are
used. Selectivity is also achieved if the downstream current-­
5-second line-protection condition specified in limiting protection device disconnects so quickly that,
IEC 60364‑4-43 (VDE 0100-430) (if line protection cannot although the cut-off current does momentarily exceed the
8 be provided in any other way), the I-release must gener- operating value of the upstream protection device, the

9
Opening time t in s
Sr = 400 kVA 10 4
10 at 400 V,
50 Hz
102
Q2 Q1
I II
min.
103

11
ukr = 4 % 101
Ir = 577 A
Ik = 15 kA
Ie = 600 A 102
(L-release) 10 0
12 Ik = 10 kA
Q2
Ie = 4,000 A
(I-release)
L L
101

13 II
10 0
Ie = 60 A
(L-release)
Q1 I I
14 5.0 kA Ie = 720 A
(I-release) 10 -1
TIP04_13_058_EN

15 2.1 kA
M
10 -2

3~ 4
5 102 2 5 103 2 5 10 4 2 5

16 Block diagram Tripping characteristics

Current I in A
Q1 Circuit-breaker for motor protection L Inverse-time delay overload release
(current-limiting) I Instantaneous electromagnetic overcurrent release

17 Q2 Circuit-breaker (zero-current interrupter)

Fig. 7/17:  Current selectivity for two series-connected circuit-­breakers at different short-circuit current levels (example)

136 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

“mechanically slow” release does not have time to unlatch. The example of Fig. 7/18 shows the block diagram with 1
The cut-off current is dependent on the prospective four series-connected circuit-­breakers and the associated
short-circuit current (maximum solid short-circuit current grading times for selective short-circuit protection. The
to be expected) and the current limiting properties. necessary grading time, which allows for all tolerances, 2
depends on the operating principle of the release and the
Selectivity limits of two series-connected circuit-­breakers type of circuit-­breaker.

A maximum short-circuit value – the selectivity limit – up to

3
Electronic S-releases
which the downstream circuit-­breaker can open more
quickly and alone, i.e. selectively, can be determined for
each switchgear assembly. The selectivity limit may be well
With electronic short-time-delay overcurrent trip units (S-re-
leases), a grading time of approximately 70 ms to 100 ms 4
above the operating value of the instantaneous overcurrent from circuit-­breaker to circuit-­breaker is sufficient to allow
release in the upstream circuit-­breaker (see Fig. 7/17). for all tolerances. The operating current of the short-time-
Irrespective of this, it is important to verify selectivity in the delay overcurrent trip unit should be set to at least 5
event of an overload by comparing the characteristic curves 1.45 times (twice per 20 % tolerance, unless other values
and to verify that tripping times are in accordance with the are specified by the manufacturer) the value of the down-
relevant regulations. stream circuit-­breaker. 6
Generally speaking, dynamic selectivity in a short circuit
only provides partial selectivity. This may be sufficient (full
selectivity) if the prospective maximum short-circuit cur- 7
rent at the location of the downstream protection device is
lower than the established selectivity limit. In case of
current grading involving partial selectivity, as it frequently 8
results from the disconnect condition, it is often a good
possibility to verify full selectivity by considering the dy-
namic selectivity without having to use switching devices
with short-time delay overcurrent releases.
Circuit-
breaker
Supply
network
Delay time tv
of S-release
9
Selectivity by means of short-time-delay overcurrent
releases (time grading)
10
If current grading is not possible and cannot be achieved by
selecting the switchgear in accordance with selectivity 11
tables (dynamic selectivity), selectivity can be provided by 3WL1 300 ms
time-grading short-time-delay overcurrent releases. This
requires grading of both the tripping delays and the appro-
priate operating currents.
12
3WL1
3VL 200 ms
Time grading with virtually identical short-circuit currents 3VA
13
The upstream circuit-­breaker is equipped with short-time-
delay overcurrent releases (S) so that, if a fault occurs, only 3VL
the downstream circuit-­breaker disconnects the affected
3VA 100 ms
14
part of the installation from the system. Time grading can
be implemented to safeguard selectivity if the prospective 3VL
short-circuit currents are almost identical. This requires
grading of both the tripping delays and the operating
3RV
3VA
instantaneous 15
TIP04_13_059_EN

currents of the overcurrent releases.

M 16

Fig. 7/18:  Required delay time settings for electromagnetic short- 17

time-delay S-releases for selective short-circuit protection

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 137

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Additional I-releases means of appropriate communication lines. Since Q1 does

not receive any disabling signal, the I-release associated
In order to reduce the short-circuit stress in the event of a with the "virtual" tripping time ti, already trips after 10 ms.
2 ”dead” short circuit at the circuit-­breaker, the upstream
circuit-­breakers can be fitted with instantaneous electro- A short circuit at K2 is only detected by Q5; since it does
magnetic overcurrent releases in addition to the short-time not receive any disabling signal, it trips after 50 ms. With-
3 delay overcurrent releases (Fig. 7/19). The value selected
for the operating current of the instantaneous electromag-
out ZSI, breakers would only trip after 200 ms.

netic overcurrent releases must be high enough to ensure Selectivity between circuit-­breaker and fuse
4 that the releases only operate in case of direct ”dead” short
circuits and, under normal operating conditions, do not When considering selectivity in conjunction with fuses, a
interfere with selective grading. permissible tolerance of ± 10 % in the direction of current
flow must be allowed for in the time-current characteris-
5 Zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) tics.

A microprocessor-controlled short-time grading control, Circuit-­breaker with downstream fuse

6 also called zone-selective interlocking (ZSI), has been
developed for circuit-­breakers to prevent excessively long
tripping times when several circuit-­breakers are connected Selectivity between LI-releases and fuses with very low
rated currents
7 in series. This control function allows the tripping delay to
be reduced to 50 ms (maximum) for the circuit-­breakers
upstream of the short circuit location. The functioning In the overload range up to the operating current Ii of the
principle of ZSI is represented in Fig. 7/20. instantaneous overcurrent release, partial selectivity is
8 achieved if the upper tolerance band of the characteristic
A short circuit at K1 is detected by Q1, Q3, and Q5. If ZSI is fuse curve does not touch the tripping curve of the fully
active, Q3 is temporarily disabled by Q1 and Q5 by Q3 by preloaded, thermally delayed overload release (L).
9
Sn = 1,000 kVA Opening time t in s
10 at 400 V,
50 Hz
10 4

ukr = 6 %
11 In = 1,445 A
Ik = 24.1 kA
103

Q1 Q2 Q3
12 Q3
tsd3 = 200 ms
Ii (20 kA)
102

L L L
Main
101
13 distribution
board
tsd2 = 100 ms
Q2 S S
10 0
14 Sub- Ik = 17 kA tsd2 =
tsd3 =
200 ms
distribution 100 ms
board
10 -1
TIP04_13_060_EN

15 Q1
I

Ik = 10 kA 10 -2
16 M
~
102 2 5 103 2 5 10 4 2 5 10 5

Current I in A

17 Fig. 7/19:  Selectivity between three series-connected circuit-­breakers with limitation of short-circuit stress by means of an additional
I-release in circuit-­breaker Q3

138 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

When the circuit-­breakers work at "operating temperature", 1

F1 Q1
a reduction of the tripping time of up to 25 % must be
considered unless specified otherwise by the manufacturer.
L Q1 t
L
2
Full selectivity is given using circuit-­breakers without I
short-time-delay overcurrent releases (S-releases) if the
cut-off current ID of the fuse does not reach the operating
current of the instantaneous overcurrent release. This is,
3
however, only to be expected for a fuse, the rated current I
F1
of which is very low compared to the rated continuous
current of the circuit-­breaker (Fig. 7/21). 4

TIP04_13_062_EN
I
Selectivity between LS-releases and fuses with relatively
5
Ii I
high rated currents Overcurrent limit

Due to the dynamic processes that take place in electro- F1 Fuse

magnetic releases, full selectivity can also be achieved with
fuses, whose ID briefly exceeds the operating current of the
Q1 Circuit-breaker
L Inverse-time-delay overcurrent release
6
release. Once again, a reliable statement about selectivity I Instantaneous electromagnetic overcurrent release
can only be made by means of measurements or complex
simulations.
Ii Operating current of I-release
The time-current characteristics (scatter bands) do not touch 7
Full selectivity can be achieved by using circuit-­breakers Fig. 7/21:  Selectivity between circuit-­breaker and downstream fuse
with short-time-delay overcurrent releases (S-releases) if in the overload range 8

Opening time t in s 9
10 4

TIP04_13_061_EN
tsd = 200 ms
A t ZSI = 50 ms
Q5 E
103 Q1/Q2/Q4 Q3 Q5 10
K2

102 11
A tsd = 100 ms A
Q3 E t ZSI = 50 ms Q4 E
tsd = 10 ms 101 12
t ZSI = 50 ms
tsd = 200 ms
M

A
3~

t i = 10 ms
10 0 tsd = 100 ms
t ZSI 13
Q1 E Q2
t i = 10 ms
10 -1

K1
t ZSI = 50 ms
Icu 14
M M ti =
3~ 3~ 10 -2 10 ms

Communication line 102 103 10 4 10 5

15
A = Output, sends disabling signal
E = Input, receives disabling signal Current I in A
tsd
ti
=
=
Delay time, to be set at the S-release
"Virtual" tripping time of the I-release 16
tZSI = Delay time of short-circuit detection if the breaker did
not receive a disabling signal

Fig. 7/20:  Zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) of series- or parallel-connected circuit-­breakers (block diagram) back to page 138 17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 139

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 their characteristic curves – including safety margins – Selectivity ratios in the short-circuit range
do not touch. Generally, a safety margin of 100 ms be-
tween the reference curves is usually sufficient in ­practice A reliable and usually relatively high selectivity limit for the
2 (Fig. 7/22). short-circuit range can be determined in the I2t diagram.
Here, the maximum value of the let-through I2t value of
Selectivity between fuse and downstream the circuit-­breaker is compared to the minimum value of
3 circuit‑breaker the prearcing I2t value of the fuse (Fig. 7/24). Since these
values are maximum and minimum values, tolerances are
obsolete.
Selectivity ratios in the overload range
4 Selectivity with parallel feed-in
In order to achieve selectivity in the overload range, a
safety margin of tA ≥ 1 s is commonly required between the
5 lower tolerance band of the fuse and the characteristic Improving selectivity with parallel feed-in units
curve of the inverse-time-delay overload release (Fig. 7/23).
With parallel feed-in to a busbar, the total short-circuit
6 In the case of short-circuits, it is important to remember
that, after the releases in the circuit-­breaker have tripped,
current IkΣ that occurs in the faulted branch circuit com-
prises the partial short-circuit currents Ik part in the individual
the fuse continues to be heated during the arcing time. As feed-in units and represents the base current in the grading

7 described before, the selectivity limit is approximately at

the point where a safety margin of 100 ms between the
diagram (Fig. 7/25). This is the case for all fault types.

lower tolerance band of the fuse and the operating time of

the instantaneous overcurrent release, or the delay time of Two identical feed-in units
8 the short-time-delay overcurrent release is undershot.
If a short circuit occurs in the branch circuit downstream of
the circuit-­breaker Q1, the total short-circuit current IkΣ of
9 ≤ 20 kA, for example, flows through this circuit, while the
feeder circuit-­breakers Q2 and Q3 – with the branch circuit

10
Q1 F1
F1 Q1

11 t
F1
L Q1 t
S L
L tA ≥ 1 s
12
L Q1 I
I
13 F1
S tA ≥ 100 ms
TIP04_13_064_EN
TIP04_13_063_EN

I
ts tsd Ii I
14 Ik
Isd I
Overload limit

L Overload release F1 Fuse

15 S
tA
Short-time-delay overcurrent release
Safety margin
Q1 Circuit-breaker
L Inverse-time delay overload release
Isd Operating current of the S-release I Instantaneous electromagnetic overcurrent release
ts Prearcing time of the fuse
16 tsd Delay time of the S-release
tA
Ii
Safety margin
Operating current of the I-release
The time-current characteristics (scatter bands) do not touch

17 Fig. 7/22:  Selectivity between circuit-­breaker with LS-releases and Fig. 7/23:  Selectivity between fuse and downstream circuit-­breaker
downstream fuse for short-circuit protection for the overload range

140 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

at the busbar centre and feeding lines of equal length – example 630 A to 1,000 A. It is important to ensure that a 1
each carry only half this current, i.e. ≤ 10 kA. safety margin of ≥ 100 ms between the tripping characteris-
tic of the S-release and the prearcing-time / current charac-
Additional current selectivity with parallel teristic of the LV HRC fuse is provided not only during 2
transformer operation parallel operation, but also during single operation of trans-
formers.
In the grading diagram, the tripping characteristic of circuit-­
breakers Q2 and Q3 must, therefore, be considered in When setting the releases of circuit-­breakers Q1, Q2, and
3
relation to the base current of circuit-­breaker Q1. Since the Q3, it must be ensured that selectivity is also achieved for
total short-circuit current is ideally distributed equally
among the two feed-in units (ignoring the load currents in
operation with one transformer and for all short-circuit
currents (1- to 3-phase). For cost-related reasons, 4
the other branch circuits) with the branch circuit located at S‑releases for the feeder circuit-­breakers must also be
the busbar centre, the tripping characteristic of circuit-­ provided for low and medium rated fuse currents, as the
breakers Q2 and Q3 can be shifted optimally to the right resulting current selectivity of I-releases is insufficient. 5
along the current scale by a characteristic displacement
factor of 2 up to the line IkΣ, which represents the base
current for this fault condition. The result of this is selectiv-
ity both with regard to time and current.
6
If the characteristic curve of the individual circuit-­breaker is
used instead of the shifted characteristic, the exact
T1 Identical power
output
T2 7
short-circuit current (distribution) which flows through the
Ir = 600 A
circuit-­breaker must be taken into consideration. With
asymmetrical configurations and with incoming (feeding) Q2 L
S
Isd
Ii
Ik
= 3,000 A
= 12,000 A
≤ 10 kA
Q3 L
S 8
and outgoing circuits located in the busbars, short-circuit I I Ik ≤ 10 kA
current distribution will differ according to the impedance Ikpart
along the feeding lines. This is particularly important for
fused branch circuits especially with high protection, for
Ir = 200 A 9
Q1 L Ii = 2,400 A
I

IkΣ
10
M
F1 ~
11
I2t
F1
[s] Single Parallel

104
Q1 Q2 Q2+Q3 Base IkΣ
12
t in s L L L
Ikpart
Q1 103
TIP04_13_129_EN

Miniature
Q1
102
13
circuit-
breaker 101
Selectivity limit ISel I S 14
100
Q1 Circuit-breaker (max. let-through value) Ii tsd = 100 ms
TIP04_13_065_EN

F1 Fuse (min. prearcing time) (≥ 70 ms)

ISel Selectivity limit 10-1
15
10-2
102 2 4 6 103 2 4 104 2 4
3 6
I in A
16
Fig. 7/25:  Selectivity with two feeding  back to page 140
Fig. 7/24:  Selectivity between fuse and  back to page 140 transformers of the same rating and operating simultaneously; 17
downstream circuit-­breaker for short-circuit protection example with branch circuit in the busbar centre

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 141

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Three identical feed-in units Selecting the circuit-­breakers

During parallel operation of three transformers, the selec- The type of device used in the branch circuits and the
2 tivity conditions are in principle improved more than with selectivity ratios depend primarily on the question whether
two units owing to the additionally achieved current selec- circuit-­breakers with current-zero cut-off, i.e. without
tivity, as the characteristic displacement factor is between current limiting, or with current limiting are used as tie
3 2 and 3. Here, too, LS-releases are required in the feed-in
units to obtain unambiguous selectivity conditions for the
breakers. Instantaneous, current-limiting tie breakers
relieve the outgoing circuits of the effects of high unlimited
circuit-­breaker. total peak short-circuit currents Ip and, therefore, permit

4 Furthermore, it is necessary to provide additional I-releases

the use of less complex and less expensive circuit-­breakers.

to allow a fault between the transformer and feeder circuit-­ Setting the overcurrent releases in tie breakers
breaker to be detected as shown in Fig. 7/26. To this end,
5 the S-releases of the circuit-­breakers Q1 to Q3 must be set In order to be able to draw unambiguous conclusions about
to a value less than Ik and the I-releases greater than Ik, but selectivity in case of relatively low short-circuit currents, as
less than IkΣ. The highest and lowest fault currents are are present in the branch circuits of sub-distribution boards,
6 important here. The I-releases will then disconnect only the
faulted transformer branch circuit at the high-voltage and
the values set for the overcurrent releases in tie breakers
must be as high as possible.
low-voltage side. The circuit-­breakers in the “healthy”

7 feed-in units remain operative.

With two feed-in units

Parallel-connected feed-in units via tie breakers With two feed-in units and depending on the fault location
8 (left or right busbar section or branch circuit), only the
Tie breakers must perform the following protective func- associated partial short-circuit current (for example Ik part2)
tions in fault situations: flows through the tie breaker Q3 as shown in Fig. 7/27.
9 • Instantaneous release with faults in the vicinity of the
busbar
• Relief of branch circuits of the effects of high total

10 short-circuit currents

11

12

13 T1 T2 T3

IkPart 1 IkPart 2
IkΣ Ik Ik Q1 Q2
14 L
< 30 kA < 15 kA < 15 kA Q3
Q1 S Q2 Q3
I

15 15 kA 15 kA
IkΣ
TIP04_13_067_EN
TIP04_13_066

16

17 Fig. 7/26:  Selectivity with three feeding transformers operating Fig. 7/27:  Short-circuit splitting through the tie breaker Q3 with
simultaneously two feeders Q1 and Q2

142 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

With three feed-in units and fault Selectivity and undervoltage protection 1
With three feed-in units, the ratios are different depending If a short circuit occurs, the system voltage collapses to a
on which of the branch circuits shown in Fig. 7/28 a and b residual voltage at the short-circuit location. The magni- 2
is faulted. tude of the residual voltage depends on the fault imped-
• If a fault occurs at the outgoing circuit of the centre ance. With a ”dead” short circuit, the fault impedance and,
busbar section (Fig. 7/28 a), approximately equal partial
short-circuit currents flow through the tie breakers Q4
therefore, the voltage at the short-circuit location drop to
almost zero. Generally, however, arcs will be present during
3
and Q5 short circuits that generate arc-drop voltages between
• If a fault occurs at the branch circuit of the outer busbar
section, (Fig. 7/28 b), two partial short-circuit currents
approximately 30 V and 70 V, speaking from experience.
This voltage, starting at the fault location, increases propor- 4
flow through the tie breaker Q4 tionately to the intermediate impedance with increasing
proximity to the power source.
Computer-assisted selectivity check 5
Precise values for the short-circuit currents flowing through
the tie breakers are required to permit optimum setting of
the overcurrent releases. They provide information con-
6
cerning selective characteristics with a large number of
different fault currents, and are determined and evaluated
with the aid of a planning tool such as SIMARIS design. 7

10

11
a) Fault in the branch circuit b) Fault in the branch circuit
at the central busbar section at the outer busbar section
12

13
Ikpart 1 Ikpart 2 Ikpart Ikpart
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3

Q4 Q5 Q4 Q5
14

2 Ikpart
15
TIP04_13_068_EN

3 Ikpart
IkΣ IkΣ

16

Fig. 7/28:  Splitting of short-circuit currents for the purpose of setting the overcurrent releases in the tie breakers Q4 and Q5 in case of 17
three feed-in units and faults a and b in the outgoing circuit of different busbar sections

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 143

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Fig. 7/29 illustrates the voltage conditions in a low-voltage Tripping delay for contactors and undervoltage releases
switchgear installation with a ”dead” short circuit.
Undervoltage releases and contactors with tripping delay
2 If a short circuit occurs at K1 (Fig. 7/29a), the rated operat- are required to ensure that the selective overcurrent protec-
ing voltage Ue drops to 0.13 ∙ Ue at the busbar of the tion is not interrupted prematurely. They are not necessary
sub-distribution board and to 0.5 ∙ Ue at the busbar of the if current-limiting circuit-­breakers, which have a maximum
3 main distribution board. The nearest upstream circuit-­
breaker Q1 clears the fault. Depending on the size and type
total clearing time of 10 ms, are used.

of the circuit-­breaker, the total breaking time is up to 30 ms

4 for zero-current interrupters and a maximum of 10 ms for

current-limiting circuit-­breakers.

If a short circuit occurs at K2 (Fig. 7/29b), the circuit-­

5 breaker Q2 opens. It is equipped with a short-time-delay
overcurrent release (S). The delay time is at least 100 ms.
During this time, the rated operating voltage at the busbar
6 of the main distribution board is reduced to 0.13 ∙ Ue. If the
rated operating voltage drops to 0.7 – 0.35 times this value
and voltage reduction takes longer than approximately

7 20 ms, all of the circuit-­breakers with undervoltage releases

will disconnect. All contactors also open if the rated control
supply voltage collapses to below 75 % of its rated value for
longer than 5 ms to 30 ms.
8

9
a) Short circuit at the sub-distribution board b) Short circuit at the main distribution board
10

11
Q3 Q3

12 0.5 · Ue 0.13 · Ue

Main
distribution
13 Q2
tv ≥
Q2 board

100 ms

14 80 m
3 × 95 mm2 Cu
K2

0.13 · Ue Sub-
distribution
15 board
TIP04_13_069_EN

Q1 Q1
tv = 0

16 K1

Ue Rated operating voltage

tv Delay time
17
Fig. 7/29:  Voltage conditions for short-circuited low-voltage switchgear installation with a main and sub-distribution board

144 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7.5.2 Selectivity in Meshed Systems 1

Two selectivity functions must be performed in meshed Permissible current ratio
systems: 2
• Only the short-circuited cable may be disconnected from Selectivity of the fuses at node ”a” is achieved if fuse F3,
supply through which the total current Ik3 flows, melts and fuse F1
• If a short circuit occurs at the terminals of a feeding
transformer, only the faulted terminal may be discon-
or F2, through which the partial short-circuit Ik1 or Ik2
flows, remains operative. The permissible current ratio
3
nected from supply Iki / (Ik1 + Ik2) with i = 1 oder 2, for high short circuits is 0.8

Node fuses
for Siemens LV HRC fuses (400 V, up to 400 A).
4
Feeder circuit-­breaker for power transformers in the
The nodes of a meshed low-voltage system are normally meshed network
equipped with cables of the same cross section and with 5
LV HRC fuses of operational class gG of the same type and In a multi-phase meshed system (Fig. 7/31), that means
rated current (Fig. 7/30). feeding several medium-voltage lines and transformers,

If a short circuit (K1) occurs along the meshed system

reverse power feed from the low-voltage network to the
fault location should be prevented if a fault occurs in a
6
cable, the short-circuit currents Ik3 and Ik4 flow to the fault main substation or medium-voltage line. A network master
location. Short-circuit current Ik3 from node ”a” comprises
the partial currents Ik1 and Ik2 which may differ greatly
relay (reverse power relay) used to perform this task at the
low-voltage side of the transformer. Today, circuit-­breakers 7
depending on the impedance ratios. with electronic trip units, having an S-release with an I2t
characteristic for example, are used for this task.
8

10

11
Ik1 F1 F2 Ik2
a

Ik3 = Ik1 + Ik2 12

F3
Ik3 + Ik4
K1
13

Ik
Ik4
Ik 14
b

15
TIP04_13_070

TIP04_13_071

Ik

16

Fig. 7/30:  Short-circuited cable with its two feed-in nodes a and b Fig. 7/31:  Example of a meshed system with multi-phase feeding 17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 145

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 If a short circuit occurs at the high-voltage side of the

transformer (fault location K1) – see Fig. 7/32 – or between
transformer and circuit-­breaker for mesh-connected net-
2 works (fault location K2), or in the cable (fault location K3),
then the HV HRC fuse at the high-voltage side will respond.
At the low-voltage, reverse power is fed to the fault loca-
3 tion through the low-voltage circuit-­breaker with I2t charac-
teristic in the S-release. As the sum of all short-circuit
current quantities from all the other transformers flows

4 through this circuit-­breaker, this circuit-­breaker will trip fast

enough and thus selectively, owing to its I2t characteristic.

10
K3

11
K2

12
a

13 K1

14 b

15
TIP04_13_072_EN

a HV HRC fuses
c
b LV circuit-breaker with I2t

16 characteristic in the S-release

c Node fuses

17 Fig. 7/32:  Block diagram of feed-in at a substation in a meshed

network

146 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7.6 Protection of Low-Voltage 1

Capacitors
According to IEC 60831-1 (VDE 0560-46), capacitor units Harmonics suppression by means of filter circuits 2
must be suitable for continuous operation with a current
whose r.m.s. value does not exceed 1.3 times the current Another possibility how to prevent resonances is freeing
which flows with a sinusoidal rated voltage and frequency.
Owing to this reserve (considering capacity tolerances
the superordinate system from harmonics as much as possi-
ble by using filter circuits. The filter circuits are also series
3
which amount to 1.5 times the rated capacity, the maxi- resonant circuits which, unlike the reactor-connected
mum permissible current can increase to 1.15 times the
rated current), no overload protection is provided for
capacitors, are tuned precisely to the frequencies of the
harmonic currents to be filtered. As a result, the impedance 4
capacitor units in the majority of cases. is almost zero.

Capacitors in systems with harmonic components Short-circuit protection 5

The capacitors can only be overloaded in networks with LV HRC fuses in operational class gG are most frequently
devices which generate high harmonics (for example
converter-fed drives). The capacitors, together with the
used in capacitor units for short-circuit protection. A rated
fuse current of 1.6 to 1.7 times the rated current of the
6
series-connected transformer and short-circuit reactance of connected capacitor modules is selected to prevent the
the primary system, form an anti-resonant circuit. Reso-
nance phenomena occur if the natural frequency of the
fuses from responding in the overload range and when the
capacitors switch. 7
resonant circuit matches or is close to the frequency of a
harmonic current generated by the power converter. Note: Fuses, fuse-switch-disconnectors, capacitors, and
contactors must be matched during configuration. We 8
Reactor-connected capacitors recommend using tested, complete assembly kits.

The capacitors must be provided with reactors to prevent

resonance. An LC resonant circuit, the resonance frequency
9
of which is below the lowest harmonic component
(250 Hz) in the load current, is used instead of the capaci-
tor. The capacitor unit is thus inductive for all harmonic 10
currents that occur in the load current and can, therefore,
no longer form a resonant circuit with the system reac-
tance. 11
Settings of the overload relay

If thermal time-delay overload relays are used to provide

12
protection against overcurrents, the tripping value can be
set at 1.3 to 1.43 times the rated capacitor current, since,
allowing for the permissible capacitance deviation, the
13
capacitor current can be 1.1 ∙ 1.3 = 1.43 times the rated
capacitor current. With transformer-heated overload relays
or releases, a higher secondary current flows due to the 14
changed transformation ratio of the current transformers
caused by the harmonic components. This may result in
premature tripping. 15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 147

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.7 Protection of Distribution

Transformers
2 The following devices are used for protection tasks in Overcurrent protection
medium-voltage systems:
To make overcurrent protection of cables and transformer
3 HV HRC fuses branch circuits future-proof, all phases of those circuits,
usually 3 phases, shall be equipped with current transform-
HV HRC fuses are used in the range of up to about 630 kVA ers. The neutral-point connection of the medium-­voltage

4 and – provided that lines need to be switched rarely – in

connection with switch disconnectors for the short-circuit
network must be considered here.

protection of spur lines and transformers. Relay operating currents with emergency generator
operation
5 Circuit-­breakers
Care should be taken to ensure that the operating currents
If more frequent switching is required and for transformers of the protection relays provided for normal system opera-
6 rated 630 kVA and higher, we recommend protection by
circuit-­breakers. This is often specified by the DSO for the
tion are also attained in the event of faults during emer-
gency operation using generators with relatively low rated
consumer substation as well. outputs.

7 Protection relays
7.7.1 Dimensioning of Protection
Protection relays connected to current transformers (pro-
8 tection core) can perform all protection-related tasks It must be noted that the best possible fault clearing time in
irrespective of the magnitude of the short-circuit currents the event of a short circuit will be from 70 to 120 ms when
and rated operating currents of the required circuit-­ circuit-­breakers and protection relays are used. The fault
9 breakers. clearing time for a switch and fuse combination is about
5 ms. Owing to this short fault clearing time and the
Digital protection ­current-limiting effect of HV HRC fuses, a short circuit will

10 Modern protection equipment is controlled by microproces-

hardly affect the voltage quality. These differences in the
fault clearing times are also significant for the comparison
sors (digital protection) and supports all of the protective of hazards for people and installations.
functions required for a medium-voltage branch circuit.
11 Public 10-kV medium-voltage grids are normally character-
Protection as component of the energy automation system ized by a short-circuit power between 250 and 350 MVA
(20-kV grids up to 500 MVA). The corresponding energy
12 In addition, digital protection provides the option to acquire
operational and fault data, to store and retrieve them
transmitted at 70 ms (3.5 oscillation periods in the 50-Hz
grid) for circuit-­breakers amounts to about 650 to 900 kWs
through the serial data interfaces. Digital protection can, in the 10-kV grid (respectively 1,300 kWs in the 20-kV grid).
13 therefore, be incorporated in substation control and protec-
tion systems as an autonomous component.
These values are proportionally lower if the fuse clears the
fault – 45 to 65 kWs for the 10-kV grid, respectively 90 kWs
for the 20-kV grid.
Current transformer rating for protection purposes
14 These values are below the limit values [9]
Requirements in accordance with IEC 60044-1,-2, and -3 • Less or equal to 250 kWs for personal safety in case of an
(VDE 0414-44-1, -2, and -3) apply to current transformers. enclosed switchgear installation
15 Current transformers with cores in accuracy class 5P or 10P • Less or equal to 100 kWs for system function protection
must be used for the connection of protective devices. The ("complete functional endurance of all system parts and
required rated output and dimensioning factor must both equipment" [9])
16 be determined on the basis of the information provided in
the protection relay descriptions. The anticipated selectivity conditions must be checked
before the protection concept is chosen and details deter-
mined.
17

148 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Protection by HV HRC fuses simultaneous compliance with both standards VDE 0670- 1

402 and IEC 62271-105 (VDE 0671-105) is not possible. In
The rated current of the HV HRC fuses specified by the these cases, the switchgear manufacturer should be con-
manufacturers for the rated output of each transformer sulted, or a circuit-­breaker should be used for transformer 2
should be used when dimensioning the HV HRC fuses. protection.
According to VDE 0670-402, the following parameters are
considered:
• Transformer inrush current
Grading of HV HRC with LV HRC fuses in feed-in circuits 3
The lowest rated current is dimensioned by the inrush Grading HV HRC fuses and LV HRC fuses is mainly used for
currents generated when the transformers are energized
and is 1.5 to 2 times the rated transformer current. In
transformers with rated outputs of max. 400 kVA, when
LV HRC fuse-switch-disconnectors or motor fuse-disconnec- 4
practice it is normally sufficient if the maximum energiz- tors (maximum rated current is 630 A) are also applied
ing current of the transformer has a selective clearance of (example: Fig. 7/34); circuit-­breakers with overcurrent
20 % from the characteristic fuse curve at 0.1 s releases are used at the low-voltage side for rated outputs 5
• Minimum breaking current Ia min ≥ 500 kVA.
In order to determine the maximum rated current, the
minimum breaking current Ia min of the fuse must be
exceeded in the event of a short circuit at the secondary
It is acceptable for the prearcing-time / current characteris-
tics F2 (LV HRC) and F3 (HV HRC) – referred to 0.4 kV – to
6
side of the transformer reaching as far as the busbars in touch or intersect, and the switch disconnector to be
the installation. Actual practice has shown that a 25 %
minimum safety margin of Ia min should be established in
possibly tripped on the high-voltage side by the upstream
HV HRC fuse, since both fuses protect the same system 7
relation to the short-circuit current Ik of the transformer element and interruption will occur in all cases (limited
between the calculated maximum short-circuit current in selectivity). HV HRC fuses with higher rated currents (for
the vicinity of the busbar at the low-voltage side (con- example 80 A as shown in Fig. 7/34) would not be suitable 8
verted to the medium-voltage side) and the minimum here, since their lowest breaking current Ia min does not
breaking current Ia min (the circle in the prearcing-­ have a safety margin of 25 % at minimum below the
time / current characteristic) short-circuit current Ik which the transformer lets through
(maximum 10.5 kA).
9
The fuse-link can be chosen between the specified limits
according to the selectivity requirements (see Fig. 7/33). A non-selective fuse response, as demonstrated in the
example of the 50 A HV HRC fuse towards the 630 A 10
Protection by switch disconnectors and HV HRC fuses low-voltage fuse (Fig. 7/34) may result in damage of un-
blown fuse-links in case of faults in the low-voltage busbar,
As a switch disconnector is normally used for transformer so that the tripping characteristic is changed and the fuse 11
protection when HV HRC fuses are used, their limited may trip at any time under any load – even below its rated
current breaking capacity must be taken into account. current. In the event of protective tripping by the HV HRC
According to IEC 62271-105 (VDE 0671-105), the following
two conditions must be met among others:
fuse, or the low-voltage fuse, both fuse links should always
be replaced altogether. This applies to all descriptions
12
• The transient current of the HV HRC fuse / switch discon- below and the examples given for HV HRC fuses, where
nector combination must be lower than the breaking
capacity of the switch disconnector
non-selective protection at the transformers’ low-voltage
side is provided (Fig. 7/35 to Fig. 7/37).
13
• A secondary-side transformer short circuit should be
cleared by the HV HRC fuse in order to relieve the switch
disconnector from high transient recovery voltages 14
On account of the extremely complex interaction of this
combination and the data required, such as the characteris-
tic time-current curve of the HV HRC fuse, time to con-
15
tact separation, and rated transient current of the
switch ­disconnector, the manufacturer of the
medium-voltage switchgear must provide the fuse type
16
and rated current to be used for the specified transformer.
In practice it may happen under difficult conditions, that
17

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 149

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Grading of HV HRC fuses with low-voltage circuit-­ vices, as well as the short-circuit currents likely to be pres-
breakers and downstream LV HRC fuses ent at the fault locations must then be taken into account.

2 Requirements Tolerances of HV HRC fuses

Selectivity is to be established between the protective According to EC 60282-1 (VDE 0670-4), the tolerance of HV
3 devices of the branch circuits and those of the feed-in,
which together form a functional unit; the safety margins
HRC fuse-links can be ±20 %. Siemens HV HRC fuse-links
have a tolerance of ±10 %.
of the protective devices must also be considered (Fig. 7/35

4 and Fig. 7/36).

Protection by circuit-­breakers with definite-time
Grading between LV HRC fuses and L- / S-releases overcurrent protection (DMT)

5 Selectivity is achieved with the 315-A fuse-link used in the

Requirements
example (Fig. 7/35). With L- and S-releases the excitation
values IR and Isd as well as the delay times tR and tsd must The two feed-in circuit-­breakers in Fig. 7/38 to Fig. 7/41
6 be matched to the transformer output and the down-
stream LV HRC fuse. If a low-voltage circuit-­breaker is used
form a functional unit and must be selectively graded
towards the protective devices at the low-voltage side.
with an additional I4t characteristic in the L-release, high-

7 er-rated LV HRC fuses can be used in the branch circuits

owing to their characteristics, and selectivity will still be
DMT protection

maintained (Fig. 7/36). If circuit-­breakers, such as the Nowadays, digital devices are used to provide DMT protec-
Siemens 3WL, are used instead of LV HRC fuses, branch tion in practically all applications. They have broader set-
8 circuits can be configured with higher currents while ting ranges, allow a choice between definite-time and
maintaining selectivity (Fig. 7/37), as the S-releases can inverse-time overcurrent protection or overload protection,
be adapted accordingly with regard to their excitation provide a greater and more consistent level of measuring
9 currents Isd and delay times tsd. accuracy and are self-monitoring.

Grading between HV HRC fuses and L- / S-releases 2-zone DMT protection

10 Since the protective devices in the feed-in system form a If DMT protection is applied, whose protective function
functional unit, a restriction in selectivity in the upper merely consists of the two I> and I>> (ANSI 50 / 51)
short-circuit current range is accepted in case of faults in short-circuit zones, and if no further measures are taken for
11 the vicinity of the busbars (as indicated by the circle in the transformer protection, the I> zone is normally used as
diagram for the 80 A HV HRC fuse in Fig. 7/35 to Fig. 7/37), standby protection for the low-voltage side. This means the
because faults inside the switchgear in this short-circuit I> zone is set to 1.5 up to 2.0 times the transformer’s rated
12 range can virtually be ruled out for Siemens low-voltage
SIVACON switchboards.
current. Consequently, the size of the branch circuits in the
main distribution system at the low-voltage level is limited
in order to ensure selectivity there. For example, with a
13 Even partial selectivity of the low-voltage circuit-­breaker in
the branch circuit with the HV HRC fuse (Fig. 7/35) in the
630 kVA transformer this means:
• A fuse of a maximum size of 160 A can be used in the
upper short-circuit range is often acceptable, as dead main distribution (Fig. 7/38). In practice, this roughly
3-phase short-circuit currents can be ruled out in practice, corresponds to 20 % of the rated transformer current
14 and faults will be below the selectivity level just a few • With circuit-­breakers, their maximum size depends on the
meters downstream of the protective device (here: the setting ranges of the circuit-­breakers’ releases and their
intersection of the HV HRC fuse curve and S-release curve). tolerances, as well as the protective devices in the branch
15 In these cases, the more cost-effective variant, the HV HRC circuits of the sub-distribution board. Selective grading
fuse, is preferred to a medium-voltage circuit-­breaker, and using Siemens 3WL circuit-­breakers (630 A or even 800 A)
not the fulfilment of 100 % selectivity. is possible (Fig. 7/39). Generally speaking, circuit-­breakers
16 The requirement of full selectivity and the use of HV HRC
can be used with current ratings of 50 % up to 80 % of the
rated transformer current
fuses can often be met by implementing zone-selective
interlocking (ZSI) with low-voltage circuit-­breakers. All of Intersection of the characteristics Q2 and Q3 in the middle
17 the downstream distribution systems and protective de- short-circuit range is permissible because

150 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• the low-voltage circuit-­breaker and the medium-voltage and the prevailing boundary conditions can only be given 1
circuit-­breaker form a functional unit by the specialized technical departments of the equipment
• the L-release of the low-voltage circuit-­breaker Q2 pro- manufacturer. In practice, the rated currents of the current
tects the transformer against overloading, which practi- transformers used for DMT protection devices can be 2
cally is present in the range of 1.0 – 1.3 times the rated determined as follows:
current of the transformer only • General use of 1-A current transformers (secondary side)
• a safety margin of 50 ms to 100 ms exists between the
operating value of the I> tripping of the DMT protection
if numerical protection technology is applied. Usually, this
approach almost completely rules out possible problems
3
(lower tolerance band) and the upper tolerance bands of regarding non-saturated transmission of short-circuit
the characteristic LV HRC fuse curve F1 and the S-release
of the circuit-­breaker Q1 in the branch circuits, which
currents and the burdening of the current transformers
for DMT protection in advance 4
means that selectivity is ensured • The primary rated current of the current transformer
should be 1.2 to 2.0 times the transformer rated current.
2-zone DMT protection with overload protection This protects the current transformer against damage 5
through overload, as today – unless required otherwise
If advanced DMT protection equipment is applied, which – current transformers without overload capability are
provides additional overload protection Ith (ANSI Code 49)
besides the two standard short-circuit protection zones
used for cost reasons
• The primary rated current of the current transformer
6
I> / I>>, the I> zone can act as a “proper” short-circuit should not exceed four times the transformer rated
protection zone, and the overload protection function can
be used as transformer protection and standby protection
current in order to prevent significant impacts of current
transformer tolerances on measurements and current 7
for the low-voltage side. Above all, this allows the use of evaluations
larger fuses in the low-voltage branch circuits. In the con-
text of overload protection, it must be ensured that For our example this means: 8
preloading is also considered for selectivity evaluation. For
example, with a 630-kVA transformer this means: To match the high-voltage-side rated transformer current of
• A fuse of a maximum size of 315 A can be used in the
main distribution (Fig. 7/40). In practice, this roughly
36.4 A (630 kVA, 10 kV), a primary current transformer
current between 1.2 ∙ InTr and 2 ∙ InTr – meaning in the
9
corresponds to 35 % of the rated transformer current range of [43.7 A … 72.8 A] – should be selected. A 60 / 1-A
• With circuit-­breakers, their maximum size depends on the
setting ranges of the circuit-­breakers’ releases and their
current transformer is a good solution.
10
tolerances, as well as the protective devices in the branch
circuits of the sub-distribution board. Selective grading
using Siemens 3WL circuit-­breakers (630 A or even 800 A) 11
is possible (Fig. 7/41). Generally speaking, circuit-­breakers
can be used with current ratings of 50 % up to 80 % of the
rated transformer current 12
Current transformer sizing for protection purposes

Dimensioning a current transformer depends on many

13
parameters if correct functioning of the relays is to be
ensured. This includes:
• maximum short-circuit currents present 14
• requirements set by the protective devices on the current
transformers
• secondary-side rated current transformer current
• burden of the connecting cables and other connected
15
protective devices
• power output and inherent burden of the current trans-
former
16
• rated accuracy limit factor of the current transformer

Authorized information on the precise rating of these 17

current transformers matching the protection relays applied

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 151

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Setting the short-circuit current zones I>, I>>, and time

delays t>, t>>

2 • Short-circuit current zone I> • Short-circuit current zone I>>

Assuming that additional overload protection Ith has also The short-circuit current zone I>> is set in such a way, that
3 been set in the DMT protection device, the short-circuit
current zone I> is chosen in such a way that it will excite at
it will only detect primary-side faults which are then cleared
as fast as possible. Usually, it is chosen with a safety margin
a safety margin of approximately 20 % towards the mini- of approximately 20 % above the maximum 3-phase fault at

4 mum 1-phase fault at the secondary side of the trans-

former. Please note that on account of the transformer’s
the secondary side of the transformer.

Dy vector group, this fault is shown at the primary side as When taking the cmax factor for low-voltage systems into
follows: account – as given in the standard for short-circuit current
5 Ik1 min sec calculation, IEC 60909-0 (VDE 0102) –, the maximum
Ik min prim = secondary-side three-phase short-circuit current can ini-
ü· 3 tially be approximated as:
6 ü representing the transformer’s transformation ratio. cmax · InTr sec · 100
In the example from Fig. 7/40 and Fig. 7/41: Ik3 max sec =
ukr
7 ü = 10 kV / 0.4 kV = 25 I
Ik3 max prim = k3 max sec
ü
Assuming a minimum single-phase short-circuit current of
8 approx. 12.5 kA (in this example: transformer with With the 630-kVA transformer of the example and a
630 kVA, ukr 6 %), there is: cmax factor = 1.1 there is

9 Ik min prim ≈ 288  A Ik min prim ≈ 667 A

Consequently, when considering a safety margin of Consequently, when considering a safety margin of

10 approximately 20 %, there is: approximately 20 %, there is:

I’k min prim = 0.8 ∙ Ik min prim ≈ 230 A I’k min prim = 1.2 ∙ Ik min prim ≈ 800 A
11 With a selected value A selected value of I’k max prim = 810 A results in the
following setting value:
I’k min prim = 210 A
12 I>> ≥ 810 A = 13.5 A
there is the setting value: 60/1

13 I> ≥ 210 A = 3.5 A In practice, the time delay of the I>> zone is set to 50 to
60/1 100 ms.

The delay of the I> zone is set to t ≥ 0.5 s.

14

15

16

17

152 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_081_EN
3GD 50 A 10 kV
2
t

Base Ik < 10.5 kA

min

3GD
50 A
3
100 400 kVA 4
ukr 6 %
Ik < 10.5 kA
5
0.4 kV
6
10
s

8
Ia min
1
≥ 25 % Safety margin 9

10
IRush
0.1 11
ms

≥ 20 % Safety margin

12

13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14
A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A bei 10 kV 40 80 120 2 00 400 800 2,000
I
15
ts Prearcing time of fuses
Minimum breaking current Ia min of HV HRC fuse
16

Fig. 7/33:  Example for dimensioning a HV HRC fuse acc. to the minimum breaking current of the HV HRC fuse and  back to page 149 17
the energizing current of the transformer

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 153

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1.000

TIP04_13_082_EN
10 kV
2 F3
3GD 50 A
t

3GD
3GD 80 A
3
min

F3 50 A
F2 (80 A)
3NA 630 A Base Ik < 10.5 kA
4 100 400 kVA
ukr 6 %

F1
5 3NA 400 A F2 3NA
630 A

6
10 0.4 kV
s

7
3NA
F1
400 A
8
1 Ia min Ik< 10.5 kA
9
≥ 25 % Safety margin
is not observed!
10

11 0.1
ms

12

13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14
A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000

15 A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000

I
ts Prearcing time of fuses
Minimum breaking current Ia min of HV HRC fuse
16

17 Fig. 7/34:  Example of grading HV HRC fuses – LV HRC fuses in the branch circuit and a 400-kVA transformer  back to page 149

154 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_083_EN
10 kV
F2
2
t

3GD 80 A
3GD 3
min

F2 80 A
Q1 Base Ik < 16.4 kA
100 3WL 1,000 A 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
4
3WL
I2t Characteristic
Q1 1,000 A
tsd 300 ms
5
0.4 kV

10
F1
3NA 315 A
6
s

3NA
F1 315 A 7
Ik < 16.4 kA
8
1

tsd
9

10
0.1
ms

11

12

0.01 13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000

A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000 14

A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
I
ts Prearcing time of fuses 15
tsd Delay time of S-release (Q1)

16

Fig. 7/35:  Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-­breaker Q1 and downstream LV HRC fuse F1 in the  back to page 149 17
branch circuit

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 155

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_084_EN
10 kV
2
F2
t

3GD 80 A
3 3GD
min

Q1 F2 80 A
3WL 1,000 A
I4t Characteristic Base Ik < 16.4 kA
4 100 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
3WL 1,000 A
5 Q1 Isd 4,000 A
tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV
6 10
F1
3NA 400 A
s

3NA
7 F1 315 A

8 Ik < 16.4 kA

1
9 tsd

10

11 0.1
ms

12

13 0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,50010,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I
tsd Delay time of S-release (Q1)

16

17 Fig. 7/36:  Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-­breaker Q1 (optional I4t characteristic of the L-release)  back to page 150
and downstream LV HRC fuse F1 in the branch circuit

156 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_085_EN
10 kV
2
F2
t

3GD 80 A
3GD
3
min

F2 80 A
Q2
3WL 1,000 A
Base Ik < 16.4 kA
I2t Characteristic
100 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
4
Q1
3WL 630 A 3WL 1,000 A
I2t Characteristic Q2 Isd 4,000 A 5
tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV

10 3WL 630 A
6
Q1
s

Isd 2,500 A
tsd 200 ms
7

Ik < 16.4 kA 8
1

tsd2
9

10
tsd1

0.1
11
ms

12

0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000

A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000 14

A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000

ts Prearcing time of fuses

I 15
tsd1 Delay time of S-release (Q1)
tsd2 Delay time of S-release (Q2)
16

Fig. 7/37:  Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-­breaker Q2 and downstream circuit-­breaker Q1 with an  back to page 149 17
LSI-release in the branch circuit

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 157

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_086_EN
2 Q3
10 kV
t

I> 66 A/500 ms
3 60/1 A
min

I>> 810 A/50 ms

630 kVA
Base Ik < 16.4 kA
100
4 Q2
3WL 1,000 A
ukr 6 %

3WL 1,000 A
I2t Characteristic Q2 Isd 4,000 A

5 tsd 300 ms

0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A
6 10
Isd 1,260 A
tsd 200 ms
3NA
s

F1
160 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA

8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9

10 tsd2

F1
3NA 160 A
11 0.1 Q3
ms

I>> / t>>

12

13 0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I

tsd2 Delay time of S-release (Q2)

16 t> / t>> Delay time of short-circuit trip zones I> / I>> of the DMT protection (Q3)

17 Fig. 7/38:  Example of grading a circuit-­breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-­breaker, 1,000 A with LSI-release  back to page 150
(Q2) and downstream branch circuits, e.g. with LV HRC fuse 160 A (F1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA

158 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_087_EN
Q3
10 kV
2
t

I> 66 A/500 ms
60/1 A
3
min

I>> 810 A/50 ms

Q1
3WL 630 A 630 kVA
Base Ik < 16.4 kA ukr 6 %
I2t Characteristic
100
4
3WL 1,000 A
Q2 Q2 Isd 4,000 A
3WL 1,000 A tsd 300 ms
I2t Characteristic 5
0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A

10
Isd 1,260 A
tsd 200 ms
6
3NA
s

F1
160 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA

8
Q3
1 I> / t>
9
tsd2
10
tsd1

0.1
11
ms

Q3
I>> / t>>

12

0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000

A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000 14

A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000

ts Prearcing time of fuses

I 15
tsd1 Delay time of S-release (Q1)
tsd2 Delay time of S-release (Q2)
t> / t>> Delay time of short-circuit trip zones I> / I>> of the DMT protection (Q3)
16

Fig. 7/39:  Example of grading a circuit-­breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-­breaker, 1,000 A with LSI-release  back to page 150 17
(Q2) and downstream branch circuits with 3WL circuit-­breaker, 630 A, LSI-release (Q1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 159

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_088_EN
2 Q3
Ith Q3
10 kV

0 % Preload
t

100 % Preload 42 A
3
Ith
60/1 A
min

I> 210 A/500 ms

I>>
810 A/50 ms

Q2 Base Ik < 16.4 kA 630 kVA

4 100 3WL 1,000 A

I2t Characteristic
ukr 6 %

3WL 1,000 A
Q2 Isd 4,000 A

5 F1
3NA 315 A
tsd 300 ms

0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A
6 10
Isd 2,560 A
tsd 200 ms
3NA
s

F1
315 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA

8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9

10 tsd2

11 0.1 Q3
ms

I>> / t>>

12

13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I

tsd2 Delay time of S-release (Q2)

16 t> / t>> Delay time of short-circuit trip zones I> / I>> of the DMT protection (Q3)

17 Fig. 7/40:  Example of grading a circuit-­breaker with DMT protection and overload protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-­breaker,  back to page 151
1,000 A with LSI-release (Q2) and downstream branch circuits with LV HRC fuse 315 A (F1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA

160 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1,000

TIP04_13_089_EN
Q3
Ith Q3
10 kV
2
0 % Preload
t

100 % Preload 42 A
3
Ith
60/1 A
min

I> 210 A/500 ms

I>>
810 A/50 ms
Q2
3WL 1,000 A Base Ik < 16.4 kA 630 kVA
100
Q1
I2t Characteristic
ukr 6 %
4
3WL 1,000 A
3WL 630 A Q2 Isd 4,000 A
I2t Characteristic tsd 300 ms
5
0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A

10
Isd 2,560 A
tsd 200 ms
6
3NA
s

F1
315 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA

8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9
tsd2

10
tsd1

0.1 Q3
11
ms

I>> / t>>

12

0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000

A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000 14

A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000

ts Prearcing time of fuses

I 15
tsd1 Delay time of S-release (Q1)
tsd2 Delay time of S-release (Q2) 16
t> / t>> Delay time of short-circuit trip zones I> / I>> of the DMT protection (Q3)

Fig. 7/41:  Example of grading a circuit-­breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-­breaker, 1,000 A with LSI-release  back to page 150 17
(Q2) and downstream branch circuits with 3WL circuit-­breaker, 630 A, LSI-release (Q1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA

Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 161

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 7.7.2 Equipment for Protecting

Distribution Transformers against
Internal Faults
2
The following signalling devices and protection equipment
are used to detect internal transformer faults:
3 • Devices for monitoring and protecting liquid-cooled
transformers such as Buchholz protectors, temperature
detectors, contact thermometers, etc.

4 • Temperature monitoring systems for GEAFOL resin-­

encapsulated transformers comprising:
–– temperature sensors in the low-voltage winding and
–– signalling and tripping devices in the incoming-feeder
5 switchpanel

The thermistor-type thermal protection protects the trans-

6 former against overheating resulting from increased ambi-
ent temperatures or overloading. Furthermore, it allows the
full output of the transformer to be utilised irrespective of

7 the number of load cycles without the risk of damage to

the transformer.

These signalling and protection devices needn't be included

8 in the grading diagram.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

162 Totally Integrated Power – Protective Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution

Chapter 8­
Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices
and Switchgear
8.1 Medium-Voltage Switchgear 165
8.2 Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices 175
8.3 Medium-Voltage Protection 185
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 8 M
 edium-­Voltage Switching Devices and
duction
Switchgear
1 According to international rules, there are only two voltage Most operating voltages in medium-­voltage grids are in the
levels: 3 kV AC to 40.5 kV AC range.
• Low voltage (LV): up to and including 1 kV AC
2 (or 1.5 kV DC) The electrical transmission and distribution systems not
• High voltage (HV): above 1 kV AC only connect power stations and electricity consumers, but
(or 1.5 kV DC) also, with their “meshed systems”, form a nationwide
3 Most electrical appliances used in household, commercial
backbone with reserves for reliable supply and for the
compensation of load differences. High operating voltages
and industrial applications work with low voltage. High (and therefore low currents) are preferred for power trans-

4 voltage is used not only to transmit electrical energy over

very large distances, but also, finely branched, for regional
mission in order to minimise losses. The voltage is then
transformed to the usual values of the low-voltage grid in
distribution to the load centres. However, as different high the load centres close to the consumer.
voltages are used for transmission and regional distribu-
5 tion, and since the tasks and requirements of the switch- In public power supplies, the majority of medium-­voltage
ing devices and switchgear also differ greatly, the term grids are operated in the 10 kV to 30 kV range (operating
“medium voltage” has come to be used for the voltages voltage). The values vary greatly from country to country,
6 required for regional power distribution. Medium voltage
is considered to be part of the high voltage range above
depending on the historical technological development and
the local conditions. Apart from the public supply, there are
1 kV AC up to and including 52 kV AC. other voltages in industrial plants with medium-­voltage

7 grids that depend on the consumers; in most cases, the

operating voltages of the installed motors are decisive.
Operating voltages between 3 kV and 15 kV are very often
used in industrial supply networks.
8

10

11

12 TIP04_13_090_EN

13

14
220 kV

15 High voltage

52 kV

16 Medium voltage
Medium
voltage
1 kV
Low voltage
17
Fig. 8/1:  Voltage levels between the power plant and the consumer

164 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

8.1 Medium-Voltage Switchgear protection is often ensured by the assigned circuit-­ 1

breaker at the primary distribution level. The require-
When planning switchgear, functions and influencing ments placed on secondary features are usually lower.
factors must be matched and an economically efficient Typical forms are: 2
solution must be found among the offerings of manufac- –– The consumer substation from which the energy is
turers. For this there is no simple recipe with an unam­ distributed at the fed-in line voltage (medium voltage).
biguous solution because:
• The tasks of a switchgear substation can vary greatly
A load transfer switch (coupling) in the substation can
form the property border between the supply company
3
• Many influencing factors are interdependent and the customer if the customer wants to develop his
• The same influencing factors and requirements can be
weighted differently by different manufacturers
switchgear part independently. In that case, measuring
and metering equipment for billing will also be 4
available
Generally, a switchgear substation shall provide a high level –– The substation, also called secondary unit substation,
of safety so that both operator protection and fault-free where the energy is transformed from medium into 5
network operation is ensured. It must meet the require- low voltage and distributed as such. In industrial
ment of touch protection and exclude the possibility of plants, substations are often installed in the production
maloperation. If a fault occurs nevertheless, its impact on
the fault location should be limited and not entail personal
centres which are also load centres. Therefore, these
substations are called load-centre substations. For very
6
injury. compact-built substations which are not accessible, the

In analogy to distribution grids, switchgear can be assigned

designation 'small' or 'compact substation' has become
popular 7
to the primary or secondary distribution level:
• What is characteristic for the primary distribution level are
high load and short-circuit currents and high-end second- 8.1.1 Standards for the Design and 8
ary features of the switchgear with regard to protection, Installation of Medium-­Voltage
measuring, and (remote) control. At the primary distribu- Switchgear
tion level (Fig. 8/2) you will find the main substation,
where energy is fed in with a higher voltage and trans- The standards distinguish between two main groups of
9
formed to the medium-­voltage level. The switchgear is medium-­voltage switchgear:
almost completely equipped with circuit-­breakers. They
switch large consumers, mostly in industrial plants, or
• Factory-assembled, type-tested plants with
–– Metal enclosure in accordance with
10
cable rings which feed switchgear at the secondary IEC 62271-200 (VDE 0671-200)
distribution level –– Moulded-plastic enclosure in accordance with
• At the secondary distribution level, the switchgear is IEC 62271-201 (VDE 0671-201) 11
equipped with switches or a mixture of switches and
circuit-­breakers, where the proportion of switches • On-site or workshop-built switchgear in accordance with
clearly dominates. The currents are lower, short-circuit IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1), as it is rarely built nowadays 12
In the following, we will describe the metal-enclosed,
Power generation
and high-voltage
G type-tested medium-­voltage switchgear in accordance with
IEC 62271-200 (VDE 0671-200), since both moulded-­
13
grid plastic enclosed and on-site built, i.e. workshop-built plants
are manufactured significantly less frequently. The high
Main substation manufacturing and testing expense often amortise only if 14
Primary high quantities are produced and the production is stand-
distribution level
ardised accordingly. The technical data must be verified by
Medium-voltage
grid
Secondary-
unit
type tests. The manufacturing quality is monitored by
routine tests.
15
TIP04_13_091_EN

substation Consumer substation

Secondary
distribution level 16
Low-voltage grid
17
Fig. 8/2:  Structure of the voltage and power distribution levels

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 165

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 8.1.2 Configuration Parameters

The selection parameters for the configuration of switch- • Any selection

2 gear can be distinguished as follows: for example switchgear type, switching devices and their
• Pre-defined operating mechanisms, busbar circuitry, compartments
for example connection to earth, grid voltage, grid fre- and partitions, operational availability, accidental arc
3 quency, neutral-point connection, ambient conditions,
peak short-circuit current
qualification

• Conditionally selectable Tab. 8/1 gives an overview of the configuration parameters

4 for example insulation level, neutral-point connection,

overvoltage protection, short-circuit duration, type of
and characteristics which may play a part in the planning.
The most important aspects are presented in more detail
operating area, plant design below.

5
Selection parameter Determinants

6 • Ur Rated voltage • Line voltage

• Rated insulation level Insulation coordination
Ud Short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage • Neutral-point connection

7 Up Lightning impulse withstand voltage • Cable / overhead line grid

• “Critical” consumers
• Overvoltage protection

8 • Altitude
Primary rated values

• Environmental influences (pollution)

• Rated withstand capacity • Grid characteristics

9 Ip Peak current
IK Short-time current
• Consumers and power quality
• Grid protection, response times
tK Short-circuit duration • Selectivity criteria

10 • Rated switching capacity

Ima Short-circuit making current
Isc Short-circuit breaking current

11 • Ir Rated operating current

Busbar
• Load (feeder circuit), power to be distributed (busbar)
• Ambient temperature
Feeder circuits • Reserves / service continuity

12 Selection parameter Determinants

• Single / Double busbar • System configuration
• Bus sectionalizer / busbar coupler, longitudinal (BCL) • Grid protection, response times, selectivity criteria
13 • Switch-over (BCL) using switch or circuit-­breaker • Reserves / service continuity, switch-over times
Busbar circuit

• Busbar coupler, transversal (BCT) (double busbar) • Operational procedures

• Embedded or in-plant power generation, emergency power supply

14 • Power quality (unsteady loads)

• Operational procedures
• Double busbar with common connection • Frequency of busbar switch-over

15 • Two single busbar systems • Interlockings, switching fault protection

• Installation (spatial)

Selection parameter Determinants

16 • Circuit-­breaker • Operating current and switching task
Switching
device

• Switch • Switching capacity (fault currents)

17 • Contactor
• HV HRC fuse
• Switching frequency
• Grid protection, selectivity requirements

166 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Selection parameter Determinants

• Circuit-­breaker panel • Primary rated values 1
• Switch panel • Switching devices
Design and panel type

• Type of construction
– Extendable panels
• Operating current, switching capacity
• Grid protection
2
– Block type • Numerical ratio of switch panels to circuit-­breaker panels
• Operational workflows and handling 3
• Conditions of installation
• Transportation and mounting
• Expandability, electrical / mechanical reserves 4
Selection parameter Determinants

• Air (AIS)
• Room climate: temperature cycling, humidity,
pollution, salt, aggressive gases 5
Insulation medium

• Gas (GIS) • Type of operating site

• Place of installation (spatial requirements)
• Fire protection requirements (fire load)
6
• Altitude
• Switching frequency and switch lifetime
7
Selection parameter Determinants

• Withdrawable unit / truck • Switching frequency

8
Disconnector

• Disconnector (fixed-mounted) • Service life of components

• Operational requirements
(access to cable terminations, e.g. for cable test)
9
Selection parameter Determinants
Degree of protection
(IP in accordance with IEC 60529, VDE 0470-1)
• Environmental conditions
10
Encapsulation

• Internal arc classification (IAC) • Personal safety

– A or B (type of accessibility) • Type of operating site
– F / L / R (classified sides) • Building 11
– IA, tA (arc fault current and duration)

12
• Pressure relief duct

Selection parameter Determinants

• Category of service continuity
• Operational procedures
(compartment partitioning LSC – loss of service continuity)
– LSC 1 – Operating, working
13
– LSC 2 – Maintenance requirements
Compartments and partitions

– LSC 2A • Servicing / Maintenance 14
– LSC 2B (Service life of components)
• Accessibility and access control using • Operating company instructions
– Interlocking • Personnel qualification 15
– Work instruction + locking • Shock-hazard protection during work in progress
– Tools • Switchgear space requirements
• Non-accessible switchgear compartment
16
• Partition class
– PM (partition of metal)
– PI (partition of insulating material)
17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 167

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Selection parameter Determinants

Cable connection Operating and short-circuit current
– Termination: conventional / plug Switching task
2 – Number of cables • Cable / overhead line
Outgoing feeder components

– Conductor cross sections • Altitude

• Surge arrester
3 • Voltage transformer • Grid protection
– Earth fault winding (if required) • Metering, counting
– Current transformer • Control
4 – Number and data of cores • Neutral earthing
• Summation current transformer
(cable-type current transformer)
5 • Earthing switch • Operational procedures
– Class E0, E1 or E2

6
Selection parameter Determinants
• Measuring transducer • Grid protection and measurement
components

• Earthing switch • Operational procedures

Busbar

7 – Class E0, E1 or E2

• Surge arrester

8 Selection parameter Determinants

• Protection relays • Grid parameters, protective equipment
• Equipment for control, interlocking, • Grid operation, integration into (industrial) processes
Secondary equipment

9 and switching fault protection

• Equipment for metering, counting,
and operational procedures
• Electromagnetic compatibility
measured-value transducers
• Equipment for monitoring
10 and communication
• Motorized drives
• Voltage test system
11 • Damping resistor (for voltage transformer)
Tab. 8/1:  Overview of the rated values and selection parameters for the configuration of medium-­voltage switchgear

12
8.1.3 Medium-Voltage Switchgear Design
13 Gas-insulated switchgear should be used for the medium-­ Operator protection
voltage consumer substation. The advantages of gas-insu-
lated switchgear are: • The gas-insulated switchgear is safe to touch thanks to its
14 • Lower space requirements (up to approx. 70 % savings earthed metal enclosure
with 30 kV) compared to air-insulated switchgear • HV HRC fuses and cable terminations are only accessible
• Smaller transportation size and consequently easier if branch circuits are earthed
15 shipping • Operation is only possible if the enclosure is fully sealed
• Increased reliability of operation due to hermetically (and any doors closed)
sealed primary switchgear section (adverse impact such • A maintenance-free pressure absorption system, laid out
16 as from contamination, small animals, contact, condensa-
tion are excluded due to the encapsulation)
as “special cooling system” reduces pressure-related and
thermal impacts of an arc fault so that personnel and
• Maintenance-free primary section (no lubrication and building will be safe (Fig. 8/3).
readjustment necessary)
17 • Better eco balance than air-insulated switchgear referred
to the entire system life cycle

168 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
1 Low-voltage cubicle
Switchgear room Switchgear room
1 – Standard for
circuit-breaker panels
2
≥ 2,400
1 2 2
≥ 1,000 – Option for every
3 9 other panel type
≥ 1,000

3
4 10 2 Pressure-relief opening
890
3 Room height

≥ 2,400
775 ≥ 1,000 5

2,300
2,000

4 Panel depth
828
6
5 Operator aisle
4
6 Cable space cover
7 Cables

5
7 300 11
8 Height of cable basement
corresponding to cable
115 ~200 bending radius
2 > 600 8 12

Cable basement 9
834
Cable basement
9 Direction of pressure relief
10 Pressure absorption duct
6
Side view 11 Height of pressure
Side view
absorption canal base
beneath the switchgear panel 7
≥ 15 ≥ 15 12 Depth of pressure
absorption canal behind
switchgear panel
8
≥ 200
≥ 200

620

10
620

11
≥ 50
≥ 50

Top view Top view TIP04_13_092_EN

Switchgear arrangement with standard panels Switchgear arrangement with rear pressure absorption canal (option)
12
Fig. 8/3:  Room layout for switchgear with pressure relief downward (left) and with pressure absorption duct  back to page 168
13
Expandability Installation site
14
The switchgear should be extendible with a minimum time The switchgear shall be usable as indoor installation in
expense. A modular system with ordering options for accordance with IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1). A distinction is
busbar extensions on the right, left or both sides provides
the best prerequisite for this:
made between:
• Switchgear types in locations with no access from the
15
• Individual panels and panel blocks can be mounted public, outside closed off electrical operating areas.
side-by-side and extended as desired – no gas work
required on site
Switchgear enclosures can only be removed with the aid
of tools and operation by ordinary persons must be
16
• Low-voltage compartment (cubicle) is available in two prevented
heights, wired to the switchgear panel by means of plug • Closed electrical operating areas: A closed electrical
connectors operating area is a room or location used solely for the 17
• All panels can be replaced at any time operation of electrical switchgear and is kept locked.

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 169

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Access is only granted to electrically skilled persons and

TIP04_13_093_EN
electrically instructed persons; for ordinary persons only

≥ 800 mm
≥ 500 mm
when accompanied by electrically skilled or instructed
2 persons.
Operator aisle

Operating and maintenance areas

3 • These are corridors, connecting passages, access areas,
transportation and escape routes

4 • Corridors and access ways must be sufficiently dimen-

sioned for work, operation and transportation of compo-
≥ 500 mm Mounting aisle
Escape route ≤ 20 m

nents
• Corridors must have a minimum width of 800 mm Fig. 8/4:  Installation of switchgear in acc. with IEC 61936-1
5 • Corridor width must not be obstructed by equipment (VDE 0101-1)
protruding into the corridor, such as permanently
installed drives or switchgear trucks in disconnected
6 position
• The width of the escape route must be at least 500 mm,
• Interlock-controlled accessible compartment
an interlock in the the panel grants access when live parts
even if removable parts or fully open doors protrude into are isolated and earthed. Opening the switchgear under

7 the escape route

• Switchgear panel or cubicle doors should close in the
normal operating conditions or for maintenance, for
example to replace HV HRC fuses, is possible
direction of escape • Process-dependent accessible compartment
• For mounting and maintenance work behind enclosed access is described through instructions of the operating
8 units (stand-alone) a passage width of 500 mm is suffi- company, and a lock shall ensure safety of access during
cient normal operation and maintenance
• A minimum height of 2,000 mm below ceilings, covers or • Tool-dependent accessible compartment
9 enclosures, except for cable basements is required
• Exits must be arranged in such a way that the length of
tools and precise work instructions are needed to open
the compartment, for example including a safety note.
the escape route inside the room does not exceed 20 m This kind of accessibility shall not be usable during nor-

10 in case of rated voltages up to 52 kV. This requirement

does not apply to walk-in busbar or cable conduits or
mal operation or maintenance

ducts Service continuity during work in progress

• For installations with a rated voltage up to 52  kV, the
11 length of the escape route inside the room must not IEC 62271-200 (VDE 0671-200) specifies categories of
exceed 20 m (40 m for installations above 52 kV) operational availability (LSC, loss of service continuity) of
• Fixed ladders or similar facilities are permissible as emer- the functional units of a switchgear. They describe which
12 gency exits in escape routes parts must be put out of operation during the opening
process of an accessible switchgear compartment. Accessi-
Accessibility of compartments bility of switches and terminals is categorized according to
13 The IEC 62271-200 (VDE 0671-200) standard for metal-­
Tab. 8/2.

enclosed switchgear distinguishes between accessibility Fig. 8/5 shows some examples for the different categories
level A for authorized personnel and accessibility level B for of service continuity.
14 unlimited access (also for the general public). In addition to
this, the opening possibilities of a compartment are distin- Busbar systems
guished, which influences the accessibility, and thus the
15 availability, of a switchgear. The following aspects play a part when choosing a single or
double busbar:
A gas-insulated switchgear is also available as a type with • The number of outgoing and incoming feeders
16 • Non-accessible compartment
It must not be opened. Opening such a compartment
• Separate operation of parts of the installation required
• Operability of certain installation parts required during
could destroy it and impair functioning of the switchgear maintenance work in progress
• Switch-over of consumers to different feed-in sections
17 Medium-­voltage switchgear are further differentiated • Non-interruptible switch-over required
according to three opening types:

170 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Category of service When an accessible compartment of the switchgear Type of construction

1
continuity is opened …
the busbar and therefore the complete switchgear No partition plates within the panel, no panel
LSC 1
must be isolated partitions to the adjacent panels 2
only the supply cable must be isolated. The busbar and Panel partitions and isolating distance with
LSC 2A
the adjacent panels can remain in operation compartmentalization to the busbar
LSC 2
LSC 2B
the supply cable, the busbar, and the adjacent panels
can remain in operation
Panel partitions and isolating distance with
compartmentalization to the busbar and the cable
3
Tab. 8/2:  Categories of service continuity back to page 170

5
Busbar space Busbar space Busbar space

Disconnector
space
6

7
Switch space
Busbars, switches
and termination
space
Switch and
termination space
Switch and
termination space 8
Termination space

LSC 1 LSC 2 LSC 2A LSC 2A

9

Busbar space Busbar space Busbar space Busbar space

10

11
Switch space

Switch space
Switch space
12
Switch and
TIP04_13_094_EN

Termination space
termination space
Termination space Termination 13
space

LSC 2A LSC 2A LSC 2B LSC 2B 14

Fig. 8/5:  Example for the service continuity (LSC) of switchgear back to page 170
15
Single busbar vertently, this would not have any safety-relevant conse-
A single busbar is sufficient for most supply tasks, even if
this supply task consists of two incoming feeders. It is
quences in the switchgear, since circuit-­breakers are capa-
ble of making and breaking all load and short-circuit cur-
16
straightforward and easy to handle, which reduces the rents, even under earth-fault and other fault conditions.
likelihood of switching faults. When fault-affected switch-
ing operations happen, circuit-­breakers only must be In case of more intense branching (rule of thumb: more 17
operated. If the wrong breaker should be operated inad- than five feeders), the single busbar can be subdivided

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 171

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 once or several times, with its own feed-in in every section. Note: Medium-­voltage switchgear are generally tested for
Disconnectors or switch disconnectors at the interruption accessibility of Type A. Only complete, factory-assembled
points create bus sectionalizers, whereas circuit-­breakers stations (transformer / load-centre substations) are tested
2 create longitudinal busbar couplers (BCL). A BCL makes for Type B. Testing normal switchgear for conformance
sense if the busbar sections are to be operated as alter- with Type B doesn't make sense, since they will always be
nately separated or coupled. built into an additional station housing in public spaces.
3 Considering the hazards involved in the occurrence of an
Double busbar
arcing fault, the following aspects should be noted when

4 Reasons for using a double busbar can be, for example:

• Two or more feed-in points must always be operated
configuring on the basis of the IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1)
standard:
separately (for example because there are different
suppliers, or embedded power generation is used sepa- 1. Protection against operator faults, for instance ensured
5 rate from the public grid) by the following measures:
• Consumers with disturbing perturbations on the grid are –– Switch disconnectors instead of disconnectors
separated from consumers placing high requirements on –– Make-proof switches
6 the power supply quality
• Consumers classified according to importance and
–– Locking devices
–– Unambiguous key locks
assigned to service continuity requirements placed on the

7 grids
• Limited short-circuit strength of already installed equip-
2. Keep operating aisles as short, high and wide as possible

ment requires a subdivision into two subsystems with 3. Use sealed encapsulations or covers instead of encapsu-
switch-overs for load balancing in case of varying power lations with openings or meshed wire
8 demand
4. Deploy installations which are arcing-fault-tested instead
Apart from the first example, examples two to four allow of installations in open design (e.g. installations in
9 the use of a transversal busbar coupler (BCT), which per-
mits changing busbars without interrupting the energy
accordance with IEC 62271-200; VDE 0671-200)

flow (Fig. 8/6). 5. Bleed off arc gases into a direction away from the opera-

10 Internal arc classification

tor personnel, and if required, out of the building

6. Use current-limiting devices

A successful type test of medium voltage switchgear also
11 requires an internal arcing fault classification IAC in accord- 7. Ensure very short tripping times from fast-acting relays
ance with IEC 62271-200 (VDE 0671-200). The classifica- or devices that respond to pressure, light or heat
tion distinguishes as follows:
12 • Accessibility
A  access for qualified personnel only
8. Operate the installation from a safe distance

B  public access (meaning a testing under tightened 9. Prevent the re-energization by use of non-resettable
13 conditions)
• Qualified, accessible sides of the switchgear
devices which detect internal equipment faults, incorpo-
rate pressure relief and provide an external indication
F Front
L Lateral According to this, the operating room must always be
14 R Rear included in the protective measures to be taken against the
• Test current and duration effects of an arcing fault:
• A calculation of the dynamic pressure load on the operat-
15 Example: Internal arc classification ing room, from which an architect or structural engineer
IAC AR BFL 25 kA 1 s may recognize the stress on building structures, is recom-
mended
16 The specification means that the rear side may only be
accessed by qualified personnel, whereas the front and
• The operating room must be equipped with pressure
relief openings of sufficient cross section or with a pres-
lateral sides may be accessed by anybody. The internal sure relief duct
arcing test was made with a test current of 25 kA for a
17 duration of 1 s. Siemens provides two calculation methods as a service to
establish rough guidance values for the calculation of the

172 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Busbar 1

Busbar 2
2
Bus sectionalizer

TIP04_13_095_EN
BCT 5
Fig. 8/6:  Duplicate busbar with bus sectionalizer and busbar coupler, transversal (BCT) back to page 172
6
Pressure calculation according to Pigler for the 8DJ/H switchgear type without absorber
12 7

TIP04_13_096_EN
10
Excess pressure p (in hPa)

8
8
6
9
4

2 10
0 100
Room volume VR (in
200
m3):
300 400
50
500 600 700 800 900
Time t (in ms)
1,000
11
Free relief cross section Aent (in m2): 1
Short-circuit current IK“ (in kA): 16 Maximum pressure Pmax: 10,9 hPa after 99 ms

Fig. 8/7:  Example of stationary excess pressures resulting from internal arcing faults
12

room size and / or pressure relief openings during the

13
planning phase.

14
Estimation of pressure effects according to Pigler

A simple method provides the estimation according to

F. Pigler [10] for rooms up to 50 m³. The calculation can be
15
performed by a TIP contact person (www.siemens.com/
tip-cs/contact) when 8DJH medium switchgear is used.
Data on the room volume, the area of the free relief cross
16
section and the short-circuit current to be tested are en-
tered into a matrix. This supplies a simple curve progression
for the overload pressure (see Fig. 8/7). 17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 173

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Finite-elements-simulation of pressure load under installation sites. Thus the customer benefits from ex-
conditions of arcing tended planning security and a cost-optimised solution.

2 Although the incidence of an internal fault (arc fault) is The flow conditions are defined as boundary conditions.
very unlikely in type-tested air- or gas-insulated switchgear, Firstly, these are the switchgear steel sheets and secondly,
the consequences of such an arcing fault may be severe for the absorber sheets to be penetrated. At last, the pressure
3 the operating personnel as much as for the room itself. For
this reason, appropriate measures in relation to the room
relief openings in the switchgear room are defined. But the
model also allows to calculate a fully enclosed room, or
situation must be provided for pressure relief, such as factor in pressure relief openings with a pre-defined re-

4 pressure relief outlets, ducts, absorbers or coolers. Possibly

this must already be considered during the installation and
sponse pressure. As a result, the model yields the pressure
rise and the flow conditions at any point of the finite
room planning stage. elements grid over time. Additionally, the pressure distribu-
tion on the walls can be shown as a contour plotting at a
5 With the aid of ultra-modern finite element methods, certain point in time (Fig. 8/8).
pressure calculations can be performed in the entire
three-dimensionally mapped space over the entire burning Note: Typically, the overpressure caused by an arcing fault,
6 time of the accidental arc. Siemens offers the service1 – at
extra cost (expense-related) – of a numerical calculation on
when assuming the same room volume, is significantly
higher for air-insulated switchgear than for metal-
the basis of a 3D volume model, where the real installation enclosed, gas-insulated switchgear.

7 of the switchgear, pressure development, reflection, and

arrangement of the pressure relief openings is taken ac-
count of. Various pressure load scenarios can be calculated
for specific switchgear types, short-circuit currents, and
8
1 For any information or requests in this matter, please turn to your TIP contact:
www.siemens.com/tip-cs/contact

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 8/8:  Contour plotting of a simulation at the point 0.1 s

174 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

8.2 Medium-­Voltage Switching 1

Devices
Switching devices encompasses devices for closing (mak- 8.2.1 Switching Device Functions 2
ing) or opening (breaking) circuits. The following loads can
occur during making and breaking: • Circuit-­breakers
• No-load switching
• Switching of operating currents
can make and break all currents within the their rated
value range; from small inductive and capacitive load
3
• Switching of short-circuit currents currents through to the full short-circuit current. They can

Selection criteria can be:

perform under all fault conditions in the system, such as
earth fault, phase opposition, etc. 4
• Operational switching capacity • Switches
• Fault current switching capacity can switch currents up to their rated operating current
• Switching frequency and close on short circuit (up to their rated short-circuit 5
making current)
Basic switching device requirements are: • Disconnectors
• In closed condition, the switching device shall present a
resistance to the flowing of operating and short-circuit
are used for de-energized making and breaking. It is their
job to “isolate” devices connected in series so that work
6
currents which is as low as possible can be carried out on them
• In open condition, the clearance between open contacts
must safely withstand all voltages applied
• Switch disconnectors
are a combination of switch and disconnector, i.e. load 7
• All live parts must be sufficiently earthed and insulated interrupter switch with isolating distance
phase to phase when the switching device is open or • Contactors
closed are load switching devices with limited short-circuit 8
• The switching device shall be capable of closing the making or breaking capacity. They are used with large
circuit when a voltage is applied. For disconnectors, this switching frequencies
condition is only required in the power-off state with the
exception of minor load currents
• Earthing switches
earth disconnected circuits
9
• The switching device shall be capable of closing the • Make-proof earthing switches
circuit when current is flowing. This requirement is not
made for disconnectors
(fault initiating switches with making capacity)
are used for the safe earthing of circuits even when they 10
• The switching device shall cause switching overvoltages are energized, i.e. also for the case where the circuit to be
as low as possible earthed has not been disconnected inadvertently
• Fuses 11
The individual devices, which will be introduced in the consist of a fuse base and a fuse link. When the fuse link
following, differ in terms of their mechanical and electrical is withdrawn at zero current, the fuse base forms an
endurance, their maintenance intervals and the mainte-
nance expense. Additional criteria may be:
isolating distance (as with disconnectors). The fuse link is
used for the one-off breaking of a short-circuit current
12
• The isolating distance • Surge arresters
In fixed-mounted switchgear, switching devices are
required for creating this isolating distance. Switch dis-
earth loads caused by lightning strikes (external overvolt-
ages) or switching operations and earth faults (internal
13
connectors meet the isolating distance requirement. overvoltages). They therefore protect the connected
Switches and circuit-­breakers or contactors, however, do equipment against impermissibly high voltages
not meet this requirement. Contactors need an additional 14
disconnecting device or equivalent unit. This does not
play a part for switchgear with withdrawable units or
trucks, since the isolating distance is there created by
moving out the device of the switchgear
15
• The motorized operating mechanism
Tasks such as synchronisation or the creation of (multi-
ple) short interruptions require operating mechanisms
16
with short on / off switching times. This calls for stored
energy mechanisms; snap-action drives are not suitable
17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 175

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 8.2.2 Switching Device Selection • Rated insulation level

is the insulation strength of conductor to earth, between
Switching devices are selected not only according to their the conductors and across the opened breaker gap or
2 rating data, but also according to the switching duties to be across the isolating distance. The insulation strength is
performed, which also includes the switching frequency. the capability of a device to withstand all voltages for a
The following tables shall help categorize switching devices specified time up to the magnitude of the respective
3 according to selection criteria (Tab. 8/3) and switching
tasks (Tab. 8/4 to Tab. 8/9).
withstand voltage. These can be operating or high-­
frequency overvoltages caused by switching operations,
earth faults (internal overvoltages) or lightning strikes

4 Selection according to rating data

(external overvoltages). The insulation strength is verified
by a lightning impulse voltage test using the standard
pulse wave 1.2 / 50 μs (times for building up the lightning
The power supply conditions, i.e. the properties of the impulse voltage and its decline) and an alternating volt-
5 primary circuit determine the required parameters. The age test (50 Hz, 1 min)
most important ones are: • Rated operating current
• Rated voltage is the current that the main conducting path of a device
6 is the upper limit of the line voltage for which the device
is rated. As all high-voltage switching devices are
can conduct under defined conditions. The temperature
rise of components – especially contacts – may not
zero-current interrupters – with the exception of some exceed predefined values. Permissible temperature rises

7 fuses – the line voltage is the most important dimension-

ing criterion. It determines the dielectric stressing of the
are always in relation to the ambient temperature. If a
device is installed in an encapsulation, it may possibly not
switching device through transient and recovery voltage, be operated with its full rated current, depending on how
especially when breaking well the heat loss is dissipated
8

9 Withstand capability, rated … Switching capacity, rated …

Device Short-circuit Short-circuit

Insulation Operating Surge cur- Breaking cur- breaking cur- making cur-
Voltage
level current rent rent rent rent
10 Circuit-­breakers × × × × ×
Switch (disconnector) × × × × ×

11 Disconnector × × ×
Earthing switch × ×
Make-proof earthing
× × ×
12 switch
Contactor × × × × × 1) × 1)
Fuse link × × ×
13 Fuse base × ×
Surge arrester* × 2) × 3) × 4) × 5)
Current limiting reactor × × ×
14 Bushing × × × 6)
Post insulator (insulator) × × 6)

15 × Selection parameter
1) Limited short-circuit breaking capacity
2) Applicable as selection parameter in special cases only, e.g. for exceptional pollution layer
3) For surge arresters with spark gap = rated voltage
4) Rated discharge current for surge arresters
16 5) For surge arresters short-circuit strength when there is an overload
6) For bushings and insulators: minimum failing loads for tension, bending, and torsion
* Further selection criteria for surge arresters may also be: Residual voltage, rated discharge current, energy absorption capability, short-circuit strength (general),
rated and continuous voltage (metal-oxide arrester), rated and response voltage (arrester with spark gap)

17 (Parameters of the secondary equipment for drives, control and monitoring are not taken into consideration in this table.)

Tab. 8/3:  Device selection according to data of the primary circuit

176 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Rated peak withstand current 1

is the peak value of the first large harmonic component
of the short-circuit current during an initial response after
the start of current flow which the device can conduct in 2
a closed state. It is a dimension for the electrodynamic
(mechanical) loading of an item of equipment. This
quantity has no significance for devices with full making
capacity (see ‘Rated short-circuit making current’)
3
• Rated short-circuit making current
is the peak value of the making current for a short circuit
at the connections of the switching device. The stressing 4
is greater than for the rated peak withstand current, as
dynamic forces may work against the movement of the
contact pieces 5
• Rated breaking current
is the load breaking current during normal operation. This
quantity has no significance for devices with full breaking
capacity and no critical current range (then the 'Rated
6
short-circuit breaking current' should be used)
• Rated short-circuit breaking current
is the r.m.s. value of the breaking current for a short 7
circuit at the connections of the switching device

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 177

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Selection according to switching tasks The following abbreviations and identifying characters are
used in the tables:
For a useful selection of switching devices, the switching Ima rated short-circuit making current
2 tasks occurring during normal operation must be known,
Isc rated short-circuit breaking current
so that the optimal device can be selected in each individ-
ual case. It must be distinguished between Ir rated operating current
3 • undisturbed operation (Tab. 8/4 to Tab. 8/6) and
Ik“ initial short-circuit alternating current
Ian motor starting current

4 • operation under fault conditions (Tab. 8/7 to Tab. 8/9). × component use makes sense
– component use doesn't make sense

7
Switching Load case cos φ Current Main problem Comments
operation

Make-proof earthing switches

8

Switch disconnector
9

Earthing switch
Circuit-­breaker

Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
10

Fuse
Transformers Non-loaded < 0.3 ≤ 0.03 Ir – – × × × – × – – –

11 Loaded 0.7 – 1.0 ≤ Ir – Normally no protective

circuitry necessary
× × × – × – – –

Overloaded 0.7 – 1.0 ≤ 1.2 Ir – Normally no protective

× × × – × – – –
circuitry necessary

12 Inrush 0.15 ≤ 15 Ir Current breaking up to

15 Ir with cos φ ≤ 0.15
Protective relay with rush
stabilisation required × – × – – – – –
overvoltage possible
0.2 – 0.9 ≤ 2 Ir High switching Circuitry for the protection
Furnace
13 transformer
frequency against overvoltages must
be individually configured
× – – – – – – –

0.15 ≤ 300 A – Surge arresters are

Earth-fault coils × × – – × – – –
common
14 Compensating
0.15 ≤ 2,000 A Transient recovery
voltage with steep
Circuitry for the protection
against overvoltages must
× × – – – – – –
coils edge be individually configured
≤ 6  kV / ms
15 Motors In operation 0.8 – 0.9 ≤ Ir – – × × × – – – – –
Starting 0.2 – 0.3 ≤ 7 Ir Current breaking up to Normally no protective
× × × – – – – –
7 Ir with cos φ ≤ 0.3 circuitry necessary

16 Generators
0.8 – 1.0 ≤ Ir Transient recovery
voltage with steep
Overvoltage protection is
common × – – – – – – –
edge
Power converter 0.1 – 1.0 ≤ Ir – Overvoltage protection is
17 transformer common
× – – – – – – –

Tab. 8/4:  Switching tasks in inductive circuits during undisturbed operation back to page 176

178 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Switching operations during undisturbed operation contact gap even when the switching device is 1
disconnected
The precise meaning of the columns in Tab. 8/4 to –– With compensating coils, a steep edge of the transient
Tab. 8/6 is: recovery voltage can be expected owing to the high 2
• cos φ natural frequency
Guide values for the power factors present in the –– With frequently switched motors, it is more
individual switching operations
• Main problem
economically efficient to use contactors instead of
circuit-­breakers or switches
3
If nothing is specified, this switching condition is –– Generators generally behave like an inductance,
non-critical for the switching devices to be used
• Current
independent of the fact whether they are operated in
an over- or under-exitated state 4
Currents to be made or broken in the worst case: –– Filter circuits also include capacitors with current-
–– the overloaded or stressed transformers do not include limiting reactors
transformers with special loads such as motors, –– Please note in  Tab. 8/7 to Tab. 8/9 that the specified 5
generators, power converters, and arc furnaces currents must be made or broken in the worst case in
–– In case of an earth fault, earth-fault windings may be the event of a transformer-fed short circuit.
faced with the full operating voltage at the open 6

7
Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments

Make-proof earthing switches

8

Switch disconnector
9

Earthing switch
Circuit-­breakers

Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
10

Fuse
Capacitor banks capacitive ≤ 1.4 Ir High recovery voltage – × × × – × – – ×
Filter circuits capacitive ≤ 1,000 A High recovery voltage –
Permissible making
× × – – – – – –
11
current:
High amplitude and ≤ 5 kA: for NXACT
Paralleling of capacitor banks capacitive ≤ 100 Ir steep edge of the mak- vacuum circuit-­breaker
ing current ≤ 10 kA: for 3AH vacuum
× × – – – – – –
12
circuit-­breaker
> 10  kA: Reactor required
Unloaded cables capacitive ≤ 100 A High recovery voltage – × × – – × – – – 13
Unloaded overhead lines capacitive ≤ 10 A High recovery voltage – × × – – × – – –
Ripple control systems capacitive ≤ 20 A High recovery voltage – × × – – – – – –

Tab. 8/5:  Switching tasks in capacitive circuits during undisturbed operation 14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 179

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments

Make-proof earthing switches

2

Switch disconnector
Earthing switch
3

Circuit-­breaker

Disconnector
Contactor
Switch

Fuse
4 Ring separations 0.3 inductive ≤ Ir – – × × × – × – – –
Switch-over to differently loaded 0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir – –
× × × – × – – –
5 busbars
Unloaded cables – – – – × – – × × × × –
Unloaded overhead lines – – – – × – – – – – – –

6 Ripple control systems – – – – – – – × × – – –

Tab. 8/6:  Switching tasks in other operational cases back to page 178

7
Switching cos φ Current Main problem Comments
operation
8

Make-proof earthing switches

9

Switch disconnector
Earthing switch
Circuit-­breaker

Disconnector
10 Contactor
Switch

Fuse
Activation 0.15 Ima – –
× × – – × – × –
11 Terminal short
inductive
0.15 Isc – –
× – – – – – – ×
circuit inductive
Generator-fed short 0.15 Isc Transient recovery Overvoltage protection for
12 circuit inductive voltage with steep edge
≤ 6  kV / ms
generators with Ik“ ≤ 600 A × – – – – – – –

Short interruption 0.15 Isc – –

× – – – – – – –
inductive
13 Transformer-fed 0.15 Isc Transient recovery –
short circuit inductive voltage with steep edge × – – – – – – ×
≤ 4  kV / ms

14 Short circuit
current limiting
0.15
inductive
Isc Transient recovery
voltage with steep edge
–
× – – – – – – –
coils ≤ 10  kV / ms
Double earth fault 0.15 ≤ 0.87 Isc – –
× – – – – – – ×
15 Stalling motors
inductive
0.2 ≤ 6 Ir Current breaking For motors with Ian ≤ 600 A
inductive up to 6 Ir with cos φ ≤ 0.3 suitable as protective circuitry:
3EF overvoltage limiter. × × – – – – – –
16 Single-compensated motors do
not need protective circuitry.
Phase opposition 0.15 0.25 Isc – –
× – – – – – – –
inductive
17 Tab. 8/7:  Switching tasks in case of short circuit back to page 178

180 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments 1

Make-proof earthing switches

2

Switch disconnector
Earthing switch
Circuit-­breakers
3

Disconnector
Contactor
Switch

Fuse
Unloaded cables / overhead lines capacitive ≤ 5  A High recovery voltage –
4
× × × – – – – –
(supply-side fault)
Loaded cables / overhead lines variable ≤ Ir High recovery voltage –
(supply-side fault)
× × × – – – – –
5
Switching of the earth-fault current variable ≤ Ir – –
× × × – – – – –
(load-side fault)
Tab. 8/8:  Switching tasks under earth-fault conditions
6
Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments
7

Make-proof earthing switches

8

Switch disconnector
Earthing switch
Circuit-­breaker

Disconnector
9

Contactor
Switch

Fuse
Protective disconnecting
circuitry
0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir High recovery voltage –
– – – – × – – – 10
(disconnecting under load)
Rapid switch-over 0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir Switch-over in < 150 ms – × – – – – – – –

Tab. 8/9:  Switching tasks in other cases back to page 176 11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 181

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Selection according to endurance and Circuit-­breakers

switching frequency
IEC 62271-100 (VDE 0671-100) defines the mechanical
2 If several devices satisfy the electrical requirements and no endurance with precise switching cycle figures (M class),
further criteria are more important, the required switching whereas the electrical endurance (E class) is only character-
frequency can be used as an additional selection criterion. ized by the verbal attributes as “basic” (Class E1) and
3 The following tables show the endurance of the switchgear
and therefore provide a recommendation for their appro­
“­extended” (Class E2). For better orientation, Tab. 8/10
indicates the switching cycle figures for Classes E1 and E2,
priate use. The respective device standards distinguish which modern vacuum circuit-­breakers are usually capable

4 between classes of mechanical (M) and electrical (E) endur-

ance, whereby they can also be used together on a switch;
of handling today.

for example. A switch for example can have both: mechani- The respective number of switching operations with the
cal class M1 and electrical class E3. rated short-circuit breaking current Isc in Tab. 8/10 corre-
5 sponds to the respective number of switching sequences in
Class C describes the capacitive switching behaviour, which accordance with the type tests. Modern vacuum circuit-­
summarizes switch behaviour during the switching of breakers can usually make and break the rated operating
6 overhead lines, cables, and capacitors (single and parallel
switching). C1 is sufficient for the switching of cables and
current with the number of mechanical switching cycles.

overhead lines with a low switching frequency. C2 is re- Switches

7 quired if capacitor banks and filters shall be switched, and
also if switching frequencies of cables and overhead lines IEC 62271-103 (VDE 0671-103) only specifies classes for
are high. C2 also applies to other capacitive switching the so-called multi-purpose load interrupter switches. In
tasks. addition, there are “special purpose switches” and “limited
8 purpose switches”. General purpose switches must be able
Class S indicates the network type (cable or overhead line) to switch different types of operating currents (load cur-
for which a circuit-­breaker is to be used. Circuit-­breakers in rents, ring currents, currents of unloaded transformers,
9 indoor switchgear are always categorized as Class S1, this
means a cable network. This is also true for overhead line
charging currents of unloaded cables and overhead lines)
as well as make short-circuit currents. General purpose
branches, since they are connected to the switchgear by switches intended for use in systems with isolated neutral

10 means of a cable. point or with earth fault compensation, must also be able
to switch under earth-fault conditions. Their versatility is
­reflected in the precise specifications that are made for
Class E, the electrical endurance (Tab. 8/11).
11
Class Description

12 M
M1   2,000 switching cycles Normal mechanical endurance
M2 10,000 switching cycles Extended mechanical endurance, low maintenance
2 × C and 3 × O with 10 %,
13 E1
30 %, 60 % and 100 % Isc
Normal electrical endurance (switch which is not covered by E2)

2 × C and 3 × O with 10 %,

Without automatic reclosing
30 %, 60 % and 100 % Isc Extended electrical endurance without
E
14 E2 26 × C
26 × C
130 × O
130 × O
10 % Isc
30 % Isc
maintenance of the switching chamber

With automatic reclosing

4 × C 8 × O 60 % Isc
4 × C 6 × O 100 % Isc
15 C1
24 × O every 10 … 40 % Ilc, Icc, Ibc
Low backfiring probability
24 × O every 10 … 40 % Ilc, Icc, Ibc Backfiring-free off-switching
C
24 × O every 10 … 40 % Ilc, Icc, Ibc Very low backfiring in 2 out of 3 test series

16 C2
128 × O every 10 … 40 % Ilc, Icc, Ibc probability
S1 Circuit-­breaker for use in a cable network
S Circuit-­breaker for use in overhead line networks, or in a cable network with direct overhead line connection (without
17 S2
a cable between overhead line and breaker)

Tab. 8/10:  Endurance classes for circuit-­breakers

182 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• SF6 switches are appropriate when the switching fre- Disconnectors 1

quency is ≤ 1 time per month. These switches are usually
classified as E3 with regard to their electrical endurance Disconnectors do not have any switching capacity. Discon-
• Air or hard-gas switches nectors up to 52 kV may only switch negligible currents up 2
are only useful with switching frequencies ≤ 1 time per to 500 mA (for example voltage transformers) or larger
year. These switches are simpler and usually belong to currents only when there is an insignificant voltage differ-
the E1 class. Versions belonging to Class E2 are in
between in terms of their switching frequency
ence (e.g. for a busbar change with activated BCT). Accord-
ing to IEC 62271-102 (VDE 0671-102), only the classes for
3
• Vacuum switches the mechanical switching cycles were therefore defined
Their performance is significantly above that of the
M2 / E3 classes. They are used for special tasks – mostly in
(Tab. 8/12).
4
industrial supply systems – or when the switching Earthing switches
frequency is ≥ 1 time per week
With earthing switches, the E classes designate the 5
short-circuit making capacity (earth to applied voltage
Tab. 8/13). E0 corresponds to a normal earthing switch.
Switches of the E1 and E2 classes are also called make- 6

Class Description 7
M1   1,000 switching cycles Mechanical endurance
M
M2   5,000 switching cycles
10 × Iload
Increased mechanical endurance
8
E1 10 × Iloop 20 × 0.05 Iload
2 × Ima Test currents:

30 × Iload
10 × Icc
Iload rated network load breaking current 9
10 × 0.02 to 0.04 Icc Iloop rated ring breaking current
E E2 20 × Iloop
10 × IIc Icc rated cable breaking current
5 × Ima
100 × Iload
10 × Ief1 Ilc rated overhead line breaking current
Isb rated capacitor breaking current
10
E3 20 × Iloop 10 × Ief2
Ibb rated parallel capacitor breaking
5 × Ima
current
C1
10 × Icc Low probability of restrikes Ief1 rated earth-fault breaking current 11
10 × Ilc (frequency not defined) Ief2 rated cable and overhead line breaking
10 × Isc current under earth-fault conditions
C
C2
10 × Ibb
Additionally 10 times each
Very low probability of restrikes
Ima rated short-circuit making current
12
0.1 … 0.4 × Icc, Isb, Ibb

Tab. 8/11:  Endurance classes for multi-purpose load interrupter switches

13
Class Description
M0
M1
  1,000 switching cycles
  2,000 switching cycles
Standard version for general requirements
Extended mechanical endurance
14
M
(M1 and M2 are not intended for individual disconnectors, but for
M2 10,000 switching cycles a combination with circuit-­breakers belonging to the same class)

Tab. 8/12:  Endurance classes for disconnectors

15
Class
E0
Description
0 × Ima no short-circuit making capacity For general requirements
16
E E1 2 × Ima short-circuit making capacity For general requirements
E2 5 × Ima short-circuit making capacity Reduced maintenance required 17
Tab. 8/13:  Endurance classes for earthing switches

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 183

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 proof earthing switches or high-speed earthing switches.

The IEC 62271-102 (VDE 0671-102) standard does not
specify how often an earthing switch can be actuated
2 purely mechanically; there are no M classes for these
switches.

3 Contactors

IEC 62271-106 (VDE 0671‑106) has not defined any endur-

4 ance classes for contactors yet. Commonly used contactors

have a mechanical and electrical endurance in the range of
250,000 to 1,000,000 switching cycles. They are used
wherever switching operations are performed very fre-
5 quently, for example > 1 time per hour. The standard
specifies two classes, C1 and C2, for the probability of
restrikes:
6 • Class C1 (low probability of restrikes): up to 5 cummu-
lated restrikes are permitted during the breaking of capac-
itive currents

7 • Class C2 (very low probability of restrikes): no restrikes

Testing references to the test switching cycles BC1 and

BC2 for capacitor current from the IEC 62271‑100
8 (VDE 0671-100) standard.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

184 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

8.3 Medium-Voltage Protection • Software-controlled parametrisation and functionality 1

integration ensure maximum flexibility in use and inte-
Protective relays with digital circuits for medium-­voltage grated engineering
protection have a lot of advantages over electromechanical 2
and electronic relays: Method of operation of digital relays
• Many functions being integrated in one device result in a
compact design and low cost
• The self-monitoring options of the devices make them
In the process of digitalizing analogue-measured current
and voltage values, measurements are first electrically
3
highly available and cause little maintenance expense isolated from the secondary circuit with the aid of an input
• Digital technology completely prevents the zero drift of
characteristic measurement curves (owing to ageing
transducer. Then, the measurement signal is analogue-­
filtered and amplified. The A / D signal transducers gener- 4
effects, for example) ate digital measured quantities from the analogue signal
• Digital filtering in combination with optimised measuring (Fig. 8/9). In dependency of the protection principles, the
algorithms provides a high measuring accuracy scan rate is between 12 and 20 signals per period. For 5
• Data collection and data processing form the basis for critical devices, the scan rate is continuously adjusted as a
many integrated additional functions such as load moni- function of the actual network frequency. The computer
toring and event / fault recording
• Simple and ergonomically friendly handling by means of
transmits a trigger command if applicable. 6
membrane keypads, user-configurable function keys, and Modular design
display
• Manifold interfaces support user-friendly communication A flexible system architecture, multi-functional design, and 7
from the PC or remote-controlled, for example powerful as well as reliable communication options of
• Standardised communication protocols allow for interfac- protective devices are becoming more and more important
ing to higher-level control systems in the face of changing network configurations and work- 8

9
PC interface, control system interface
10
Measuring Input V.24 Fibre- I/O ports Binary
inputs filter Serial optics
interfaces
inputs 11

Fault 12
Current Amplifier signalling relay
inputs
(100 · IN, 1 s)
13
Command relay

14
Voltage A / D signal Processor Storage:
inputs transducer system RAM
I/O devices Displays
(140 V EEPROM
15
TIP04_13_073_EN

0001
continuous) 0101 EPROM
0011

100 V/1 A, 10 V digital I/O contacts 16

5 A analog analog

17
Fig. 8/9:  Block diagram for a digital protection device

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 185

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 flows. For the new SIPROTEC 5 system (Fig. 8/10), this is

subsumed under the terms of “holistic workflow”, “perfectly
tailored fit“, “designed to communicate”, “safety and secu-
2 rity inside”, and “smart automation”.

Holistic workflow
3 • Integrated system and device engineering – from the
single line to device parameterisation

4 • Easy and intuitive graphical linking of primary and

secondary systems
• Application templates included for frequently-used
applications
5 • Manufacturer-independent tool for easy system
engineering
• Libraries for user-created configurations and system parts
6 • Multi-user concept for parallel engineering
• Open interfaces for seamless integration into your
process environment

7 • User interface developed and tested together with

numerous users
• Integrated tools for testing during engineering,
commissioning, and for the simulation of operating Fig. 8/10:  SIPROTEC 5 product family
8 scenarios such as line faults or switching operations

Perfectly tailored fit

9 • Modular system design in hardware, software, and com-
• Hardware modules decoupled from the communication
protocol applied
munications perfectly tailored to user needs • Two independent protocols on one module

10 • Functional integration of a great variety of applications

such as protection, control, measuring, power quality or
• Comprehensive routines for testing communication links,
functions, and operational workflows
fault recording
• Identical extension and communication modules for all Safety and security inside
11 device members in the family
• Innovative terminal technology ensures easy mounting Tried and tested functions for system protection and per-
and replaceability combined with maximum safety sonal safety, continuously further developed over five
12 • Identical functions throughout the entire system family,
for example an identical automatic reclosing function of
generations
• Long-life, robust hardware (housing, assemblies, connec-
the 7SD8, 7SA8, 7SL8 line protection devices, reduce the tors), and a sophisticated layout of the entire electronics
13 training expense, thus enhancing the safety
• All functions can be individually edited and adapted to
for maximum strength in terms of voltage, EMC, climate,
and mechanical load
user requirements • Sophisticated self-monitoring routines identify and report
• Innovations are available to all devices at the same time device malfunctions immediately and reliably
14 and can easily be retrofitted via libraries if required • Conforming to the strict cybersecurity requirements on
the basis of user guidelines and standards such as the
Designed to communicate IEC / TS 62351 group of standards, the BDEW White Paper
15 “Requirements for Secure Control and Telecommunication
• Adaptation to the topology of a given communication Systems” [11] and NERC CIP standards (North American
structure (ring, star, network, etc.) through parameters Electric Reliability Corporation – Critical infrastructure
16 • Scalable redundancy of hardware and software (proto-
cols) matching application requirements
protection)
• Encryption of the entire communication path between
• Several communication channels to higher-level systems DIGSI 5, the device and system engineering tool by
• Pluggable communication modules suitable for retrofitting Siemens, and devices according to the recommendations
17 of the IEC / TS 62351 group of standards

186 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Automatic logging of access attempts and security-critical Ik,min = Minimum short-circuit current 1

handling performed at devices and systems fLB = Safety factor for excitation linked to arc damping
(typically between 1.25 and 2)
The type of neutral-point connection in the medium-­ 2
Designed to communicate voltage grid must be considered for earth-fault protection
(see chapter 4). Furthermore, low-ohmic neutral point
• Open and scalable architecture for IT integration and new
functions
earthing can be distinguished according to protective
function in terms of the earth current excite condition. For
3
• Latest communication and cybersecurity standards details please refer to [2]. For every protective disconnec-
tion, the total disconnect time tag must be less than or
implemented
• “Smart” functions, for example for power system opera- equal to the permissible total disconnect time tag,perm: 4
tion, fault or power quality analyses (power system
monitoring, power control unit, fault localisation) tag ≤ tag,perm
• Integrated automation using optimised logic modules 5
based on IEC 61131-3 A shorter total disconnect time limits the energy, thus
• High-precision detection and processing of process permitting higher short-circuit currents. In order to keep
parameters and transmission to other components in the
smart grid
damage and equipment load low in case of a short circuit,
the total disconnect time should be restricted to the rated
6
• Protection, automation, and monitoring in the smart grid short time tthr of equipment:

Safety coordination tag ≤ tthr 7

The tripping characteristics and associated settings of the Active protective devices such as devices for overcurrent
protective device must be carefully matched to attain protection, busbar protection, or distance protection are 8
selectivity. The main goal is to disconnect the faulty com- called protective systems in contrast to passive protective
ponent as fast as possible, keeping the remaining network devices (fuses, current limiters). There are special devices
in operation so that interruptions of supply will be mini-
mised and the network stability is not put at risk. Protection
for transformer or generator protection. The devices com-
mon in the infrastructure sector will be described briefly
9
should be set as sensitive as possible in order to be able to below.
detect faults even with the least possible current intensity.
At the same time, it should remain stable under the permit- 10
ted load, overload, and let-through conditions. Time-overcurrent protection

In order to attain selective short-circuit protection in the Time-overcurrent protection devices detect a fault on 11
medium-­voltage grid, the value for phase current excitation account of its amperage and clear the fault after a certain
I> of the digital protective device should be set in such a delay time has elapsed. Time-overcurrent protection
way that the minimum short-circuit current trips a circuit-­
breaker, the maximum operating current, however, is
devices either work with current-independent current
thresholds (DMT – definite time overcurrent protection) or
12
carried without tripping. with a current-dependent tripping characteristic (IDMTL –
inverse definite minimum time leakage). The following
should be taken into account for the selection of an
13
Ik,min
fB · IB,max ≤ I> ≤ appropriate protective device as main protection:
fLB • Network configuration
• Neutral-point connection 14
Where • Type and size of the item of equipment to be protected
IB,max = Maximum operating current
fB,max = Safety factor to allow for influences caused by
operational changes and variations such as load
15
changes, operation under faulted loads, transducer
faults, relay resetting ratio; for example fB,max = 1.7
for cables, fB,max = 2.0 for transformers1)
16
1) When determining the safety factor, the coordination with the subordinate
low-voltage grid must be kept in mind. This may result in higher fB,maxvalues
17
(see chapter 7.7)

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 187

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Normally, time-overcurrent protection devices acting as Both the high-current level I>> and the overcurrent level I>
main protection should only be used for high-voltage motor always work with a current-independent tripping delay
ratings up to 2 MW and for transformer ratings up to time (DMT). Different tripping characteristics can be set for
2 10 MVA. Above this, directional comparison protection the IDMTL function (Ip level). The characteristics (Fig. 8/13)
devices should be used as main protection and time-­ are described by characteristic formulas (Tab. 8/14). The
overcurrent protection as standby protection. Both DMT characteristic curve types for relay tripping times required
3 (Fig. 8/11a) and IDMTL can be used for the protection of
spur cables and normally open cable rings. With motors,
in IEC 60255-151 (VDE 0435-3151) are identified by the
letters A, B, C, D, E, and F.
DMT is used for short-circuit protection (Fig. 8/11b). Mod-

4 ern digital DMT devices provide more motor protection

functions such as overload protection. So-called “thermo-
Depending on the protective relay design, the directional
XDMT protection function (XDMT representing IDMTL or
boxes” can be used to sense and monitor the temperatures DMT) can determine the direction of current flow from the
of critical spots in the motor (for example the bearings). phase displacement of current and voltage. In relation to
5 This increases the sensibility of thermal overload pro­ this, it provides additional directional high-current and
tection. In conjunction with transformer protection overcurrent levels. This allows setting different current
(Fig. 8/11c), the high-current level I>> acts as instantane- thresholds and delay times for both directions (see
6 ous short-circuit protection at the transformer's high-­
voltage side and the overcurrent level I> as standby protec-
­chapter 4). Main applications are parallel lines as well
as lines supplied from both sides.
tion for the low-voltage side. The additional function of

7 “thermal overload protection” protects against continuous

overloading of the transformer.
Directional time-overcurrent protection using directional
XDMT relays is applied for lines supplied from both ends, as
they occur in double spur lines and in closed ring networks.
Time-overcurrent protection is the main protective function For this purpose, protection is graded “device against
8 of the SIPROTEC 7SJ6 and 7SJ8 device series. It can be device” beginning at the two feed-in units. At each of the
switched on and off separately for phase and earth cur- outer ends, a non-directional XDMT relay is sufficient.
rents. The 7SJ6 and 7SJ8 device series offer a choice be-
9 tween DMT and IDMTL tripping characteristics (Fig. 8/12).

0.14
10 t=
Dependent time response fort overcurrent (I / I
0.14
0.14
)
0.02 1
= (I / Ip)0.02 –relays
– 1
· Tp
· Tp
t= p · Tp
a) b) c) A: Inverse (I / I 0.14
0.14 )0.02 – 1
ttt== · Tp
p
0.14
= (I/ /13.5 0.02
IIIpp)))0.02 –11· T
· Tpp
t =(I 0.02 –
11 (I / 13.5 p
t = (I / Ip) – 1 · Tp
13.5
– ·1T p

t = (I / Ip) – 1 · Tp
B: Greatly inverse /13.5
(I 13.5 I p) – 1 · T
t = 13.5
DMT DMT DMT tt =
= (I/ /I80 Ip)) ––11·· T Tpp
t = (I · Tpp
12 t = 600 ms
(I / I80 p)2 – 1
p
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 · Tp
80
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 · Tp
C: Extremely inverse
t = (I / 80 I80
p) – 1 · T
tt = 80
= (I(I/ /IIp))222––11·· T Tpp
–1 p
13 M (I / Ipp)0.0515
t= + 0.114 · Tp
DMT 0.0515 0.02
D: IEEE moderately inverse t = (I / Ip)0.02 – 1 + 0.114 · Tp
0.0515
t = 300 ms t = (I / Ip)0.02 – 1 + 0.114 · Tp
= (I 0.0515/0.0515
I p) – 1 + 0.114 · T
ttt= 0.0515
= (I(I/ /IIp))0.02 0.02 – 1+ 0.114 ·· T
+ 0.114 Tppp
14 E: IEEE very inverse t=
Ipp)
(I / 19.61 0.02 –
–1 1
+ 0.491 · Tp
TIP04_13_169_EN

19.61 2
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 + 0.491 · Tp
(I /19.61
I ) – 1
DMT t= p + 0.491 · T
= (I 19.61 Ip)2 – 1 + 0.491 · Tp
/19.61
ttt=
15 t = 0 ms F: IEEE extremely inverse
t=
19.61
= (I(I/ /IIp))22 ––11+ 0.491
(I / Ipp28.2
2
) –1
+ 0.491 ·· T
Tppp
+ 0.1217 · Tp
28.2 2
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 + 0.1217 · Tp
(I / I28.2) – 1
t= p + 0.1217 · T
)2 – 1 + 0.1217 · Tp
16 Fig. 8/11:  Main applications for DMT:
a) Line protection
t tripping time
Tp set value of time multiplicator ttt= = II (I faultI28.2
/28.2pcurrent
28.2
= (I(I/ /IIp))22 ––11+ 0.1217
p current
(I / Ipp) – 1
2 +
set value
0.1217 ·· TTppp

b) Motor protection Tab. 8/14:  Formulas for tripping characteristics acc. to

c) Transformer protection IEC 60255‑151 (VDE 0435-3151)
17

188 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In case of single-side feed-in using parallel lines, a fault Differential protection 1

in one line is also fed from the parallel line and thus per
reverse power feed from the remote end. A directional If XDMT devices do not act selectively, or very short tripping
XDMT protection function can quickly break the fault times are required, differential protection is a good solution. 2
current flowing against the supply direction, since this The basis for this are the comparison and determination of
cannot be an operating current. differences of measured quantities at the two ends of a

To implement directional comparison protection, there

network section under consideration. With respect to differ-
ential protection, three different relay types will be briefly
3
must be a communication link between the directional introduced below, distinguished by their protective function
XDMT relays placed at the beginning and end of a line
section (see chapter 4). Should these relays receive an
and area of application:
• Line differential protection 7SD 4
information from their respective “partner” relays that they • Transformer differential protection 7UT
recognize the fault in forward direction, the line fault • Machine differential protection 7UM
located in between can be cleared instantaneously. And 5
vice versa, if the fault is in “backward” direction and this is
communicated to the partner, the partner relay can block
the directional instantaneous trip level and the protective
function can work with “normal” grading time.
6

8
t in s
t in s
9

TIP04_13_171_EN
TIP04_13_170_EN

5
500
2
100 200 10
5
100

10
2
Ip
tp
IDMTL
50
11
I>
5

2
DMT T>
20
12
1 I >> 10

5
T >>
5 13
2
I >> Inverse
0.1 2
5 IEEE moderately 14
1 inverse
2 Greatly inverse
T >>
15
0.5 IEEE very inverse
0.01
5
Extremely inverse
0.2
2 IEEE extremely

0.001 0.1
1 2 5 10
inverse

20 50 100
16
102 2 5 103 2 5 104
I in A I / Ip

17
Fig. 8/12:  Typical characteristics of DMT and  back to page 188 Fig. 8/13:  Tripping characteristics acc. to  back to page 188
IDMTL protection devices IEC 60255-151 (VDE 0435‑3151)

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 189

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The line differential protection function (ANSI 87L) of the (Fig. 8/14 b). As the feeding line lengths of the current
7SD6 (SIPROTEC 4) or 7SD8 relays (SIPROTEC 5 or SIPROTEC transformers at the high- and low-voltage sides are usually
Compact) detects short circuits – even weak-current or not too long, the summated current can be formed in one
2 high-ohmic ones – in the section to be protected by means device, and not in separate devices as in line differential
of a phase-selective comparison of current values meas- protection. To this end, secondary-side adaptive circuits are
ured separately at the two ends of the line by separate no longer required to map current influences caused by the
3 devices (Fig. 8/14 a). Owing to the strictly local selectivity
– the protection zone is limited by the current transformers
transformer, since the digital protection device does this by
computation:
at the two ends of the line section – network topology and • Transmission ratio of transformer –

4 voltage level have no effect in this context. Furthermore,

the star-point conditioning of the current network is of no
by amplitude adjustment
• Phase shift of secondary currents –
significance as current comparison takes place per phase by vector group adjustment
and thus variable weightings for different faults – as they • Possible misrepresentation of earth currents –
5 occurred in the conventional summation current trans- by zero-current elimination, respectively zero-current
former differential protection process – are nowadays correction
unimportant.
6 Due to its strict selectivity, differential protection is gener-
Additional protection by current comparison applicable for
high-voltage motors in performance category PrM greater
ally set as instantaneous main protection, since no other than 2 MW or generators in performance category PrG

7 protection measure can disconnect the line more quickly

and selectively. Every 7SD610 compares the locally meas-
greater than 1 MW can be implemented by the SIPROTEC
7UM62 differential protection relay (Fig. 8/14 c and d).
ured current values with the measured values of the oppo-
site end and decides autonomously whether a line fault is
8 present or not. A communication link is required to ex- Busbar protection
change measured values between the two devices.
In switchgear installations, busbars are the places where
9 The SIPROTEC differential protection relay of the 7UT6
and 7UT8 series can be used as an autonomous current
the highest energy levels are concentrated. They are sub-
ject to a tremendous short-circuit load, as – for reasons of
comparison protection device for power transformers selectivity – the high short-circuit and earth-fault currents

10

11 a) b) c) d)

12 87L

ΔI

13
Communication 87M/
ΔI 87T M/G ΔI
link 87G

14 ΔI 87G

ΔI G

15 87L

TIP04_13_172_EN

16
Fig. 8/14:  Block diagrams for a) line differential protection

17 b) transformer differential protection (SrT > 10 MVA)

c) motor / generator differential protection (PrM > 2 MW / PrG > 1 MW)
d) generator blocking protection (PrG > 1 MW)

190 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

at the busbar result in long tripping times of the XDMT In case of a complex topology, the busbar protection device 1
protection devices. Faults present too long can easily must also detect the disconnector situation in addition to the
cause damage in the primary distribution system. For this currents of each branch circuit and determine the selective
reason must important busbars be protected quickly – zones from this, which makes protection very intricate. 2
­independent of their voltage level.
Distance protection
In the face of the complexity of the busbar system (rang-
ing from single to 5-fold busbars), busbar protection can The short-circuit impedance is a measured quantity which
3
get very complex. The principle of reverse interlocking (see is proportional to the distance between the mounting
chapter 4) is suitable for simpler configurations. Here, the
DMT protective function of the feed-in trips quickly inde-
location of the protective device and the fault location. For
this reason, the impedances of the six possible fault loops 4
pendent of the grading time, unless its quick-trip unit is established from all of the detected current and voltage
not blocked by the short-circuit or earth-fault excitation in values (Fig. 8/16) are compared to the line impedance in
a feeder. In the feeder units, this excitation is parametrized order to provide distance protection. After the delay time 5
to a special contact and all excitation contacts are con- defined for each zone has elapsed, the distance protection
nected in parallel. function trips and clears the fault.

A protective excitation in a feeder panel (fault F1 in Distance protection is a universal short-circuit protection
6
Fig. 8/15) means that the fault present is not within the which is preferrably used for cable and line monitoring. The
busbar area. Owing to the excitation of the feeder protec-
tion function, the (almost) instantaneous tripping I>> of
distance protection function can be used in combination
with various excitation methods: 7
the feed-in protection (t>> = 50 ms in Fig. 8/15) can be • Overcurrent excitation
blocked by the binary input. Here, feed-in protection acts as • Voltage- and current-dependent excitation
standby protection which trips with t>. If only the protec- • Voltage, current- and phase-angle-dependent excitation 8
tive device for the feed-in is excited during a busbar fault • Impedance excitation
(fault F2) with t> and t>>, this blocking is suppressed and a
trip is effected quickly on account of a busbar fault. This
quick trip reduces the load applied by the fault.
The communication possibilities are identical for distance
and line differential protection.
9

10

Feed-in
Earth L1 L2 L3
11
Distance protection
12
I> t > = 0.9 s
Blocking
I >> t >> = 0.05 s L1 – Earth
F2 13
L2 – Earth

L3 – Earth
14
L1 – L2
I> I> I>
t > = 0.3 s t > = 0.3 s t > = 0.3 s L2 – L3
15
F1
L3 / L1

Ring line TIP04_13_173_EN

TIP04_13_174_EN
16

Fig. 8/15:  Busbar protection by reverse interlocking for the single Fig. 8/16:  Fault loops checked by the distance protection device 17
busbar

Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear 191

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

192 Totally Integrated Power – Medium-­Voltage Switching Devices and Switchgear

Chapter 9
Transformers
9.1 Electrical Design 194
9.2 Losses and Profitability Estimates 197
9.3 Construction of Oil-immersed
Transformers199
9.4 GEAFOL Cast-resin Dry-type
Transformers201
9.5 Power Converter Transformer 203
9.6 FITformer® REG – Regulated
Distribution Transformer 204
9.7 Transformer Operation 206
9.8 Transformer Room 209
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 9 Transformers
duction

1 Transformers are an essential component for power trans- 9.1 Electrical Design
mission and distribution. Their ratings originate from their
area of application, their construction, the nominal power Nominal power and cooling
2 and the transformation ratio. Transformer types range from
generator transformers to distribution transformers. All information about the rating of transformers in this
manual results from the product of the rated voltage
3 The IEC 60076 (VDE 0532-76) series of standards describes
power transformers with the exception of the following
(no-load voltage multiplied by the phase factor √3 for
three-phase systems) and the rated current of the line-side
transformers: winding (for a multi-winding transformer at the middle tap,

4 • Rating < 1kVA for single-phase transformers

• Rating < 5 kVA for three-phase transformers
if several taps are available).

• Transformer without a winding with a rated EN 50541-1 (VDE 0532-241) specifies the following ratings
­voltage > 1 kV in kVA for GEAFOL transformers (preferred types are under-
5 • Measuring transducers lined):
• Transformers for static inverters
• Vehicle transformers 100 – 160 – 200 – 250 – 315 – 400 – 500 – 630 – 800 –
6 • Autotransformer starters
• Testing transformers
1,000 – 1,250 – 1,600 – 2,000 – 2,500 – 3,150

• Welding transformers EN 50464-1 (VDE 0532-221) specifies the following ratings

7 In addition to this, distribution transformers up to 36 kV are

in kVA for oil-immersed transformers (preferred types are
underlined):
distinguished as follows:
• Three-phase dry-type distribution transformers (called 50 – 100 – 160 – 200 – 250 – 315 – 400 – 500 – 630 –
8 GEAFOL transformers in the following) in accordance 800 – 1,000 – 1,250 – 1,600 – 2,000 – 2,500 – 3,150
with EN 50541-1 (VDE 0532-241) with natural cooling
and two windings ranging from 100 kVA to 3,150 kVA Concerning the cooling type, GEAFOL transformers require
9 three-phase
• Oil-filled three-phase distribution transformers (called
the indication of the coolant flow besides the indication of
air as coolant (letter A) according to IEC 60076-11
oil-immersed transformers in the following) with natural (VDE 0532-76-11):

10 cooling and two windings in accordance with EN 50464-1

(VDE 0532-221) and IEC 60076-7 (VDE 0532-76-7)
N Natural
F Forced
ranging from 50 kVA to 2,500 kVA three-phase (833 kVA
single-phase) If additional ventilation is used to attain a higher normal
11 output (GEAFOL Standard up to 150 %, GEAFOL Basic up to
130 %), AN / AF must be specified. This indicates that natu-
ral air is used for cooling up to the rated output, above this
12 limit forced air cooling is applied. The type plate would
then read as follows, for example:
• Rating 1,000 kVA in cooling type AN
13 • Rating 1,500 kVA in cooling type AF

In compliance with IEC 60076-2, oil-immersed transformers

are also distinguished according to the natural (N) and
14 forced (F) circulation of the coolant. Normally, four letters
are used to indicate the type of cooling:
1st  letter – internal coolant:
15 O Mineral oil or synthetic fluid with fire point ≤ 300 °C
(in accordance with ISO 2529)
K  Insulating liquid with fire point > 300 °C
16 L  Insulating liquid with no measurable fire point

17

194 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2nd  letter – internal coolant circuit: Connections and vector groups 1

N Natural heat flow through cooler and windings
F Forced circulation through cooler and thermal The connections of three-phase transformers are the
convection in the windings wirings of the winding strands from the input or output 2
D Forced circulation through cooler and directed at side to a star, delta, or zigzag connection. These circuit
least to the windings diagrams and the corresponding vector diagrams are
3rd  letter – external coolant: shown in Fig. 9/1. The vector group indicates the connec-
tion of two transformer windings and the code number for
3
A Air
W Water the phase relation of the voltage vectors. Circuits are
4th  letter – external coolant circuit:
designated by the following code letters:
• Star connection Y, y 4
N  Natural convection
• Delta connection D, d
F  Forced circulation
• Zigzag connection Z, z
If different cooling types are applied in an oil-immersed 5
transformer, this must be indicated on the type plate and Capital letters indicate the circuitry of the high-voltage
the technical descriptions, for example ONAN / ONAF / OFAF. winding, small letters the circuitry of the low-voltage

There is a load limit for natural cooling. Above this limit,

winding. Capital letters are put first in vector groups. If the
star point of a winding is connected in star or zigzag con-
6
the transformer utilises a cooling system with pumps and nection, it is designated as YN or ZN, respectively yn or zn.
fans in both circuits.
7

9
Ur
3 Ur /3
10
Ur
3 11
Ur Ur Ur

Star connection Delta connection Zigzag connection

12

Ir Ir Ir
13

Ir
w/3 14
w Ir w
3 3 3

Ir
w/3
15
Ir
Ur
Rated current
Rated voltage
16
w Number of windings TIP04_13_113_EN

17
Fig. 9/1:  Connections of three-phase current transformers with vector diagrams

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 195

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The code number (0; 5 etc.) indicates in the vector diagram

by which multiple of 30° the vector of the low voltage lags
against the one of the high voltage with associated connec-
2 tion code. The direction of rotation of the vectors is anti- Yy0
clockwise. 0

I
3 Typical vector groups are (see Fig. 9/2):
i
Yy0 (Yy6), Yz5 (Yz11), Dy5 (Dy11) iii
4 In transformers with these vector groups, a star point
ii II
III
connected at the output side permits the connection of a
neutral conductor in the three-phase distribution network.
5 In this case, the vector group designations are as follows:

Yyn0 (Yyn6), Yzn5 (Yzn11), Dyn5 (Dyn11) Yz5

6 The star point of transformers with Yyn0 (Yyn6) vector
groups can only be used for earthing or for a maximum I

7 load load that doesn't exceed 10 % of the rated current.

Therefore, the Yyn connection is generally not suitable for
iii
ii
the supply of distribution networks with a fourth, neutral
conductor. One of the other vector groups listed above II
8 must then be configured. In a Yzn and Dyn connection, the III
i

star point can be loaded with 100 % of the rated current.

5

9 In a zigzag connection, the current always flows through

two leg windings from the conductor terminal to the star
point terminal. The sub-voltages per leg always cover an

10 angle of 120° in the three-phase system. Therefore, the

voltage applied between the conductor terminals of the I
Dy5
windings belonging to a phase is not twice the sub-voltage
per leg, but only √3 times the sub-voltage. For this reason,
11 a zigzag connection requires more winding material (factor
2 / √3) than a star connection.
ii iii

12 In the delta connection, each leg requires more windings

by a factor of √3 compared to the star connection to attain
III
i
II
TIP04_13_114

the same voltage. Whereas the conductor cross section in

5
13 the delta connection is smaller by a factor of 1 / √3 com-
pared to the star connection.

14 Fig. 9/2:  Typical vector groups for three-phase transformers

15

16

17

196 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

9.2 Losses and Profitability Estimates 1

Capital cost Cc
The sharply risen prices for energy are increasingly forcing
purchasers of electrical machines to carefully consider the Annual capital costs Cc factor in:
2
system-inherent losses of these machines. This is of special – Purchase price Cp in €
importance for distribution transformers that run continu- – Interest rate p in %
ously and work under load. However, in most cases the
higher cost of a loss-optimised transformer can be compen-
– Depreciation period n in years
First, the interest factor q is calculated: 3
q = p / 100 + 1
sated in less than three years by energy savings. and from this the depreciation factor r:
r = p · qn / (qn – 1)
No-load losses (P0)
Capital costs Cc in € per annum are then: 4
Cc = Cp · r / 100
No-load losses are the consumed active power if rated voltage
is applied at rated frequency to the terminals of a winding Cost of no-load loss CP0 5
while the other winding remains unloaded. They consist of
losses in the iron core and the dielectric as well as the losses No-load losses cause annual costs CP0
caused by the no-load current in the windings. The losses
in the dielectric and the windings are generally irrelevant.
which are determined by:
– No-load losses P0 in kW 6
– Electricity cost Ce in € / kWh
– Number of hours per annum (8,760 h)
CP0 = Ce · 8,760 h · P0
The iron core losses – i.e. the substantial part of the no-
load losses – are composed of hysteresis losses and eddy 7
current losses. Hysteresis losses are caused by flapping of Cost of load loss CPk
the micro crystals which are elementary magnets. They
respond to each turn and alignment by some resistance. Load losses cause annual costs CPk,
8
Generally, the energy involved in this cannot be recovered, which are determined by:
it is present in the form of heat loss. – Winding losses Pk in kW

The eddy currents present in the iron core in addition to the

– Electricity cost Ce in € / kWh
– Load factor a = Annual average operating output / nominal output 9
– Number of hours per annum (8,760 h)
hysteresis losses are caused by the fact that the temporally CPk = Ce · 8,760 h · a2 · Pk
variable magnetic field induces voltages in the iron core.
These voltages generate currents which flow on eddy 10
Cost resulting from demand charges CD
paths. Ohmic resistance of the iron and the eddy currents
produce eddy current losses due to the relation I2R. Eddy
current losses can be reduced by using particularly thin,
The demand charge Cd (in € / kW) is fixed by the power
supplier based on the demand requirements. 11
insulated iron sheets. The costs CD are the product of demand charge and total
power loss:
CD = Cd · (Pk + P0)
Short-circuit losses (Pk) 12
Short-circuit loss is the consumed active power at rated Tab. 9/1:  Cost calculation for transformer selection
frequency if the rated current flows through the conductor
terminal of one of the windings while the terminals of the
13
other winding are shorted. Short-circuit losses consist of
current heat losses in the ohmic resistors (I2R) and the
additional losses caused by eddy currents in the windings 14
and in constructive parts.

Tab. 9/1 shows a simplified calculation method for a fast

estimation of loss costs for a transformer example. The
15
following assumptions are made:
• The transformers work continuously
• The transformers work under partial load, with constant
16
partial load
• Additional costs and inflation factors are not taken into
account 17
• The demand charges refer to 100 % full load

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 197

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Tab. 9/2 shows a fictitious example. The factors used are

common in Germany. The effects of inflation on the as- Example: Distribution transformer
sumed demand charge are not factored in.
2 Depreciation period n = 20 years Depreciation
The short-circuit losses are converted to a reference tem- Interest rate p = 12 % p. a. factor r = 13.39
perature. For oil-immersed transformers this is 75 °C. For Energy charge Ce = 0.25 € / kWh
3 cast-resin transformers these are:
A = 80 °C Demand charge Cd = 350 € / (kW × year)

E = 95 °C Equivalent annual load factor a = 0.8

4 B = 100 °C
F = 120 °C A. Low-cost transformer B. Loss-optimised transformer
H = 145 °C

5 Where the winding temperatures in classes A, E, B, F, and H

P0 = 19 kW
Pk = 167 kW
no-load loss
load loss
P0 = 16 kW
Pk = 124 kW
no-load loss
load loss
from IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11) are always raised by Cp = € 521,000 purchase price Cp = € 585,000 purchase price
20 °C following the description in EN 50541-1
6 (VDE 0532‑241). EN 50541-1 (VDE 0532-241) presents a
conversion formula for adapting short-circuit losses from Cc = 521,000 13.39
•
Cc = 585,000 13.39
•
100 100
75 °C, for example, to the temperature T: = € 69,762 / year = € 78,332 / year

7 For copper conductors:

CP0 = 0.2 × 8,760 • 19 CP0 = 0.2 × 8,760 • 16
Correction factor KCu(T) = (235 + T) / (235 + 75)
= € 33,288 / year = € 28,032 / year

8 (for example KCu(120) = 1.145)

CPk = 0.2 • 8,760 • 0.64 • 167 CPk = 0.2 • 8,760 • 0.64 • 124
= € 187,254 / year = € 139,039 / year
For aluminium conductors:
9 Correction factor KAl(T) = (225 + T) / (225 + 75)
(for example KAl(120) = 1.15) CD = 350 • (19 + 167) CD = 350 • (16 + 124)
= € 65,100 / year = € 49,000 / year

10 If loads deviate from the rated duty, the short-circuit losses

Pk change in the relation (load current / rated current) Total cost of owning and Total cost of owning and
operating this transformer operating this transformer
squared. is thus: is thus:

11
€ 355,404 / year € 294,403 / year

The energy saving of the optimised distribution transformer of

12 € 61,001 per year pays for the increased purchase price in less
than one year.

Tab. 9/2:  Cost calculation for transformer selection

13

14

15

16

17

198 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

9.3 Construction of Oil-immersed 1

Transformers
Essential components of oil-immersed transformers are: Tank design 2
• Iron core made of grain-oriented electrical sheet, insu-
lated on both sides, core type Completely enclosed standard distribution transformers
• Windings made of profiled copper wire, copper band, or
aluminium band. The insulation has a high electric
have no oil conservator tanks and no gas buffer (Fig. 9/3).
The TUMETIC transformers by Siemens are always com-
3
strength and is temperature-resistant. This ensures a long pletely filled with oil and in the event of oil expansion, the
service life
• The rating for short-circuit strength is at least 2 s
corrugated steel tank also expands (variable volume tank).
Therefore, the maximum operating pressure is greatly 4
(IEC 60076-5; VDE 0532-76-5) limited.
• Oil-filled tank, corrugated sheet wall type or as radiator
tank The hermetically sealed system prevents the ingress of 5
• Transformer truck with rollers (skids) can be supplied oxygen, nitrogen, or moisture into the cooling liquid, which
• Cooling / insulation liquid: Mineral oil in accordance with improves the ageing characteristics of the oil to such an
IEC 60296 (VDE 0370-1); silicone oil or synthetic fluids
available
extent that the TUMETIC transformer requires no mainte-
nance throughout its entire service life. Without an oil
6
• Standard varnishing for outdoor installation Varnishing conservator tank, such as a TUNORMA transformer has, for
types for special applications available (for example
resistant against aggressive environmental impact)
example, the TUMETIC transformer is lower in height.
7

Hermetically sealed tank A

B
= length;
= width;
10
H = height
E = roller-to-roller centre spacing
11
8 2 5

7
12
2N 2U 2V 2W
13
H

1U 1V 1W

4
6 14
5
3
1 E E A 15
TIP04_13_115_EN

1 Oil drain 5 Earth connections

2 Thermometer well
3 Adjuster for off-circuit tap changer
6 Pulling lug, Ø 30 mm
7 Lashing lug
16
4 Rating plate (moveable) 8 Filler tube

17
Fig. 9/3:  Hermetically sealed oil-immersed distribution transformers

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 199

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 In a TUNORMA transformer (Fig. 9/4), the oil level in the also provides a high level of safety against fires and is
tank and in the top-mounted bushing insulators is kept con- also classified as K liquid according to EN 61100
stant by means of an oil conservator tank, which is (VDE 0389‑2)
2 mounted at the highest point of the transformer. Changes
in the oil level caused by varying thermal conditions only Accessories and protective devices
affect the oil conservator tank.
3 The design of the transformers depends on the require-
For special applications and the enhancement of opera-
tional safety, oil-immersed transformers can be equipped
ments. For example, double-tank versions are available for with additional components such as:

4 special requirements in protected water catchment areas

and versions with ultra-high interference reduction for use
• Protection of the cable terminals by cable boxes, flanged
terminals, and / or angular plug connectors
in EMC-sensitive areas. • Buchholz relay to identify a pressure rise and detect gas
(at the high- and / or low-voltage side)
5 Cooling and insulating liquids • Indication of the real oil peak temperature by a pointer
contact thermometer
A distinction is also made between the cooling and the • Warning in case of oil loss and gas accumulation in the
6 insulating liquid:
• Mineral oil that meets the requirements of the international
TUMETIC transformer by a protective device
• Air dehumidifier for more reliable operation through a
regulations for insulating oil, IEC 60296 (VDE 0370‑1), reduction of coolant humidity

7 for transformers without any special requirements

• Silicone oil that is self-extinguishing when a fire occurs.
Due to its high fire point of over 300 °C, it is classified as
a Category K liquid according to EN 61100 (VDE 0389‑2)
8 • Diester oil, which does not pollute water and is biode-
gradable. Owing to a fire point of over 300 °C, diester oil

10 With expansion tank A = length; B = width; H = height

E = roller-to-roller center spacing

11 4
1 5
3 8
12 10
2N 2U 2V 2W
H

13 1U 1V 1W
B

14 8 9
2 6
E E A
15
1 Oil level indicator 6 Adjuster for off-circuit tap changer
TIP04_13_116_EN

2 Oil drain 7 Rating plate (moveable)

16 3 Thermometer well
4 Buchholz relays (on request)
8
9
Earth connections
Pulling lug, Ø 30 mm
5 Desiccant breather (on request) 10 Lashing lug

17
Fig. 9/4:  Oil-immersed distribution transformer with conservator

200 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

9.4 GEAFOL Cast-resin Dry-type Requirements for the site of installation in accordance with 1
Transformers DIN VDE 0101-1 (1997) (water protection, fire protection,
and functional endurance see Tab. 9/3 and Tab. 9/4) sug-
Cast-resin transformers are the solution wherever distribu- gest the use of cast-resin dry-type transformers (for exam- 2
tion transformers in the immediate proximity to people ple GEAFOL). Compared to transformers using mineral oil,
must guarantee the greatest possible safety. The restric- silicone oil or diester oil, these transformers place the
tions of liquid-filled transformers have been avoided with
cast-resin transformers, but their proven characteristics
lowest demands on the site of installation while fulfilling
higher requirements in terms of personal safety and low
3
such as operational safety and durability have been re- fire load. Cast-resin transformers should at least meet the
tained. requirements C2 (Climate Category), E1 or E2 (Environ-
4
Cooling method
5
Transformer In closed electrical operating
according to General Outdoor installations
versions areas
IEC 60076-2
Mineral oil * O a Oil sumps and collecting pits Impermeable floors with sills No oil sumps and collecting pits
b Discharge of liquid from the are sufficient as oil sumps under certain circumstances
collecting pit must be
prevented
and collecting pits for
max. 3 transformers, each
(The complete text from DIN
VDE 0101, sections 7.6 and 7.7
6
c Water Resources Act and the transformer with less than must be observed.)
state-specific regulations must 1,000 l of liquid
be observed
7
Silicone oil or K As for coolant designation O
synth. diester oil**
Cast-resin dry-type
transformers
A No measures required
8
* Or fire point of the coolant and insulation liquid  ≤ 300°C;**Or fire point of the coolant and insulation liquid > 300°C

Tab. 9/3:  Measures for water protection in accordance with DIN VDE 0101-1 (1997)
9
Coolant General Outdoor installations
designation 10
O a Rooms: fire resistant F90A, separated a Adequate clearances
b Doors: fire-retardant T30 or
c Low flammability required for external doors
d Oil sumps and collecting pits are arranged to stop a fire spreading; except for
b Fire resistant partitions
11
installations in closed electrical operating areas with a maximum of 3
transformers, each transformer with less than 1,000 l of liquid

K
e Fast acting protective devices
O; a, b, and c can be omitted when e is present, similar to the coolant designation No measures required
12
A As in the coolant designation: K; but without d No measures required

Tab. 9/4:  Measures for fire protection and functional endurance in accordance with DIN VDE 0101-1 (1997) 13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 201

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 ment Category), and F1 (Fire Safety Category) as defined in

IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11) (see Tab. 9/5).

2 GEAFOL transformers are used wherever oil-immersed

transformers must not be used: in buildings, in tunnels, on
ships, on offshore cranes and oil platforms, in wind power
3 stations, in groundwater protection areas, in the food
processing industry, etc. The transformers are often com-
bined with the low-voltage switchgear into load-centre

4 ­substations. The GEAFOL transformers can be installed as

power converter transformers for variable-speed drives
together with the inverters at the drive location. This
reduces the required building measures, cabling and instal-
5 lation costs as well as transmission losses.

GEAFOL transformers are designed to fully withstand

6 voltage surges. They have similar noise levels as oil-­
immersed transformers. Considering the indirect cost
savings mentioned above, they are also competitive in

7 terms of price. Thanks to their design, GEAFOL transform-

ers are largely free from maintenance during their entire
service life.

8
Environment category limited

Category E0 No condensation, pollution can be neglected

9 Category E1
Occasional condensation, limited pollution
possible
Frequent condensation or pollution, also both at
10 Category E2
the same time

Climate category

11 Category C1 Indoor installation not under –5°C

Category C2 Outdoor installation down to –25°C

Fire safety category

12 Category F0 There are no measures to limit the danger of fire
The danger of fire is limited by the properties of
Category F1
13 the transformer

Tab. 9/5:  Environment, climate, and fire safety categories in

accordance with IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11)

14

15

16

17

202 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

9.5 Power Converter Transformer If consumers are connected which generate harmonics of 1
a load current THDi > 5  % – referred to the rated current –
The operation of variable-speed three-phase motors using IEC 60076-1 (VDE 0523-72-1) recommends the use of a
current converter connections requires the use of specially power converter transformer instead of a standard trans- 2
customized GEAFOL transformers. The power converter former.
transformer is the link between network and drive system,
and shall ensure an adaptation to the network configu­
ration on the one hand and decoupling from system per­
The use of 12-pulse rectifiers with diodes and thyristors
allows the low-frequency harmonic load (especially the 5th
3
turbations of the converter connections on the other and 7th harmonic) to be reduced. Besides the use of two
(Fig. 9/5). Particular attention must be given to the impact
of harmonics produced by the converter, the surge opera-
separate transformers for a 6-pulse rectifier bridge each,
special three-windings transformers can be sized as power 4
tion and a possible DC current pre-magnetisation, and converter transformers. To attain the desired phase shift of
unbalanced load in the event of a fault. The 6-pulse or 30° in the commutation between the two 6-pulse rectifiers,
12-pulse bridge connections for rectifying generate a star connection and a delta connection is connected to a 5
­harmonics in the range of the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th 6-pulse bridge each at the low-voltage side.
harmonic.

Common GEAFOL transformers are designed for purely

If two transformers are used, they can be built up on top of
each other as stacked power converter transformers. In that
6
sine-shaped loads and would have to be oversized for use case, the 30° phase shift can either take place at the high-
in combination with power converters. Whereas the
GEAFOL power converter transformer takes account of the
or the low-voltage side.
7
increased electrical stress by a reinforced phase insulation
compared to standard transformer versions. The following
is achieved in this way: 8
• Higher electric strength of the insulation system
• Lower additional losses in the winding and core
• Higher impulse-load capacity 9

10
+

11
R
L1
L1
Unetwork U
C S 12
L2 U= 3~ AC
L2

L3
L3
T
13
TIP04_13_117_EN

N ‒ 14
Power converter transformer Frequency converter Three-phase motor

15
Fig. 9/5:  Block diagram for a three-phase drive with power converter transformer and 6-pulse bridge connection

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 203

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 9.6 FITformer® REG – Regulated “producers” at the same time), play an important part,
Distribution Transformer because their load purchases, their electricity feed-in, and
their storage capacities vary greatly sometimes.
2 Distributed power generation from regenerative energy
sources is more than a trend of the time and results in the The regulated FITformer® REG distribution transformer
fact that the load flow in the power supply system is (Fig. 9/6) is capable of changing its transformation ratio
3 becoming increasingly complex in the future. The more
profitable wind power stations and photovoltaic systems
under load. Thus it ensures distributed feed-in of small
power stations and helps the power supplier keep within
are becoming, the more attractive they will be in rural the permissible voltage range and meet the requirements

4 areas in particular – and the greater is the challenge for

the grid operators to keep the voltage constant. The
of EN 50160. To this end, the transformer provides three
low-voltage taps in the hermetically sealed corrugated steel
solution is the transformation of the grid infrastructure tank which are connected to the regulator positioned
into a system which is efficient, powerful, and above all, directly at the transformer.
5 adaptive. In its planning, customers and suppliers, as
well as "prosumers" (who are electricity customers and

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 9/6:  FITformer® REG

204 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The connection basically consists of vacuum and air contac- 1

tors, resistors, and a control unit. Its principle is that closing
a contactor activates a bypass. Then the current flows
through the bypass ("N") to ensure flawless switch-over of 2
the mechanical vacuum contactors (Fig. 9/7), switch-over
from"2" to "1"). This prevents the occurrence of undesired
1
voltage peaks or voltage dips during switch-over even
under nominal load. When the target position has been
3
reached, the contactor for the bypass is opened and thus 2
N
deactivated. The control is event-driven and rules out
internal faulty responses such as incorrect closing of a 4
vacuum contactor.
3
Optionally, transformers of the FITformer® REG type can be 5
equipped with additional current measuring instruments.
They allow for a more precise evaluation of the grid condi-
tion with regard to the feed-in power of power stations and
the load drawn in the low-voltage grid. An extension by
6
these parameters increases the accuracy and reliability of 1
transformer regulation. Additionally, the FITformer® REG
model can be equipped with a communication processor 7
2
for remote monitoring and control. To this end, the
IEC 60870-5-101, IEC 60870-5-104, Modbus RTU and
N
Modbus TCP / IP protocols are available for selection. This 8
extension allows the regulated distribution transformer to
be integrated into a smart grid. This enables taking distrib- 3
uted measurements in the low-voltage grid. 9
In the field of measurement techniques, Siemens provides
the option of creating a superordinate control unit, relying
on the SICAM product portfolio. This control unit is capable 10
1
of fixing set values on the basis of measured process values
both for the regulated distribution transformer and for
distributed power generators. For this purpose, smart 2 11
meters are directly integrated using the CX1 protocol. The N
existing distribution grid structure can here be optimally
12
TIP04_13_118

utilised for communication purposes by means of distribu-

tion line carriers. Alternatively, the FITformer® REG can also
be controlled by external signals. 3

Fig. 9/7:  Principle of switching under load for FITformer® REG

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 205

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 9.7 Transformer Operation kept in mind here that the short-circuit losses can also more
than double compared to the short-circuit losses at nominal
Overtemperatures load. Therefore, additional ventilation is a proven means for
2 covering peak loads as well as providing a reserve in case of
Transformers are designed in such a manner that overtem- a transformer failure when transformers are operated in
peratures as permitted by regulations are not exceeded parallel.
3 during rated operation. The overtemperature in the wind-
ing, and in liquid-filled transformers also the cooling and Notes for planning the low-voltage main distribution
insulating liquid, is the difference between the part under system (LVMD) and transformers under overload:

4 consideration and the temperature of the ambient air. For

ambient air, regulations specify maximum temperatures as
• Both the transformer feed-in circuit-breaker and the
connection between transformer and LVMD must be sized
well as mean day and annual temperatures. for the increased nominal current! The short-circuit
currents do not rise (for short-circuit behaviour please
5 The mean overtemperature applies to the winding, which is refer to the Appendix 17.1)
determined by the temperature dependence of its ohmic • The busbars of the low-voltage switchgear must be
resistance. The maximum overtemperature of the cooling dimensioned for overload conditions
6 and insulating liquid results from temperature measure-
ments in the thermometer pocket. For Siemens transform-
• Transformer losses increase in square under overload
conditions (for example, 150 % load results in approxi-
ers, it is very often below the permissible overtemperature mately 225 % transformer losses). Increased losses must

7 of the insulating liquid. be considered in the calculation of the discharge air

volume for the transformer room!
Overload capability
Parallel operation
8 In accordance with IEC 60076-1 (VDE 0532-76-1), trans-
former overloading is permitted if the specified values for Parallel operation prevails if transformers are connected to
the coolant temperature are undershot. The calculation for identical power supply systems both at their input and
9 oil-immersed transformers is described in IEC 60076-7
(VDE 0532-76-7), respectively IEC 60076-12
output side. As a rule, transformers characterized by vector
groups with identical code numbers are suitable for parallel
(VDE 0532‑76‑12) for GEAFOL transformers. operation. Conductor terminals of the same name (1U-1U,

10 A corresponding performance increase can be established

2U-2U, 1V-1V, 2V-2V, 1W-1W, 2W-2W) must then be con-
nected to each other. But it is also possible to operate
for Siemens transformers according to a rule of thumb. It is: transformers in parallel with certain vector groups that
• 1 % per 1 K 1) undershooting the coolant temperature for have different code numbers provided that the conductor
11 oil-immersed transformers terminals are swapped accordingly. This is shown in Fig. 9/8
• 0.6 % per 1 K for GEAFOL transformers for transformers with vector groups in the common code
numbers 5 and 11.
12 Overloading the transformer without exceeding the permit-
ted winding temperature is temporarily possible even if the In case of an identical transformation ratio, the total load is
previous continuous load was below the rated power, and distributed to the transformers connected in parallel pro-
13 provided that the permitted overtemperatures have not yet
been reached despite overload.
portional to the transformer outputs and inversely propor-
tional to the short-circuit voltages. In case of identical input
voltages and different output voltages of two transformers
Another transformer overloading option (performance-de- connected in parallel, a compensating current flows
14 pendent up to about 50 %) is fan blowing, this means a through both transformers which is approximated as
forced flow of the external coolant. However, it must be follows:

15 1)   K = 1 Kelvin is the SI unit for the thermodynamic temperature. It is defined as

1
the 273.16th part of the thermodynamic temperature of 0.01 °C of the triple
point of water. 0 K is the absolute point zero of the temperature, it corresponds

16 to –273.15 °C)

17

206 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Δu The compensating current is independent of the load and 1

Icomp. tr. 1 = · 100 its distribution. It also flows under no load. Under load,
Sr1
ukr1 + ukr2 · load current and compensating current are added as vec-
Sr2
tors. With an inductive power factor of the load current in 2
the transformer with the higher secondary voltage, this
Icomp. tr. 1 Compensating current of rated current for always results in an increase of the total current, while the
transformer 1 in percent
I Δu I Absolute value of the input voltage differ-
total current in the transformer with the lower secondary
voltage decreases.
3
ence of transformer 1 idling in percent
ukr1, ukr2 Rated short-circuit voltages respectively
short-circuit voltages at certain taps and / or 4
deviations of the rated induction of trans-
formers 1 and 2
Sr1 / Sr2  Ratio of rated outputs 5

7
1L1
1L2
8
1L3
High voltage:
1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1L1, 1L2, 1L3 9
Low voltage:
5 11 11 11 2L1, 2L2, 2L3
Required code number 5
2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 10
2L1
2L2 11
2L3

Possible connections
12
1L1
1L2
1L3 13
High voltage:
1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1L1, 1L2, 1L3

11 5 5 5
Low voltage: 14
2L1, 2L2, 2L3
Required code number 11
2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U
15
2L1
2L2
2L3 16
Possible connections TIP04_13_119_EN

17
Fig. 9/8:  Possible connections for transformers operated in parallel with vector groups of code numbers 5 and 11

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 207

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 In Example 1 (Tab. 9/6), the smaller transformer unfortu- Example 1: Transformers with different secondary no-load
nately happens to carry the higher secondary voltage and voltages
must therefore carry the higher total current. This means
2 for this example that with a compensating current of
Output voltage
at no load
Rated power Rated short-
circuit voltage
25.6 % only a load current of 74.4 % is permitted in order in V in kVA in  %
not to exceed the rated current of the smaller transformer 1 Trans-
400 630 6
3 (corresponding to 100 %). Consequently, the whole set of
transformers can only be operated at 74.4 % of its cumu-
former 1
Trans-
390 1,000 6
lated power of 630 + 1,000 = 1,630 kVA, which is former 2

4 about 1,213 kVA.
Δu =
400 – 390
· 100 = 2.5 %
400
With a power factor for the load below 0.9, this estimate
Sr1 630
suggests a sufficiently precise guide value. With a power = = 0.63
5 factor greater than 0.9, the permissible cumulated power Sr2 1,000
rises due to the then growing vectorial difference value. 2.5
Icomp. tr. 1 ≈ ≈ 25.6 %
6 + 6 · 0.63

6 An adjustment of the regulator at a transformer may in

certain circumstances improve the loading options. If it was
Sr = (Sr1 + Sr2) · (100 % – Icomp. tr. 1) = 1,213 kVA

possible to set a higher tapping at the high-voltage side in Example 2: Transformer 2 with a 5 % lower transformation and
correspondingly higher secondary no-load voltage
7 the 630-kVA transformer in our example (for instance 5 %
more windings), this would result in a reduction at the low Output voltage Rated power Rated short-
voltage side by a factor of 1 / 1.05 for the smaller trans- at no load circuit voltage
in V in kVA in  %
former 2 due to the induction decrease, when connected to
8 the same high voltage, meaning 381 V instead of 400 V. Trans-
former 1
400 630 6
Thus, the larger transformer with the higher voltage
(390 V) would be leading. Trans- 5.7
411 1,000
9 If the low voltage of 381 V gained by this measure was too
former 2 (≈ 95 % of 6)

400 – 411
Δu = · 100 = 2.75 %
low, a lower tapping could be set at the high-voltage side 400

10 in the 1,000-kVA transformer instead, if possible, and as

demonstrated in Example 2 in Tab. 9/6 (for instance 5 %
Sr1
=
630
Sr2 1,000
= 0.63
fewer windings). As a result of the induction increase
2.75
(check if permitted! More noise, core heating, no-load Icomp. tr. 1 ≈ ≈ 28.7 %
11 current) this would produce a higher low voltage by a
6 + 5.7 · 0.63

factor of 1 / 0.95, approximately 411 V instead of 390 V, for Sr1

Icomp. tr. 2 ≈ Icomp. tr. 1 · ≈ 18.1 %
the larger transformer 2. Since transformer 2 now has the Sr2

12 higher secondary no-load voltage, it carries the cumulated

current from load and compensating current and hence
Sr = (Sr1 + Sr2) · (100 % – Icomp. tr. 2) = 1,335 kVA

determines the permitted total load of the two parallel Tab. 9/6:  Exemplary calculations for the cumulated power of

13 transformers. transformers operated in parallel with varying outputs and

voltages
When changing the voltage setting, it must be kept in mind
that the short-circuit voltage also changes. In transformers,
14 the indirect voltage setting involved in an induction change Example 2 (Tab. 9/6) calculates with a 5 % lower tap setting
leads to a change in the short-circuit voltage which is of the 1,000-kVA transformer. Since transformer 2 now has
approximately proportional to the percentage of windings the higher secondary no-load voltage, it carries the cumu-
15 connected into or disconnected from supply. lated current from load and compensating current and
hence determines the permitted total load of the two
parallel transformers. Assuming a power factor of the load
16 below 0.9, the whole set of transformers can now be
operated at approximately 81.9 % of the cumulated power
(81.9 % of 1,630 kVA is 1,335 kVA).

17

208 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In case of equal transformer ratings, the partial loads are in- 9.8 Transformer Room 1
versely proportional to the short-circuit voltages. The
transformer with the lower short-circuit voltage is loaded Essential spatial requirements are described in IEC 61936-1
more than the one with the higher short-circuit voltage. (VDE 0101-1). The propagation of fires, the noise level, 2
ventilation, water pollution, and protection against indirect
In case of a transformer load varying over time for a group contact must be taken into account. Furthermore, the
of several transformers connected in parallel considering a
defined period of time, a minimum of total losses can be
standard refers to the relevant national, regional, and local
provisions and regulations. In addition, product-specific
3
attained by connecting individual transformers into or characteristics as described in the IEC 60076 (VDE 0532‑76)
disconnecting them from supply. Short circuit losses are a
square function of the load. This means, the sum of short-
series of standards play a role for room planning.
4
circuit losses plus no-load losses may in certain circum- Conditions for installation and room layout
stances be lower when the load is split between several
transformers than if fewer transformers are used. To avoid Extreme local conditions must be taken into account when 5
a cumbersome loss comparison of the transformers oper- planning the system:
ated in parallel, the partial load where a connection of an • The paint finish and prevailing temperatures are relevant
additional, identical transformer (the k-th transformer) is
economically efficient can be determined as follows using a
for use in tropical climates
• For use in altitudes of more than 1,000 m above sea level
6
partial load factor n: a special configuration with regard to heating and insula-

Partial load
tion level is required, see IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11)
• With increased mechanical demands being made – use in 7
n=
Rated power a ship, excavator, earthquake region, etc. – additional
constructive measures may be required, e.g. supporting
SGroup = n · Sr
the upper yoke 8
Sgroup Output of the group
Sr Rating of an individual transformer GEAFOL cast-resin transformers can be installed in the
n Partial load factor same room as medium- and low-voltage switchgear with-
out any extra precautions (Fig. 9/9). This helps save consid-
9
The partial load factor n for efficient connection of a fur- erable costs for transformer cells. In cotrast to a room for
ther identical transformer into supply (the k-th transformer)
can be determined according to the following formula:
oil-immersed transformers, this room can be provided at m
below ground surface or at the top floor of buildings. 10
k · (k – 1) · P0 With regard to fire protection of facilities, national or local
n=
Pk
regulations must usually be observed. For example, in 11
Germany the EltBauVO (Ordinance on the construction of
k Number of transformers to be connected in parallel electrical operating areas) governs that doors in fire resist-

This means, the ratio of no-load to short-circuit losses P0 / Pk

ance class F30-A separate the electrical operating room (in
accordance with DIN 4102-2) and walls in fire resistance
12
plays an important part for the group output in the parallel class F90-A. However, firewalls (24 cm wall thickness) as
connection of transformers. for oil-immersed transformers, are not required for GEAFOL
transformers.
13
The EltBauVO also governs that the spatial separation
towards other rooms must not be endangered as a result of 14
a pressure surge due to an arcing fault. In terms of ventila-
tion, it must also be observed that electrical operating
areas must be directly vented into open air or by using
separate intake / discharge air pipes. Air pipes leading
15
through other rooms must designed in a fire-resistant
manner and the openings into open air must have protec-
tion grilles. Oil-immersed transformers (using mineral oil or
16
synthetic fluids with a fire point ≤ 300 °C) require at least
one exit leading directly outdoors into open air, or through
an ante-room (without any connection to other rooms, 17
except for the switchgear room if applicable).

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 209

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
A-A

2 Exhaust air (nat.)

GEAFOL- Medium voltage

transformer Low voltage
3 Solid wall
Alternative
exhaust air
outlet

3,000
4
Guard rail
1U 1V 1W

5
Cable

800
basement
6
Intake air
7

9 Trans-
former 3
Cable 1
Transformer 3 630

10 Cable 2

Trans-
11 former 2
Metering
Transfer
6,000

Transformer 2 630

Trans-
12 former 3

Trans-
Trans-
former 2
13 Transformer 1 630
former 1

Trans-
A former 1 A

14

15 7,500
TIP04_13_120_EN

Self-closing doors opening Fire resistance rating

outwards, in fire resistance F 90A (DIN 4102)
16 rating F 30A (DIN 4102)

17 Fig. 9/9:  Example of how to arrange GEAFOL transformers and switchgear in an  back to page 209
electrical operating area

210 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The transformers are suitable for operation up to an alti- Pv = P0 + 1.1 ∙ PK120 ∙ (SAF / SAN)2 [kW] 1

tude of 1,000 m above sea level. When installed in altitudes
higher than 1,000 m, special versions are required. For P0: No-load losses [kW]
every 100 metres that the permitted altitude of installation 1.1 ∙ PK120: Short-circuit losses at 120°C (according to the list or, 2
is exceeded, the nominal power must be reduced by ap- if already available, the test certificate specifications),
proximately 0.4 % for liquid-filled transformers, and by multiplied by a factor of 1.1 for the working
approximately 0.5 % for cast-resin transformers. temperature of the insulation categories HV / LV = F / F
for GEAFOL transformers.
3
Transformer room ventilation and pressure estimate in SAF: Power [kVA] for forced ventilation AF (air forced)
case of an arcing fault SAN: Apparent power [kVA] for natural ventilation AN
(natural air flow)
4
Heat loss generated during any kind of transformer
­operation must be dissipated from the transformer room The total heat loss in the room (Qv) is the sum of the heat
(Fig. 9/10). The possibility of natural ventilation should be losses of all transformers in the room: 5
checked first. If this is not sufficient, a mechanical ventila-
tion system must be installed. Qv = Σ Pv
The heat loss results from the power loss of the trans-
6
former. The power loss of a transformer is: Note: Our TIP contact person can support the electrical
designer with complex calculations of the heat dissipation
for arbitrary parameters and when combining ventilation 7
measures (refer to the Contact pages in this manual or the
web page: www.siemens.com/tip-cs/contact).
8

10

11

KD
QD
AD, KD Qv Total dissipated losses [kW]
12
Pv Transformer power loss [kW]
v Air velocity [m/s]
AW
A1, 2 Air inlet/outlet cross section [m2] 13
Air temperature rise [K], = 2− 1
A2 VL Qv = ∑ Pv H Thermally effective height [m]
V2 KW
Q W,D Losses dissipated via walls and ceilings [kW]
14
H

AW,D Area of walls and ceilings

QW KW,D W
Heat transfer coefficient [ m3K ]
Indices: W − wall, D – ceiling
1U 1V 1W A1
VL Air flow rate
15
TIP04_13_121_EN

Fresh air supply

Warm exhaust air
V1
Heat dissipation via walls and ceilings
16

Fig. 9/10:  Specifications for the ventilation calculation 17

Totally Integrated Power – Transformers 211

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Calculation of the heat dissipation These simple examples show that the heat dissipation
through walls and ceilings quickly reaches the limits of
The following methods are available for the dissipation of the room and that for large transformer outputs, a
2 the entire power loss Qv in the room: ­detailed configuration of the forced ventilation may be
Qv1 dissipation with the natural air flow necessary (also refer to the Siemens publication
Qv2  dissipation via walls and ceilings “GEAFOL Cast-Resin Transformers”; Planning Guidelines,
3 Qv3 dissipation with the forced air flow order no. E50001-G640-A109-V3-7600). Our Siemens
TIP contact persons can support electrical designers in
Qv = Pv = Qv1 + Qv2+ Qv3 estimating ventilation conditions in a defined room size

4 To illustrate the size of the variables for the different venti-

and help adjust ventilation measures accordingly
(see www.siemens.com/tip-cs/contact).
lation methods, linear dependencies can be derived by
specifying realistic values. For a thermally effective height Further support that can be offered to electrical designers
5 of 5 m, an air temperature rise of 15 °C between the inside by our TIP contacts as a free of charge service for GEAFOL
and outside area, a uniform heat transfer coefficient of transformers is estimating the pressure rise under arcing
3.4  W / m2 for 20 cm thick concrete and an air flow rate of fault conditions. Besides a graphical evaluation of the
6 10,000 m3 / h for forced ventilation, which is led through an
air duct with an inlet / outlet cross section that is approxi-
pressure development (Fig. 9/11), the data on ventilation
and pressure rise in the transformer room is output.
mately four times as large.

7 Qv1 = approx. 13 [kW / m2] ∙ A1,2 [m2]

(Example: Qv1 = 8 kW for a cross section of approx. 0.62 m2)

8 Qv2 = approx. 0.122 [kW / m2] ∙ AD [m2]

(Example: Qv2 = 8 kW for a surface area of approx. 66 m2)

9 Qv3 = approx. 44 [kW / m2] ∙ A1,2 [m2]

(Example: Qv3 = 8 kW for a cross section of approx. 0.18 m2)

10

11
Project name: Demo Entry fields

Edited by: John Q Public Pressure rise estimate under arcing fault conditions
Room height incl. double floor: 3.00 m

12
A1= 0.559 m² 2 : 50 °C Date: 01.01.2014 Max. short-circuit power: 200 MVA
Room width: 3.00 m B1= 1.00 m² B2: 40 °C
Nominal medium voltage: 10 kV
Room depth: 3.00 m Manufacturer: SIEMENS
*)
Max. short-circuit current: 12 kA
Room volume: 27.00 m3 Transformer type: Geafol
Setting for protective device line-side of
Transformer: 630 kVA, 10/0.4 kV, Uk 6%, reduced transformer protection (e.g.: main substation 0.20 s
feeder for this ring) t>> (between 0 and 0.8 s)

13
Effective height H = 2.00 m
Calculation of transformer power loss PV
Wall thickness = th Transformer - no-load loss P0: 1,100 W Transformer protection w. circuit-breaker:
0.175 m
Transformer - short-circuit loss PK120: 7,500 W Protective setting t>> (between 0 and 1 s) 0.050 s

Max. transformer load (%): 120% Pressure rise without air inlet/outlet: 270 hPa

14
Transformer - total loss QV: 12,980 W Pressure rise with air inlet/outlet: 17.5 hPa
Calculation of air intake/discharge
cross section A Transformer protection w. HV HRC fuse:
Effective height H: (see picture) 2m applies to short-circuit currents > 40 × IN of HV HRC fuse!
Pv= 12,980 W
Cooling air temp., air discharge 2: 50 °C Pressure rise without air inlet/outlet: 201 hPa

Cooling air temp., air intake 1: 20 °C Pressure rise with air inlet/outlet: 7.0 hPa

15 Fan Fan Fan A2= 0.56 m²

*)

1 20 °C
Required vent aperture (A1/A2):

Installed vent aperture B1/B2

0.559 m²

1.000 m²
B2= 1.00 m²
Create documentation

Operating instruction

16 *) Air inlet/outlet should be arranged opposite to each other (thermal lift)! TIP04_13_195_EN

17 Fig. 9/11:  Ventilation of transformer room and approximated pressure rise under arcing fault conditions

212 Totally Integrated Power – Transformers

Chapter 10
Low-Voltage Switchgear
and Distribution Systems
10.1 Parameters and Forms
of Low-Voltage Switchgear 214
10.2 Planning Notes 220
10.3 Motor Control Centre 224
10.4 Distribution Boards 224
10.5 Busbar Trunking Systems 227
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 10 Low-Voltage Switchgear and

duction
Distribution Systems
1
10.1 P
 arameters and Forms
of Low-Voltage Switchgear
2
Low-voltage switchgear1) and distribution boards form the Degree of protection and type of installation
link between the equipment for the generation (genera-
3 tors), transmission (cables, overhead lines) and transforma-
tion (transformers) of electrical energy on the one hand
• Degree of protection in acc. with IEC 60529 (VDE 470-1)
• Protection against electric shock (safety class) in acc. with
and the consumers, e.g. motors, solenoid valves, devices IEC 60364-4-41 (DIN VDE 0100-410)

4 for heating, lighting, air conditioning, and the information

technology on the other hand. For alternating voltage, the
• Enclosure material
• Type of installation (on the wall, stand-alone)
rated voltage is 1,000 V max., for direct voltage it is • Number of front operating panels
1,500 V max.
5 Type of device installation
Like medium-voltage switchgear, low-voltage switchgear is
also less often installed with individual panel design on • Fixed installation
6 site, but delivered as factory-assembled, type-tested switch-
gear. For design verification, testing is to be accomplished
• Plug-in design
• Withdrawable-unit design
successfully in compliance with IEC 61439-1 • Snap-on fixing on mounting rail

7 (VDE 0660‑600-1) and IEC 61439-2 (VDE 0660-600-2).

Usage
Test verification under arcing fault conditions in accordance
with IEC / TR 61641 (VDE 0660-500, Addendum 2) ensures • Main switchgear or main distribution board
8 maximum safety of persons. Protective measures such as • Sub-distribution board
high-quality insulation of live parts (for example busbars), • Line distribution board
uniform and easy handling, integrated operator fault • Motor, installation, industry distributor
9 protection, and reliable switchgear dimensioning prevent
arcing faults and hence personal injuries. The main compo-
• Light or power distributor
• Reactive power compensation unit
nents of the switchgear are busbars, switching devices, • Control unit

10 secondary structures, protective equipment, measuring and

counting instruments. The essential selection criteria
according to which low-voltage switchgear and distribution
boards are designed are the following:
11 Consumers
Rated currents

12 • Rated current Ir of the busbars

• Rated current Ir of the feed-in
• Rated current Ir of the branch circuits
13 • Rated short-time current Icw of the busbars
• Rated peak short-circuit current Ipk of the busbars

14 Switchgear /
distribution board

15

16
Consumers
17 1 In the associated standards, the term 'power switchgear and controlgear, PSC
assembly' is used Fig. 10/1:  Schematic diagram of a point-to-point distribution board

214 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Depending on the type of power distribution, a differentia- density can be used. In these cases, mainly fuse-protected
tion is made between point-to-point distribution boards equipment in fixed-mounted design is used.
and line distribution boards. In point-to-point distribution 2
boards, the electric power is distributed radially from a In a power distribution system or motor control centre for
spatially limited system (see Fig. 10/1). Whereas in line a production plant, however, replaceability and reliability
distribution boards – today mostly busbar trunking sys-
tems – the individual power tappings take place via spa-
of supply are the most important criteria in order to keep
downtimes as short as possible. A vital basis here is deploy-
3
tially separated equipment and the power is transmitted ing withdrawable-unit systems both in circuit-breaker-­
to these tap-off units by means of encapsulated busbars
(see Fig. 10/2).
protected and in fuse-protected design.
4
In point-to-point distribution boards, one transformer per
busbar section supplies the main switchgear. The down- 5
stream motor distributors, control units, distributors for
lighting, heating, air conditioning, workshops, etc. – that
is, those fed by the main switchgear in turn – are referred
to as sub-distribution boards. The combination of a main
6
switchgear with feed-in transformer is referred to as trans-
former load-centre substation and provides – due to its
compactness – a secure and economic option of distributed 7
power supply in compliance with the factory-assembled
stations described in IEC 62271-202 (VDE 0671-202).
8
When planning low-voltage switchgear, the prerequisite for
efficient dimensioning is the knowledge of the local condi-
tions, the switching duty, and the demands on availability.
For power distribution systems in functional buildings,
9
no large switching frequencies have to be considered and
no major extensions are to be expected. Therefore,
performance-­optimised technology with high component 10

11
Consumers

12

13

14
Busbar trunking system

15

16
Consumers

17
Fig. 10/2:  Schematic diagram of a line distribution board

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 215

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 A multi-purpose low-voltage switchgear installation is Form Block diagram Explanations

characterized by numerous combination possibilities of
different mounting designs within one panel and variable
2 forms of internal separation. The forms described in
1
No internal
IEC 61439-2 (VDE 0660-600-2) are listed in Tab. 10/1. separation

3 The mounting designs for switchgear equipment can be

selected dependent on the usage:
• Circuit-breaker design
No separations
4 • Universal mounting design
• In-line switch-disconnector design 2a
between
terminals and
• Fixed-mounted design busbars
• Reactive power compensation Separation
5 between
busbars and
(See Fig. 10/3 and Tab. 10/2 and Tab. 10/3) functional units
Separations

6 2b
between
terminals and
busbars

7
No separation
between
8 3a
Separation terminals and
busbars
between
busbars and
functional units
9 +
Separation
between
3b Separation
10 between
functional units
terminals and
busbars

+
11 Separation Terminals in the
between same compart-
4a terminals and ment as the

12 functional units connected func-

tional unit

13 Terminals not in
the same com-
4b partment as the
connected func-
14 tional unit

Busbar
15
Functional unit
Legend:

16 Connection
for conductors lead
from the outside
Enclosure Internal separation

17 Tab. 10/1:  Forms of internal compartmentalisation of power

switchgear assemblies

216 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

5
1 2 3 4 5 6

6
1 Circuit-breaker panel
2 Fixed-mounted or plug-in
universal mounting design
7
3 Plug-in in-line switch-disconnector design
4 Fixed-mounted panel with front cover 8
5 Fixed-mounted in-line
switch-disconnector design

6 Reactive power compensation 9

Fig. 10/3:  Mounting designs for SIVACON S8 low-voltage switchgear back to page 216
10

3NJ6 in-line 3NJ4 in-line 11

Circuit-breaker Universal switch- Fixed-mounted switch- Reactive power
Panel type
design mounting design disconnector design disconnector compensation
design design
Fixed-mounted Fixed-mounted
Fixed-mounted
12
Mounting design Withdrawable Plug-in Plug-in Fixed-mounted Fixed-mounted
with front covers
unit Withdrawable unit

Feed-in
Cable outlets
Central
compensation of
13
Function Outgoing feeder Cable outlets Cable outlets Cable outlets
Motor feeders the reactive
Coupling
power

630 A max. / 
unchoked
up to 600 kvar
14
Current In 6,300 A max. 630 A max. 630 A max. 630 A max.
250 kW max. choked
up to 500 kvar

Connection
Front and rear
Front and rear side Front side Front side Front side Front side
15
side
400 / 600 / 800 /
Panel width [mm] 600 / 1,000 / 1,200 1,000 / 1,200 1,000 / 1,200 600 / 800 / 1,000 800
1,000 / 1,400
1, 2b, 3a, 4b, 3b, 4a, 4b,
16
Internal separation 3b, 4b 1, 2b, 3b, 4a, 4b 1, 2b 1, 2b
4 type 7 (BS) 4 type 7 (BS)
Busbars Rear / top Rear / top Rear / top Rear / top Rear Rear / top / without

Tab. 10/2:  Various mounting designs according to panel types back to page 216
17

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 217

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Busbar position at the top

Installation Busbar system Panel design

2 Single front Busbar position

Rated current
at the top
3,270 A max.
Installation on the wall,
N L3 L2 L1

stand-alone in the room, Cable / busbar entry from the bottom

3 back-to-back
Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase

4 500
PE

Single front Busbar position at the top

5 Installation on the wall, Rated current 3,270 A max. N L3 L2 L1

stand-alone in the room, Cable / busbar entry from the top

back-to-back
6 or terminal compartment
Busbar system
on the back
3-phase / 4-phase

7 PE PE

Single front Busbar position at the top

8 Installation on the wall, Rated current 6,300 A max. N L3 L2 L1 N L3 L2 L1

stand-alone in the room, Cable / busbar entry from the bottom

back-to-back
Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase
9
PE

10 800

Single front Busbar position at the top

11 Installation on the wall, Rated current 6,300 A max. N L3 L2 L1 N L3 L2 L1

stand-alone in the room, Cable / busbar entry from the top

back-to-back
or terminal compartment at the back

12 Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase

PE PE

1,200
13
Device / functional compartment  Busbar compartment  Cable / busbar connection compartment  Cross-wiring compartment  Operating panels

14 Tab. 10/3:  Panel types and arrangement of the busbars on the panels back to page 216

15

16

17

218 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Busbar position at the rear 1

Installation Busbar system Panel design
Single front Busbar position rear-top or -bottom, top,
and bottom 2
Installation on the wall, PE

stand-alone in the room, Rated current 4,000 A max. N

L3

back-to-back
3
L2

Cable / busbar entry from the bottom, from L1

the top
Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase
N

L3

L2

4
L1

PE

600

Single front Busbar position rear-top or -bottom 5

Installation on the wall, Rated current 7,010 A max. PE
N N

stand-alone in the room, Cable / busbar entry from the bottom, from L3 L3

back-to-back
6
L2 L2

the top L1 L1

Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase

N N

L3 L3

7
L2 L2

L1 L1

PE

800

Double front Busbar position top- or bottom-centre, 8

top, and bottom
Stand-alone in the room PE PE

Rated current 4,000 A max. N

Cable / busbar entry from the top, from the

L3

L2

L1
9
bottom
Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase
N

10
L3

L2

L1

PE PE

1,000

Double front Busbar position top- or bottom-centre

11
Stand-alone in the room Rated current 7,010 A max. PE PE

12
N N

Cable / busbar entry from the bottom, from L3

L2
L3

L2

the top L1 L1

Busbar system 3-phase / 4-phase

N N

13
L3 L3

L2 L2

L1 L1

PE PE

1,200

14
Device / functional compartment  Busbar compartment  Cable / busbar connection compartment  Cross-wiring compartment  Operating panels

Tab. 10/3:  Panel types and arrangement of the busbars on the panels back to page 216
15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 219

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 10.2 Planning Notes

A
Installation – clearances and corridor widths
2
The minimum clearances between switchgear and obsta- Front
cles specified by the manufacturer must be taken into B Front B A: 100 mm from the
3 account when installing low-voltage switchgear (Fig. 10/4).
The minimum dimensions for operating and servicing
rear side of the
installation
B: 100 mm from the
corridors in accordance with IEC 60364-7-729 side side panels

C
4 (VDE 0100‑729) must be taken into account when planning
the space requirements (Fig. 10/5, Fig. 10/6).
C: 200 mm from the
rear panels with back
to back installation
Front TIP04_13_130_EN
Installation – clearances and corridor widths
5 Fig. 10/4:  Clearances to obstacles
The following aspects should be considered in particular
when planning LVMD:
6 • Maximum permissible panel equipment (for example,

400 2)
number of LV HRC in-line switch-disconnectors taking
into account the disconnector size and load; the manu-

7 facturer specifications must be observed!)

• Minimum panel width taking into account the compo-
nent density, cable connection cross sections and num-
ber of cables (possibly a wider terminal compartment

2,000 1)
8

TIP04_13_131_EN
needs to be selected or an additional panel be planned)
• The reduction factors of the devices according to the
manufacturer specifications must be observed! Here, the
9 mounting location, ambient temperature, and rated
current play an important part (particularly important for
600 600
700 700 700 700
currents greater than 2,000 A!)
1) Minimum
10 • The dimensioning of compensation system largely
depends on the installation site (office, production, etc.)
2) Attention:
height of passage under covers or enclosures
Above the panels, some space free from obstacles –
to be specified by the manufacturer – is to be kept to allow the
and network conditions (harmonic content, DSO specifi- pressure relief vents to open in the event of an arcing fault
cations, audio frequency, etc.). As a rough estimate, (in the figure, 400 mm for SIVACON S4 and SIVACON 58)
11 approximately 30 % (in the industry) of the transformer
Fig. 10/5:  Reduced corridor widths within the area of open doors
power can be expected if there are no concrete planning
in mm
specifications. In the case of increased use of switched-
12 mode power supply units as, for example, for ICT equip-
ment in offices, the power factor might even become
capacitive. It has to be noted here that these power
13 supply units often cause system perturbations in the
form of harmonics, which can be reduced by means of Min. corridor width Escape Min. free passage
passive or active filters (see chapter 5) 700 or 600 mm direction 500 mm 1)
• The decision between central or distributed compensa- 2)

14 tion (see chapter 5) depends on the network topology

(centre of the reactive current originators). In the case of
a distributed arrangement of the compensation systems,
15 appropriate outgoing feeders (LV HRC in-line switch-­
disconnectors, circuit-breakers, etc.) are to be provided 1) With switchgear fronts facing each other, the space
in the LVMD requirements only account for obstruction by open doors
TIP04_13_132_EN

from one side (i.e. doors that don’t close in escape direction)
16 2) Take door widths into account,
i.e. door can be opened at 90 ° minimum

17 Fig. 10/6:  Minimum corridor width in acc. with IEC 60364-7-729

(VDE 0100-729)

220 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Generator-fed networks must not be compensated if a may affect the switchgear to a varying extent. Their effect 1
regulated compensation could lead to problems in the depends on the heating and air-conditioning systems of the
generator control (deactivate compensation upon switch- switchgear room. If higher pollutant concentrations are
ing to generator mode or use fixed compensation present, reducing measures are required, for example: 2
matched to the generator is possible) • Air-intake for the operating room from a less contami-
• Choking of a compensation system depends on the nated point
requirements of the network, the customer, and also
the DSO
• Slightly pressurizing the operating room (e.g. by blowing
uncontaminated air into the switchgear)
3
• Switchgear room air conditioning (temperature
Transportation units ­reduction, relative humidity < 60 %, use of air filters,
if necessary) 4
Depending on the access routes available in the building, • Reduction of the temperature rise (oversizing of
one or more panels can be combined into transportation ­switchgear or components such as busbars and distribu-
units (TU). The maximum length of a TU should not exceed tion bars) 5
2,400 mm. The panel weights are to be used for the trans-
portation and dimensioning of building structures such as Safety against arcing faults
cable basements and false floors.
As for transformers and medium-voltage switchgear, an
6
Attention! If a lift truck is used to insert circuit-breakers or arcing fault occurring in the low-voltage switchgear can
withdrawable units, the minimum corridor widths must be
adapted to the lift truck!
lead to dangerous interferences with serious consequences
and damage neighbouring outgoing feeders, panels or 7
even the entire installation. Arcing faults may arise from
Double-front installations wrong dimensioning, insulation deterioration such as
pollution, but also from handling faults. High pressure and 8
In a double-front installation, the panels are positioned in a extremely high temperatures can have fatal consequences
row next to and behind one another. The main feature of a for the operator and installation, these consequences may
double-front installation is its extremely economic design,
since the branch circuits on both operating panels are
even extend to the entire building. 9
supplied by one main busbar system only. The "dou- The testing of low-voltage switchgear under arcing fault
ble-front unit" structure is required for the assignment of
certain modules.
conditions is a special test in compliance with IEC / TR
61641 (VDE 0660-500, Addendum 2). For the Siemens 10
SIVACON switchgear, the proof of safety of persons was
A double-front unit (Fig. 10/7) consists of a minimum of furnished by the test under arcing fault conditions.
two and a maximum of four panels. The width of the 11
double-front unit is determined by the widest panel (1) Active protective measures such as high-quality insulation
within the double-front unit. This panel can be placed on of live parts (for example, busbars), uniform and easy
the front or rear side of the double-front unit. Up to three
more panels (2), (3), (4) can be placed on the opposite
handling, integrated operator fault protection, and correct
switchgear dimensioning prevent arcing faults and hence
12
side. The sum of the panel widths (2) to (4) must be equal personal injuries. Passive protective measures increase
to the width of the widest panel (1). The panel combina-
tion within the double-front unit is possible for all technical
operator and installation safety many times over. They
13
installations with the following exceptions.

Exceptions! The following panels determine the width of

Double-front installations – top view
Double-front installations only with main busbar system at the rear
14
the double-front unit and may only be combined with an
empty panel:
• Busbar coupler, longitudinal (BCL)
• 5,000 A incoming / outgoing feeder
(1)
15
• 6,300 A incoming / outgoing feeder (2) (3) (4)

16
Environmental conditions for switchgear
Double-front units
17
TIP04_13_133_EN

The climate and other external conditions (natural foreign

substances, chemically active pollutants, small animals) Fig. 10/7:  Panel arrangement for double-front installations

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 221

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 include arcing-fault-proof hinge and lock systems, safe the installation availability. The impacts of an arcing fault
handling of withdrawable units or circuit-breakers only (pollution, metal splashes, etc.) might be minor, but they
when the door is closed, and flap traps (SIVACON switch- usually have to be cleared nevertheless. Moreover, the
2 gear uses a patented system that is highly reliable) behind interruption device of the active system has to be replaced.
front air vents, arc barriers or an arcing fault detection This work can be laborious and time-consuming. In 80 % of
system in combination with a fast interruption of arcing the cases, switchgear is installed at the wall. With a corre-
3 faults. The effectiveness of these measures is proven by
numerous elaborate arcing fault tests under worst case
sponding form of internal separation, the busbars are
compartmentalized separately, which boosts the downtime
conditions on various panel types and functional units. and the effort for simple cleaning or for replacement

4 The arcing fault levels (Fig. 10/8) describe the classification

(dismounting of the affected panel, possibly dismounting
of the installation, to get to the main busbars).
according to the properties under arcing fault conditions
and the limitation of the effects of an arcing fault on the Monitoring of the outgoing feeder areas of the switchgear
5 installation or parts thereof. is not recommended for active systems for reasons of
reliability of supply, as arcing faults in these areas should
be interrupted by the upstream protective device. Other-
6 Reducing the occurrence probability of an arcing fault wise, such a fault would lead to a complete shutdown of
the installation.
In the intensive discussion about arcing fault detection or

7 interruption, technically elaborate and expensive solutions

are readily propagated. Siemens, however, has for a long
For feed-in monitoring (terminal compartment), the system
must act on the upstream protective device. Thus, the
time preferred the prevention of arcing faults by means of advantage of a fast interruption by the active system is lost
complete insulation (see Fig. 10/9) of all conductive parts in the case of such a fault. Although Siemens offers an
8 inside the installation (busbars, connections, transfers, active system for arcing fault detection and interruption, it
etc.). Such passive precautions ensure that no arc is gener- favours the passive system (complete insulation of busbars
ated that would have to be detected and quenched. and connections) which is more advantageous for the
9 Active systems for the detection and interruption of an
customer for the following reasons:
• Economic aspects such as investment and service costs;
accidental arc as a consequence of a fault need mainte- they are much more favourable

10 nance and do not provide any advantages with regard to • Increased installation availability; downtimes next to zero

11
Level 1 Level 2
High degree of High degree of
12 personal safety personal safety
without extensive with extensive
limitation of the limitation of the
arcing fault effects arcing fault effects
13 within the
installation.
to one panel or
double-front unit.

14
Level 3 Level 4
High degree of personal High degree of
safety with limitation to personal safety
15 the main busbar with limitation of
TIP04_13_134_EN

compartment on a the arcing fault

panel or double-front effects to the place
unit and the device or of origin.
16 cable connection
compartment.

17
Fig. 10/8:  Arcing fault levels (installation segments to which the arcing fault is limited are shown orange)

222 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Improved safety of persons 1

• Operational reliability higher than that of a function-con-
trolled, active system
• Incoming and outgoing feeder areas (inclusive of the 2
compartments in the case of a withdrawable-unit design)
and busbar compartments can be insulated
• Many years of positive experience with the passive pro-
tection system
3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 10/9:  Passive system to prevent arcing faults with insulated busbar, panel connector, incoming and outgoing feeder back to page 222

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 223

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 10.3 Motor Control Centre 10.4 Distribution Boards

If motor drives are available, low-voltage switchgear instal- In compliance with IEC 61439-3 (VDE 0660-600-3), distri-
2 lations are used as motor control centres (MCC). The MCC bution boards are defined as switchgear assemblies in
panels are available in fixed-mounted or withdrawable-unit electric power distribution intended to be operated by
design and equipped with a door-locking main switch and ordinary persons (DBO). They are to meet the following
3 motor starter combination. Each main switch has motor
switching capacity (6 to 8 times the rated current Ir of the
criteria:
• Operation by ordinary persons is possible, for example, in
motor) and disconnecting capacity so that opening the home use

4 panel door in front of the withdrawable unit is only possi-

ble after switch-off.
• The outgoing circuits contain short-circuit protection
equipment
• The rated voltage Un to earth is 300 V AC max.
Power contactors are used for operational motor switch-on • The rated current In of the outgoing feeders is 125 A max.
5 and -off because of the high switching frequency of motor and In of the switchgear assemblies is 250 A max.
branch circuits. The following is used: • A closed, stationary enclosure is intended for use in
• Direct contactors for normal start-up electric power distribution
6 • Contactor combinations for reversal circuits
• Contactor combinations for star-delta start-up circuits
• Indoor and outdoor installation is possible
• They must comply with overvoltage category III minimum
(see IEC 60439-1; VDE 0660-600-1)

7 Overload and short-circuit protection of the motor branch

circuits can be implemented in circuit-breaker-protected as A differentiation is made between
well as in fuse-protected design. • DBO type A with a busbar arrangement to hold 1-pole
• Circuit-breaker-protected design equipment
8 –– with circuit-breaker for short-circuit and overload • DBO type B with a busbar arrangement to hold 1-pole
protection and / or multi-pole equipment
–– with circuit-breaker (for short-circuit protection) and
9 overload relay (thermal or electronic for overload Rated diversity factor
protection)
For DBO, the manufacturer of switchgear assemblies is

10 • Fuse-protected design with fuse-switch-disconnectors

(the fuses take on the short-circuit protection) and over-
to specify rated diversity factors (RDF). In IEC 61439-1
(VDE 0660-600-1), the RDF is defined as “rated current,
load relay (thermal and electronic for overload protection) assigned by the assmebly manufacturer, to which outgoing
circuits of an assembly can be continuously and simulta­
11 neously loaded taking into account the mutual thermal
influences”. Thus, it is to be considered that multiple
­functional units of the DBO are loaded alternately or not
12 concurrently.

If no RDF is specified by the manufacturer, it can be

13 ­assumed dependent on the number of outgoing circuits
in compliance with IEC 61439-3 (VDE 0660-600-3)
(Tab. 10/4).

14
Number of outgoing circuits Rated diversity factor (RDF)
2 and 3 0.8
15 4 and 5 0.7
6 to 9 includingly 0.6

16 10 and more 0.5

Tab. 10/4:  Rated diversity factors (RDF) for DBO in acc. with
IEC 61439-3 (VDE 0660-600-3)
17

224 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The following aspects are particularly important for the Selection of the electrical equipment 1
configuration:
The following has to be considered for the equipment to be
Environmental and installation conditions, mechanical installed in switchgear assemblies: 2
stress • The applicable device specifications
• The suitability with regard to nominal data, in particular
• Degree of protection in acc. with EN 60529 (VDE 0470-1)
protection against contact, dust and water protection
short-circuit strength and breaking capacity
• The installation of current-limiting protective equipment
3
• Ambient temperature and climatic conditions might be necessary
• Corrosion
• Type of installation and fastening Protective measures
4
(for example, stand-alone, on the wall)
• Cover or doors (as appropriate transparent or non-­ • Protection against direct contact in the distribution board
transparent) when the door is open by means of contact protection 5
• Dimensions, weight covers, degree of protection IP30
–– Maximum permissible outer dimensions of the • Protection against indirect contact at all frame and clad-
switchgear
–– Maximum permissible dimensions and weight of the
ding parts by means of 6
–– Safety class I (protective conductor connection)
switchgear for transport and erection at the site of Encapsulations and parts of the supporting structure
installation
• Cable duct (base panelling, if required)
made of metal are protected against corrosion by
means of an high-quality surface protection. Metal
7
• Cable glands parts of switchgear and distribution boards are to be
• Type of cable laying (cable duct, cable racks, etc.) included in the protective measure by means of a
• Device installation (fixed or plug-in / withdrawable units protective conductor 8
for quick replacement) –– Safety class II (protective insulation)
• Accessibility of devices: If switchgear or distribution boards of safety class II are
Parts that can be operated during operation (such as
fuses or miniature circuit-breakers) are to be combined
used, it has to be ensured that the factory-provided 9
protective insulation is by no means punctuated by
and arranged within the switchgear assembly in such a conductive metal parts such as switch axes, metal line
way that they are separately accessible (via a quick-re-
lease cover, for example). Contactors and fuses are to be
adapters, screws, etc. The inactive metal parts within
the protective insulation such as base plates and device
10
placed in separate boxes enclosures must never be connected with the PE or
PEN conductor, even if they provide a PE terminal
Type of installation, accessibility screw. If covers or doors can be opened without any 11
tool or key, all internal accessible conductive parts
To ensure that the most economical design can always be must be arranged behind a cover made of insulating
selected, the main features of the switchgear and distribu-
tion boards should be weighed against each other and a
material in degree of protection IP2X. These covers 12
must only be removable with the help of a tool.
decision be made before defining the structural measures. Looping in PE conductors is permitted
Such features are:
• Open or closed design (kind of operating site)
13
• Self-supporting installation:
stand-alone in the room, at a wall or in a wall recess
• Not self-supporting installation: 14
for mounting to the wall, to a supporting frame or in a
wall recess
• Kind of accessibility for installation, maintenance, and
operation
15
• Dimensions
(installation height, depth, width)
• Notes regarding structural measures
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 225

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Space requirements for built-in units, busbars Connection compartments

and terminals
After the installation of the switchgear and distribution
2 When configuring built-in components in encapsulated boards, the space available in the internal or external
switchgear and distribution boards, in particular in box- connection compartment for outgoing cables and wires is
type distributors, sufficient space must be provided beyond decisive for the efficient workflow of connection work. At
3 the pure space requirements of the units for:
• The electrical clearance (clearance in air) to the encapsu-
first, a particularly small encapsulation appears to be very
economical because of the low purchase price. However,
lation due to the confined space, the installation expenses can be

4 • The heat dissipation of the individual units

• A possibly required blow-out room in switching devices
so high when connecting cables and wires the first time
and later that this cost advantage is lost. For cables with a
• The wiring large cross section, make sure that there is enough space to
• The connection of external incoming and outgoing feeder spread the wires and for routing the cable.
5 cables (terminal compartment)
• The device identification Important factors for the selection and arrangement of the
sub-distribution boards are the number and position result-
6 In the project documentation as well as in the completed
switchgear assembly, the devices belonging together have
ing from the planning modules (refer to chapter 3), as the
costs for the cabling also play a role. It is also possible to
to be designated clearly. This also applies to the assignment use busbars as an alternative to cable laying and subdivi-

7 of fuses to circuits. sion into sub-distribution boards.

Meters and measuring instruments should be located at

eye level. All devices that are to be operated manually
8 should be within reach (approximately at a height between
0.6 and 1.8 m). Restrictions resulting from the use of a
device in an encapsulation might have to be observed, for
9 example, with regard to the rated current and the switch-
ing capacity.

10 Distribution boards are available in flush-mounted or

surface-mounted design and as floor-mounted cabinets
(see Fig. 10/10). Sub-distribution boards are often installed Surface- Partly Flush-mounted
mounted recessed with cover frame
in confined spaces, recesses or narrow corridors. This often
11 results in a high device packing density. In order to prevent
device failures or even fire caused by excess temperatures,
special attention must be paid to the permissible power TIP04_13_135_EN

12 loss referred to the distribution board size, its degree of

protection and the ambient temperature.
Fig. 10/10:  Mounting options for wall-mounted distribution boards

13

14

15

16

17

226 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10.5 Busbar Trunking Systems Planning is based on the incoming power (for example, 1
rated and short-circuit currents of the feeding transform-
As line distribution boards (see Fig. 10/11), busbar trunking ers) and connection values of the BTS and additionally on
systems (BTS) also belong to the group of switchgear the following data: 2
assemblies documented in IEC 61439 (VDE 0660-600). • Permissible voltage drop
Apart from the general requirements of IEC 61439-1 • Required degree of protection
(VDE 0660-600-1), the required product features of BTS are
described in IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-600-6) in particular.
• Power system configuration
• Weighing of the supply concepts as cable system or
3
The rated voltage must not exceed 1,000 V for alternating busbar trunking system
voltage and 1,500 V for direct voltage. BTS can not only be
operated in combination with the other components of the
• Short-circuit strength
• Overload and short-circuit protection 4
electric power distribution system, but they can also be
linked with the generation, transmission and conversion of Configuration
electric power and with the control of power consumers. 5
Excluded from IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-600-6) are, among Depending on the project conditions, different busbar
others, electrical busbar systems for luminaires (in accord- trunking systems can be selected:
ance with IEC 60570; VDE 0711-300). However, lighting
systems can be connected to BTS and communication-ca-
• Sandwich design for compact dimensions
• Ventilated busbar design for excellent heat dissipation
6
pable tap-off units can be used to control consumers and to (Attention: In the case of rising mains, the stack-effect of
switch luminaires (see Fig. 10/11). a closed box-type system may provide advantages)
• Moulded busbar trunking system if highest demands are 7
made on the degree of protection in critical environments

9
Profibus AS-Interface Industrial Ethernet BACnet KNX DALI ...

10
System LX System LD
11
System BD2
12

System BD2 13
System LI
14
System LR

System BD2
15

16
TIP04_13_136

System BD01 System BD01

17
Fig. 10/11:  Busbar trunking systems for different requirements and loads

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 227

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The various systems may include different numbers of Power transmission

conductors. The PE conductor can be implemented as a
separate busbar or as an enclosure. The N conductor can be Busbar trunking units without tap-off points are used for
2 a single conductor or it can be duplicated. As shown in power transmission. They are available in standard lengths
chapter 5, the conductors can be routed doubly in an and custom lengths. Besides the standard lengths, the
enclosure to improve EMC. customer can also choose a specific length from various
3 length ranges to suit individual constructive requirements.
Conductor material
Upwards of a rated current of approximately 1,600 A,

4 Aluminium and copper are possible conductor materials. In

the three years from 2010 to 2012, the copper price rose
busbars have a significant advantage over cables and wires
in the material and installation prices as well as in the costs
from about 4,000 to 6,000 euros per ton, the price for for additional material such as cable terminations or for
aluminium from about 1,300 to 1,600 � per ton1). How- wall bushings. Both these costs and the time benefits
5 ever, if aluminium is to be used as conductor material, the during installation increase with the rated current rising.
approximately 60 % larger conductor cross sections make a Tab. 10/6 summarizes the major differences between cable
significant difference, which are required due to the lower installations and busbar trunking systems.
6 electrical conductivity compared to copper. On the other
hand, aluminium is about 35 % lighter than copper. Variable power distribution

7 If aluminium is used, the necessary larger cross sections

require more space. While this is immaterial in HV power
In busbar trunking systems, electricity cannot just be
tapped from a permanently fixed point as with a cable
lines, it might be the knock-out criterion in a densely installation. Tapping points can be varied and changed as
equipped switchgear cabinet or if routing busbar trunking desired within the entire power distribution system. In
8 systems in buildings. No criterion, however, is the oxidation order to tap electricity, you just have to connect a tap-off
capability of aluminium, as the aluminium buses from unit to the busbar system at the tapping point. This way, a
Siemens are tin-plated so that there is no air-aluminium variable distribution system is created for linear and / or
9 contact and the infamous disposition to flowing of alumin-
ium cannot loosen the screw connections.
area-wide, decentralised power distribution. Tap-off points
are provided on just one or either side of the straight
busbar trunking units. For each busbar trunking system, a

10 A rough clue for the use of the two materials is provided by

the estimations of the material-specific relations as ratio:
wide range of tap-off units is available for the connection
of consumers and electricity supply.
• Market price for raw material Cu to Al
is as 3 : 1 Fire protection
11 • Weight of Cu to Al
is as 3 : 1 The following must be taken into account as to fire protec-
• Volumetric specific resistance tion:
12 (1 / electrical conductivity)
is as 3 : 5
• Reduction of the fire load
• Prevention of fire spreading
• Mass-related specific resistance
13 (1 / electrical conductivity)
is as 2 : 1
The entire length has to be considered because the electri-
cal routing may run through the whole building and is used
• Output-related costs per ampere to supply special installations and systems as for instance:
(transmitted power) • Lifts with evacuation system
14 is as 5 : 1 • Fire alarm systems
• Emergency power supply systems
• Ventilation systems for safety stairways, lift wells, and
15 machine rooms of fire brigade lifts
• Systems to increase the pressure of the water supply for
fire fighting
16 • Emergency lighting

"In order to prevent the development and spreading of fire

and smoke, and to be able to effectively extinguish fires
17 1) E-Installation, 2nd Edition 2012; Siemens AG and save people and animals in the event of a fire" (state
building regulations in Germany), neither fire nor flue gas

228 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

may spread from one floor or fire section to another. For 1

busbar trunking systems, the fire walls between the various Functional endurance with 4-sided compartmentalisation 1)

fire areas in the building complying with fire resistance

classes S60, S90, and S120 in accordance with DIN 4102-9
1
2
can be ordered together with the busbar trunking system,
depending on the design and type. The fire walls must have 2
at least the same fire resistance class as the relevant wall or
ceiling.
3 3
4
5
It may be necessary to provide additional protective hous-
ing for the trunk line in the room for reasons of functional 6 4
endurance. Depending on the required functional endur-
ance class and the planned carrier / support system, differ-
ent design variants are offered with Promatect boards Functional endurance with 4-sided compartmentalisation 1) 5
(encapsulation on 2, 3 or 4 sides, refer to Fig. 10/12).
Because of the poorer ventilation and heat dissipation
through the protective housing, the reduction factors
specified by the manufacturers must be taken into account
1
6
2
in later planning steps in order to determine the maximum 3
permissible currents. A reduction factor of 0.5 can be
assumed for an initial estimation.
4 7
5
Contrary to inexpensive cables and wires, the insulation 7
used in BTS does not contain any materials that produce 8
corrosive or poisonous gases in the event of a fire. There is Functional endurance with 3-sided compartmentalisation
also no burning of material in BTS so that the rooms remain
clean and the escape routes are not impeded. 9
1
As for low-voltage switchgear, a design verification can be 2
accomplished for BTS. The design verification is accom-
plished dependent on the examined characteristic by way 4
3
10
7
of testing, calculation, and construction verification (see
Tab. 10/5).
11
Compared to the conventional cable installation, BTS Functional endurance with 2-sided compartmentalisation
provide many advantages with regard to network and
installation technology, as depicted in Tab. 10/6. 12
1
For demonstration purposes, Fig. 10/13 shows wirings for 6
simple electric power distribution systems. Modification
and retrofitting of an electric power distribution system
3 13
usually mean significantly higher expenditures of time and 2
money for cable installations than for BTS.
14
1 Busbar system
2
3
Compartmentalisation
Strengthened compartmentalisation at the edges 15
4 Load distribution plate
5 Threaded rod (M12/M16)
Bracket in compliance with the statics
16
TIP04_13_137_EN

6
7 Carrier profile in compliance with the statics
1) 4-sided compartmentalisation
only possible in horizontal installation
17
Fig. 10/12:  Functional endurance through compartmentalisation

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 229

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Characteristics to be verified Verification by ...

Testing Calculation Construction rules

2 Strength of materials and parts:

Corrosion resistance Yes No No

Insulation material properties:

3 Resistance of insulation material to heat No No Yes

Heat resistance Yes No No

4 Resistance to extraordinary heat and fire due to internal electrical effects Yes No Yes

Resistance to UV radiation Yes No Yes

5 Impact test Yes No No

Labels Yes No No

Resistance to mechanical load Yes No No

6 Tests with thermal cycles Yes No No

Degree of protection of enclosures Yes No Yes

7 Clearances in air Yes No Yes

Creepage distances No No Yes

Protection against electric shock and continuity of protective circuits:

8 Continuity of the connection between bodies of the BTS and the protective
Yes No No
circuit

9 Short-circuit strength of the protective circuit

Installation of equipment
Yes

No
No

No
No

Yes

Internal electric circuits and connections No No Yes

10 Connections for conductors entered from the outside No No Yes

Insulation properties:

11 Operating frequency withstand voltage Yes No No

Impulse withstand voltage Yes No Yes

Heating limits Yes Yes No

12 Short-circuit strength Yes Yes No

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Yes No Yes

13 Mechanical function Yes No No

Resistance to fire spreading Yes No No

14
Fire resistance time of busbar trunking units with fire walls Yes No No

Tab. 10/5:  Design verification for BTS in acc. with IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-6) back to page 229

15

16

17

230 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Characteristic Busbar trunking system Cable installation 1

Network Linear configuration with serially arranged consumer outlets High accumulation of cables at the feed-in point due to the
configuration via tap-off units radial supply to the consumers
Operational
Type-tested in accordance with IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-6) Dependent on the respective design quality
2
safety
Great effort due to splices, clamping points, sleeves, parallel
Flexibility
Variably usable tap-off units which can be retrofitted and
replaced; also live assembly work possible
lines, etc.; assembly work only possible in the de-energized
state
3
PVC cable: fire load up to 10 times greater than in BTS
Fire load Very low fire load

Electromagnetic
PE cable: fire load up to 30 times greater than in BTS
Strong interference with standard cables; strongly dependent
4
Sheet steel encapsulation
interference on the kind of bundling with single-conductor cables

5
Current carrying Type of installation, accumulation, and operating conditions
High current carrying capacity
capacity determine limit values
Freedom from Standard cables are not halogen / PVC-free; halogen-free
Busbar trunking units are always halogen-free
halogen / PVC cables are expensive
Space Compact design due to high current carrying capacity; Large space requirements due to bending radii, type of 6
requirements standard angle and offset elements installation, accumulation, and current carrying capacity
Compared to cable, weight reduction to the half or even one
Weight Weight up to 3 times higher than that of a comparable BTS
third
7
Uncomplicated installation possible with simple auxiliary Laborious installation only possible with numerous auxiliary
Installation
tools and short installation times tools; considerably longer installation times

Tab. 10/6:  Comparison of characteristics of BTS and conventional cable installation back to page 228
8

9
Distributed power distribution
with busbar
10

11

12

13
Central power distribution
with cable
14

15
TIP04_13_138_EN

16

17
Fig. 10/13:  Comparison of wirings for cable installation and BTS back to page 229

Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems 231

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

232 Totally Integrated Power – Low-Voltage Switchgear and Distribution Systems

Chapter 11
Low-voltage
Protective and Switching Devices
11.1 Circuits and Device Assignment 236
11.2 Requirements on the Protective
Devices in the Three Circuit Types 237
11.3 Residual Current and Arc Fault
Detection Devices 240
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 11 Low-voltage Protective and Switching

duction
Devices
1 When low-voltage power system protection is parametrised • Miniature circuit-­breakers and fuses are mainly used as
and coordinated, the fast and reliable detection of fault cable and line protection. Operator safety and mounting
types and fault locations as well as a selective isolation of safety are the fundamental prerequisites for their use.
2 the faulted grid sections and installation parts from the Fitting a residual current unit additionally allows the
interconnected grid are predominant aspects. For this fault-current protective function to be integrated
reason, low-voltage protective and switching devices must • Disconnectors permit the safe isolation of downstream
3 fulfil the following functions:
• Overcurrent protection
installation parts and equipment. They are used as EMER-
GENY OFF and repair switches in distribution boards, for
–– Short-circuit protection example. Therefore, personal safety is the predominant

4 –– Overload protection
• Overtemperature protection
aspect. In the 'open' position, they meet the requirements
defined for the disconnect function
• Well-matched combinations of circuit-­breakers, fuses,
Device selection must correspond to the widely varying miniature circuit-­breakers, and residual current devices
5 protection tasks the devices have to fulfil, such as cable and ensure comprehensive system protection in terms of
line protection, personal safety, fire protection, lightning short-circuit, overload, and fire protection. Above that,
current and overvoltage protection, as well as equipment the electrical installation can be protected against over-
6 and system protection (Fig. 11/1):
• Circuit-­breakers protect systems, motors, generators, and
voltages as a result of electrostatic discharges, switching
overvoltages, and strikes of lightning by the coordinated
transformers against overload and short circuit in the use of lightning current and surge arresters. Optimal

7 event of a fault. They are also used as incoming and

outgoing feeders in distribution boards as well as main
system protection in one of these areas of application is
ensured by matching the individual components. Damage
switch and EMERGENCY OFF switch in combination with to increasingly expensive and sensitive equipment is thus
lockable rotary operating mechanisms reliably prevented
8 • Residual current devices and arc-fault detection units are
used for personal safety and fire protection:
–– Personal safety
9 Damage in the insulation may result in fault conditions
which require additional measures in compliance with
IEC 60364-1 (VDE 0100-100) against excessive shock

10 currents. The optimal protection against hazardous

shock currents in case of indirect or – to the greatest
possible extent also in case of direct – contact with live
parts (rated fault currents ≤ 30 mA) is attained with
11 residual current devices
–– Fire protection
A fire risk prevails in the event of a short circuit or earth
12 fault in particular if relatively high resistances are
present at the arc fault location in the faulted circuit.
Fault clearing by means of upstream overcurrent
13 protection devices such as a fuse or circuit-­breaker is
not always ensured in case of relatively low currents.
A heat output of only 60 W might lead to the situation,
if oxygen or air is present, that the ignition point is
14 reached. In such a situation, too, a residual current
device with a rated fault current ≤ 300 mA, or even
better an arc-fault detection unit provides all-­
15 embracing safety

16

17

234 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Siemens switching and protective devices (portfolio excerpt)

Circuit-breakers
2
3WL air circuit-breakers

3
3VL, 3VA moulded-case circuit-breakers

4
3RV circuit-breaker for motor protection

Miniature circuit-breaker, contactor, and surge arrester

5
5SL miniature circuit-breaker

6
5TT5 Insta contactor

7
5SD7 surge arrester

Fault current and fire protection devices

8
5SM3 residual current operated circuit-breaker
9

5SM6 arc fault detection unit 10

Fuse systems
11
NEOZED fuse system

DIAZED fuse system 12

LV HRC fuse system
13
SITOR semiconductor fuses

Switch disconnectors with and without fuses

14
3LD EMERGENCY STOP switch

3KA, 3KD switch disconnectors without LV HRC fuses

15
3NJ6 switch disconnector with LV HRC fuses, in-line type

16
TIP04_13_124_EN

3NP LV HRC fuse-switch-disconnector

3NJ4 LV HRC fuse-switch-disconnector, in-line type

17
Fig. 11/1:  Overview of switching devices and protective devices back to page 234

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 235

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 11.1 Circuits and Device Assignment Circuit Task Protective device

Supply System
Air circuit-­breaker (ACB)
Switching and protective devices can be assigned to the circuit protection
2 low-voltage power distribution circuits described in Air circuit-­breaker (ACB)
chapter 6 according to their core functions and technical Distribution System Moulded-case circuit-­breaker (MCCB)
circuit protection Fuse-switch-disconnector (Si-LT)
features. This is summarized in Tab. 11/1. Personal safety
Switch disconnector with fuse (LT-Si)
3 must be ensured for all circuits. Fig. 11/2 demonstrates the
circuit assignment of switching and protective devices with Motor
Circuit-­breaker for motor protection (MCCB)
Fuse-switch-disconnector (Si-LT)
protection,
pictograms. Final circuit Switch disconnector with fuse (LT-Si)
equipment
Motor starter protection
4 The most important criteria for switching and protective
protection
(MSP)

device selection are: Tab. 11/1:  Circuit matrix for protective and switching devices in the
• Type of application low-voltage power distribution system
5 for example system, motor, disconnector
• 3- or 4-phase design
• Mounting,
6 for example fixed mounting, plug-in or withdrawable-unit
design
• Type of trip unit
for example L, S or I (see chapter 6); electronic or ther-
• Nominal current In mo-magnetic; this influences selectivity and protective

7 for example ACB: 6,300 A; MCCB: 1,600 A; fuse: 630 A

• Rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu
setting
• Communication options and data transfer

9
ACB
Supply circuit
10

11
ACB MCCB Si-LT LT-Si

12 Distribution circuit

13
MCCB Si-LT MSP

14

15 Final circuit
TIP04_13_124_EN

16
M M M

17
Fig. 11/2:  Protective device matrix according to circuit type

236 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

11.2 R
 equirements on the Protective tained therein, until the circuit-­breaker is tripped. This 1
Devices in the Three Circuit requirement is met by circuit-­breakers of utilisation cate-
gory B according to IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101) (for
Types example air circuit-­breakers, ACB). Current-limiting circuit 2
breakers (moulded-case circuit breakers, MCCB) trip during
11.2.1 Use in the Supply Circuit the current rise. They can therefore be constructed more

The system feed-in or supply circuit is the most “sensitive”

compactly. 3
circuit in the entire power distribution. A failure here would Trip units
result in the entire network and therefore the building or
production being without power. This worst-case scenario If the network is designed to be selective, the trip unit of 4
must be considered during the planning. Redundant sys- the supply circuit-­breaker must show an LSI characteristic.
tem supplies and selective protection setting are important It must be possible to deactivate the instantaneous release
preconditions for a safe network configuration. Some (I). Depending on the curve characteristic of the upstream 5
important cornerstones for dimensioning and proper and downstream protective devices, the characteristics of
device selection are discussed in the following sections. the supply circuit-­breaker in the overload range (L) and also
in the time-lag short-circuit range (S) should be optionally
switchable (I4t or I2t characteristic curve). This facilitates
6
Rated current
the adaptation of upstream and downstream devices.
The supply circuit-­breaker in the low-voltage main distribu-
tion system (LVMD) must be dimensioned for the maximum Internal accessories
7
load of the transformer / generator. When using ventilated
transformers, the higher operating current of up to 1.5 ∙ Ir Depending on the respective control, not only shunt trips
of the transformer must be taken into account. but also undervoltage releases are required. 8
Short-circuit strength Communication

The short-circuit strength of the supply circuit-­breaker is Very critical supply circuits, in particular, increasingly
9
determined as follows for transformers with identical require the transmission of data concerning current operat-
electrical characteristics: ing states, maintenance information, fault indication, and
analyses, etc. Flexibility may also be required with regard to 10
(n – 1) ∙ Ik max of transformer(s) (n = number of transformers) subsequent expansion or modification to the desired type
of data transmission.
This means, the maximum short-circuit current that occurs 11
at the installation position must be known in order to
11.2.2 Use in Couplings of a Switchgear
specify the appropriate short-circuit strength of the protec-
Substation
tive device (Icu). Exact short-circuit current calcu­lations
including attenuations of the medium-voltage levels or If a coupling (connection of busbar sections) is operated in
12
the laid cables can be made, for example, with the aid open state, the circuit-­breaker merely functions as discon-
of the SIMARIS design dimensioning software (see
­chapter 15). SIMARIS design determines the maximum
nector or main switch. A protective function (trip unit) is
not necessarily required. The following considerations
13
and minimum short-circuit currents and automatically apply to closed operation.
dimensions the correct protective devices.
Rated current 14
Utilisation category
Must be dimensioned for the maximum possible operating
When dimensioning a selective network, time grading of
the protective devices is often essential. When using time
current (load compensation). 15
grading up to 500 ms, the selected circuit-­breaker must be Short-circuit strength
able to carry the short-circuit current that occurs for the set
time. Close to the transformer, the currents are very high. The short-circuit strength of the coupling switch is deter-
16
This current carrying capacity is specified by the Icw value mined by the sum of the short-circuit components that
(rated short-time withstand current) of the circuit-­breaker; flow through the coupling. This depends on the configura-
this means the contact system must be able to carry the tion of the component busbars and their supply. 17
maximum short-circuit current, meaning the energy con-

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 237

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Utilisation category

As for the system supply, utilisation category B is also

2 required for the current carrying capacity (Icw value).

Trip units
3 Partial shutdown with the couplings must be taken into
consideration for the supply reliability. As the coupling and

4 the supply circuit-­breakers have the same current compo-

nents when a fault occurs, similar to the parallel operation
of two transformers, the LSI characteristic is required. The
special zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) function should be
5 used for larger networks and / or protection settings that are
difficult to determine.

6 11.2.3 Use in the Distribution Circuit

The distribution circuit receives power from the higher level

7 (supply circuit) and feeds it to the next distribution level

(final circuit). Depending on the country, local practices,
etc., circuit-­breakers and fuses can be used for system
protection; in principle, all protective devices described in
8 this chapter. The specifications for the circuit dimensioning
must be fulfilled. If full selectivity is required, air circuit-­
breakers (ACB) are advantageous. However for cost rea-
9 sons, the ACB is only frequently used in the distribution
circuit as of a rated current of 630 A or 800 A. Since the
ACB is not a current-limiting device, it significantly differs

10 from all of the other protective devices such as moulded-­

case circuit-­breakers (MCCB), miniature circuit breakers
(MCB), and fuses. Tab. 11/2 shows the most important
differences and limitations of the respective protective
11 devices.

11.2.4 Use in the Final Circuit

12 The final circuit receives power from the distribution circuit
and supplies it to the consumer (for example a motor,
13 lamp, non-stationary load through a power outlet, etc.).
The protective device must satisfy the requirements of the
consumer to be protected by it.

14 Note: All protection settings, comparison of characteristic

curves, etc. always start with the load. This means that no
protective devices are required with adjustable time
15 grading in the final circuit.

16

17

238 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

ACB MCCB Switch- MCB Reference

1
Air circuit-­ Moulded-case Fuse switch disconnectors Miniature Circuit-­ value,
breaker circuit-­breaker disconnector with fuses breaker specifications

Standards IEC Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region 2

Application System Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply
protection system

Mounting Fixed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Availability 3

mounting

Plug-in – Max. 800 A – Partly –

Withdrawable Yes Yes – – –

4
unit

Nominal current In Max. Max. 1,600 A Max. 630 A Max. 630 A Max. 125 A Operating
6,300 A current IB 5
Short-circuit Icu Max. Max. 150 kA Max. 120 kA Max. 120 kA Max. 25 kA Max. short-
breaking capacity 150 kA circuit current
Ikmax
6
No. of phases 3-phase Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply
system
4-phase Yes Yes – Partly –

Tripping ETU 1) Yes Yes – – – Power supply 7

characteristics system
TMTU 2) – Partly Yes Yes Yes

Tripping function LI Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply

system
8
LSI Yes Yes – – –

N Yes Yes – – Yes (2- / 4-phase)

G Yes Yes – – –
9
Characteristics Fixed – Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply
system
Adjustable Yes Yes – – – 10
Optional Yes Yes – – –

Communication High Yes – – – – Customer

(data
transmission) Medium Yes Yes – – –
specification 11
Low Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Activation Local Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Customer

specification
12
Remote Yes Yes – Partly –
(motor)

Derating Full rated 60 °C 50 °C 30 °C 30 °C 30 °C Switchgear 13

current up to

System Yes Max. 800 A – – – Power supply

synchronisation system
14
Selectivity Yes Conditional Yes Yes Conditional Customer
(dependent on (limited use (limited use (dependent on specification,
network owing to limited owing to limited network topology power supply
topology and the rated current and rated current and the short- system 15
short-circuit convenience) and circuit currents
currents present) convenience) present; in addition
the rated current is
limited) 16
1) ETU: electronic trip unit  2) TMTU: thermo-magnetic trip unit

Tab. 11/2:  Selection criteria for switching and protective devices

17

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 239

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 11.3 R
 esidual Current and Arc Fault risk of hazardous physiological effects on the human
Detection Devices body. In dependency of the different requirements of
IEC 60364 4-41 (VDE 0100-410) for TN and TT systems,
2 Protective systems for the electrical installations of building appropriate protective devices must be selected
must also provide for fault and fire protection to ensure (see Tab. 11/3).
personal safety and system protection. Protection against
3 electric shock under single-fault conditions is referred to as
fault protection (previously: protection against indirect
In everday practice, residual current protective devices of
type A (alternating current and pulsating direct currents)
contact). To protect a person who is in contact with a live are mainly used. Owing to the increased use of equipment

4 part which is not live under normal operating conditions, it

is required that the power supply is disconnected automati-
accommodating power semiconductors (for example
computer power supply units, chargers, frequency convert-
cally if a hazard arises owing to a fault and as a result of the ers), this type, however, does not provide sufficient pro­
magnitude and duration of the contact voltage present. tection. Depending on requirements, a type as listed in
5 Tab. 11/4 must be selected, since otherwise there is the
Residual current devices (RCDs) detect a leakage current risk that the fault is not disconnected, or at least not within
which is caused by insulation faults or inadvertent contact the specified thresholds. Besides type B, a type F (Fig. 11/4)
6 with live parts. Thus they contribute to personal safety and
fire protection. A summation current transformer is used to
is also supplied by Siemens, which reliably detects and
disconnects additional mixed frequencies, as they are
compare the currents in the active conductor or the differ- common in frequency converters in the single-phase AC

7 ence between the phase current and the neutral conductor

with a release threshold.
network. A type classification according to the different
forms of fault currents is presented in Tab. 11/5.

The majority of electrical accidents are caused by faults in

8 the final circuit. The reasons are both a high stress on the
10,000
30 mA
cabling to the consumer equipment (missing strain relief,

TIP04_13_125_EN
t in ms
cable bending radii, etc.) and improper handling and lack
9 of maintenance. The use of residual current devices and the
recently developed arc fault detection units by Siemens
2,000
1,000
500
considerably increase personal as well as building safety. AC-1 AC-2 AC-3 AC-4.3

10 200
100
AC-4.2
11.3.1 Residual Current Devices 50 AC-4.1

Protective measures against electric shock are described in

11
20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 10,000
IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410). Residual current devices
2,000 5,000
(RCD) can be used in all power supply systems (TN, TT, IT
IM: Shock current IM in mA
system) of an alternating current or three-phase network.
12
t: Duration of exposure
In such networks, residual current devices are superior to
other permitted protective devices in their protection
Range AC-1:
effect, since they provide additional protection (protection Perception is possible,

13
but generally no shock reaction.
against direct contact) besides mere fault protection (pro-
tection against indirect contact) if they are used with a Range AC-2:
Perception and involuntary muscle contractions probable,
characteristic of IΔn ≤ 30 mA, and they also effectively but generally no harmful physiological effects.
prevent electrically ignited fires caused by earth-fault
14 currents through IΔn ≤ 300  mA.
Range AC-3:
Strong involuntary muscle contractions.
Breathing difficulties. Reversible impairment of the heart function.
Immobilisation (muscle spasm) may occur.
Fig. 11/3 demonstrates the physiological reactions of the Effects increasing with amperage and duration of current flow.
15 human body to current flow subsumed in amperage levels Generally, organic damage needn't be expected.

according to IEC / TS 60479-1 (VDE V 0140-479-1). Danger-

Range AC-4.1 to AC-4-3:
ous are current-time values in the range of level 4, as they Pathophysiological effects may occur, such as cardiac arrest, apnoea,

16 can cause ventricular fibrillation which may be lethal for

the affected person. The tripping range of the RCD with a
burns or other cellular damage. Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing
with amperage and duration of current flow.
AC-4.1 Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing up to approx. 5 %
rated fault current of 30 mA is marked. AC-4.2 Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing up to approx. 50 %
AC-4.3 Probability of ventricular fibrillation over 50 %

17 In the IT system, a disconnection upon the first fault is not Fig. 11/3:  Scope of effects of alternating current (50 / 60 Hz) on the
required. But precautions have to be made that prevent the human body

240 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

TN system TT system
1
Max. permissible disconnect time acc. to 0.4 s (120 V < U0 ≤ 230  V) 0.2 s (120 V < U0 ≤ 230  V)
IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410)
2
Ia ≤ U0 / Zs Ia ≤ U0 / Zs

Protective device Ia ta1)

Disconnect currents Ia of overcurrent
protection devices for ensuring the
MCB type B ≥ 5 In < 0.1  s The disconnect current thresholds Ia required by
3
required disconnect time ta MCB type C ≥ 10 In < 0.1  s overcurrent protection devices are generally not
reached by the fault currents IF
Fuse gG approx.
≥ 14 In
< 0.4  s
4
Ia ≤ U0 / Zs IΔn ≤ 50  V / RA

Fault currents IF are substantially higher than 5

IΔn in the TN system
With U0 = 230 V, the following applies to the
tripping current Ia in case of fault:
5
Disconnect conditions of residual current Ia = (230  V / 50  V) ∙ IΔn = 4.6 IΔn
devices for ensuring the required
disconnect time ta Type

RCD general
Ia

> 5 IΔn
ta1)

≤ 0.04 s
Type

RCD general
Ia

> 2 IΔn
ta1)

≤ 0.15 s
6
RCD selective > 5 IΔn ≤ 0.15 s RCD selective > 2 IΔn ≤ 0.2 s
1) The values for ta refer to the specifications in the relevant product standards.
IΔn Rated residual current of residual current device in A
7
RA Sum of resistances of the earth electrode and the protective conductor of the exposed conductive parts
U0 Nominal AC voltage of phase to earth
Zs Fault loop impedance

Tab. 11/3:  Protective device selection in the TN and TT system with rated voltages of 230 / 400 V AC back to page 240
8

10
Type Type
Current type Current AC A F B B+ Tripping
form current
11
Alternating current 0.5 … 1.0 IΔn

Pulsating direct fault

currents (positive or 0.35 … 1.4 IΔn
12
negative half-waves)
Phase angle 90 °:
Cut half-wave currents
0.25 … 1.4 IΔn 13
Phase angle 135°:
0.11 … 1.4 IΔn

Half-wave current max. 1.4 IΔn 14

overlaid with smooth
direct current + 6 mA + 10 mA + 0.4 IΔn + 0.4 IΔn + DC

Fault current resulting

0.5 … 1.4 IΔn
15
from mixed frequency
TIP04_13_126_EN

Smooth direct current 0.5 … 2.0 IΔn 16

17
Tab. 11/4:  Types of residual current devices and their tripping ranges back to page 240

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 241

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Suitable RCD type Circuit Load current Fault current

2
iL iL iF1
B F A AC
iF1 t t

3
iL iL iF1

B+ iF1 t t
α α

4 iL iL iF1

iF1 t t

5 iL iL iF1

iF1 t t
6 iL iL iF1

iF1

7
t t
α α

iL iL iF1

8 iF1
t t

iL iF1 iF2
iL

9 iF1 iF2
M
t t t

iL iL
10
iF1

iF1
t t

11 iL iL iF1

iF1 t t

12 iL
iL iF1

iF1 t t
13
iL iL iF1 iF2

M
11
14 iF1 iF2
t t t

iL iL iF1

15 12 iF1
t t

iF2
16 iL iL iF1
TIP04_13_127_EN

13 M
iF1 iF2 t
t t

17
Tab. 11/5:  Residual current device types and possible forms of fault currents back to page 240

242 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Residual current devices are distinguished according to 1

their different designs (see Fig. 11/5):
• RCD is the generic term for all kinds of residual current
devices 2
• RCCB refers to devices without integrated overcurrent
protection which are known in Germany as residual
current operated circuit-­breakers
• An RCBO is a device which combines protection against
3
fault currents with an integrated overcurrent protector for
overload and short-circuit protection in one device,
referred to as residual current operated circuit-­breaker 4
with overcurrent protector. Another variant in this device
group is the residual current unit (RCU). These residual
current units allow the customer to mount the miniature 5
circuit-­breakers versions (characteristic, rated current,
switching capacity) desired for the specific application.
After assembly these devices provide the same functions
as RCBOs. The RCU does not have contacts of its own for
6
fault current detection, but trips the miniature circuit-­
breaker in the event of a fault by being coupled to it.
The MCB opens the contacts and interrupts the circuit. 7
In terms of the tripping conditions for alternating and pul-
sating fault currents RCCBs and RCBOs (type A) are only
permitted for the protective measure of disconnection 8
Fig. 11/4:  Residual current operated circuit- back to page 240
­breaker type F

9
RCD Residual current device
In connection with circuit-breakers
(usually for rated currents > 125 A) 10
MRCD CBR RCCB RCBO
Modular residual Circuit-breakers Residual current Residual current PRCD SRCD 11
current device incorporating residual operated circuit operated circuit
(without integral current protection breaker without breaker with over- Portable residual Socket-outlet
current protective residual current
12
current breaking integrated overcurrent current protector1)
device) protector1) device, e.g. integrated protective device
in plugs and power (stationary,
strips i.e. wall socket)
Residual current units
(RCU) with integrated
overcurrent
13
protection1)

IEC 60947-2
Appendix M
IEC 60947-2
Appendix B
IEC 61008-1
(VDE 0664-10)
IEC 61009-1
(VDE 0664-20)
HD 639 S1/A2
(VDE 0661-10/A2)
Draft VDE 0662
14
(VDE 0660-101 (VDE 0660-101
Appendix M) Appendix B)

15
According to the above standards
TIP04_13_151_EN

Protective measure in case of indirect contact, plus direct contact

with IΔn ≤ 30 mA; additionally fire protection
not suitable as protective measure
in accordance with IEC 60364-4-41 16
(VDE 0100-410); only local increase
of protection level

17
1) Line-voltage-independent fault detection and tripping

Fig. 11/5:  Classification of residual current devices (RCDs)

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 243

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 as line-voltage-independent versions in most European complement to residual current operated circuit-­breakers

countries and miniature circuit-­breakers, the 5SM6 arc fault detection
• CBRs are circuit-­breakers with fault current protection in unit (Fig. 11/7) increases personal safety, protects material
2 accordance with IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101) Appen- assets, and closes a gap in the protection against electri-
dix B. Here, the residual current detection unit is fixed- cally ignited fires. In the future, this gap will also be closed
mounted to a circuit-­breaker, thus ensuring fault current in the IEC set of standard specifications by the draft for
3 protection
• MRCDs are devices in modular design, which means fault
IEC 62606 (draft VDE 0665-10).

current detection (using current transformers), evalua- The arc fault detection unit responds to the following

4 tion, and tripping (through circuit-­breakers) is performed

in separate modules (in accordance with IEC 60947-2,
faults:
• Serial fault with arcing fault
VDE 0660-101 Appendix M) • Parallel fault with arcing fault
• Overvoltage (however self-protection in the event of a
5 CBRs and MRCDs are intended for applications with high voltage higher than 275 V)
rated currents (> 125 A) in particular.
• PRCDs in accordance with HD 639 S1 / A2 If such a fault is detected, the arc fault detection unit trips a
6 (VDE 0661‑10 / A2) are portable residual current
devices which are integrated in plugs or in power
mounted miniature circuit-­breaker, respectively a combined
residual current protective device plus miniature circuit-­
strips for example breaker. The status LED of the arc fault detection unit

7 • SRCDs in accordance with VDE 0662 (draft) are station-

ary residual current devices integrated in a socket-outlet
indicates the detected fault. The fault display can be reset
by switching the device on-off-on.
(wall socket) or form a unit with a socket-outlet
More information: www.siemens.com/sentron
8 PRCDs and SRCDs can be used to increase the protection
level in applications where the required protective measure
is ensured by other means. They are not permitted to
9 implement a protective measure of disconnection.

11.3.2 Arc Fault Detection Units

10 Over a hundred thousand fires are detected every year in
Europe. The shocking outcome: many casualties and in-
jured and material damage amounting to billions of euros.
11 More than one fourth of these fires can be attributed to arc-
ing faults – frequently caused by defects in the electrical
installation. An arcing fault can, among other things, be
12 caused by damaged cable insulation, squeezed leads,
kinked plugs or loose contact points in the electrical instal-
lation. The result is heavy heating which may eventually
13 result in a cable fire and finally a fire of the whole building.

Glowing connections or arcing faults cannot be detected by

conventional protective devices, as they have little influ-
14 ence on the load current. In order to detect such faults, the
arc fault detection device permanently measures the
high-frequency noise (Fig. 11/6) of voltage and current as
15 well as their intensity, duration, and the gaps in between.
Integrated filters with intelligent software analyse these
signals and initiate the disconnection of the connected
16 circuit within fractures of a second in case of abnormal
conditions.

Harmless sources of interference, such as drills or hoovers

17 which are operated at the moment can be distinguished
from dangerous arcs by the arc fault detection unit. As a

244 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Covering the protection gap in the IEC market by using
well proven technology from the UL scope of standards
Fault condition Protection acc. to IEC standard
2
Serial
L New

Load AFDD 3
N

Parallel
Phase-Neutral/
L
Load MCB AFDD
New
4
Phase-Phase
N

Parallel
Phase-
L New 5
Load RCD AFDD
Protective
Conductor N
AFDD Arc fault detection device
MCB Miniature circuit-breaker
6
RCD Residual current device
TIP04_13_128_EN

Fig. 11/6:  Protection concept with arc fault  back to page 244
7
detection device

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 11/7:  5SM6 arc fault detection unit back to page 244

Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices 245

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

246 Totally Integrated Power – Low-voltage Protective and Switching Devices

Chapter 12
Starting, Switching, and
Protecting Motors
12.1 Protecting Electric Motors 248
12.2 Switching Electric Motors 249
12.3 Comparison of Connections
for Motor Start-up 256
12.4 Safety of Machines 258
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 12 Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

duction

1 When planning and selecting the control and protection of The trip classes of the motor protection (IEC 60947‑4‑1;
motors, the relevant standards and regulations must be VDE 0660-102) are based on the tripping times at
taken into account. Essentially, these are the standards 7.2 times the current setting Ie in the cold state. The
2 IEC 60947-4-1 (VDE 0660-102) and IEC 60947-4-2 tripping times are:
(VDE 0660-117) as well as the IEC 60364 (VDE 0100) series • CLASS 5 between 0.5 and 5 s
of standards and the EMC-relevant IEC 61000 (VDE 0839) • CLASS 10A between 2 and 10 s
3 series of standards. The protective devices must ensure the
protection of the cable and the motor in a motor feeder.
• CLASS 10 between 4 and 10 s
• CLASS 20 between 6 and 20 s
This can be achieved with separate devices or through a • CLASS 30 between 9 and 30 s

4 combination with both functions (see chapter 7).

In practice, mostly devices of the CLASS 5, 10, and 10A trip
classes are used for standard applications. They are also
called the classes for normal start-up. The combinations for
5 12.1 Protecting Electric Motors CLASS 20 and CLASS 30 are available for applications in
which a higher starting current is required over a longer
Motor protection can be performed with time. Standard devices of CLASS 5 and CLASS 10 would
6 • Overcurrent releases (motor protection according to
IEC 60947-4-1; VDE 0660-102)
result in unwanted tripping at start-up here. CLASS 20 is
called heavy starting and CLASS 30 very heavy starting.
• Temperature sensors (always in the motor winding) Examples of such applications are large fan motors.

7 • Electronic motor protective devices (SIMOCODE)

In addition to the overload protective devices, the contac-
When configuring the motor protection, a combination of tors and the short-circuit fuses must be dimensioned
central and distributed components makes sense. A central accordingly. The combinations according to CLASS 5 and
8 configuration has benefits when the motors to be switched CLASS 10 are therefore usually somewhat more economic.
are arranged close to each other. When wiring protective In the majority of cases, CLASS 20 and CLASS 30 are only
devices and motors, devices with standardised connec- used when they are really required by the application.
9 tion methods as described in ISO 23570‑2 and -3, are a
maintenance-­friendly solution. The individual components There are different types of protection:
can be quickly installed and replaced. Standardised inter- • Fuse-protected with fuses:

10 faces significantly reduce the number of faults during

installation. The downtimes are reduced during operation.
Fuse – contactor – overload relay
• Circuit-breaker-protected with circuit-breaker for the
starter protection:
The motor output is mainly influenced by the current, and Circuit-breaker – contactor – overload relay
11 therefore by the maximum winding temperature. The main • Circuit-breaker-protected with circuit-breaker for the
task of the motor protection is therefore to prevent heating motor protection:
above the temperature limit in the stator and rotor wind- Circuit-breaker – contactor
12 ings. When rating the motor protection, a distinction must
be made between motors with thermally critical rotors and With regard to the switching devices, there are electronic,
motors with thermally critical stators. current-dependent protective devices; also as a combi-
13 • Thermally critical rotors:
the temperature limit is reached in the rotor first
nation of fuses and contactor, circuit-breaker with
contactor as well as part of circuit-breakers. There are
• Thermally critical stators: also temperature-­dependent protective devices, such as
the temperature limit is reached in the stator first thermistor motor protection.
14
Note: Rule of thumb – small and medium-sized motors
usually have thermally critical stators. The larger the motor
15 and the higher the speed, the higher the starting current
and the more thermally critical the rotor.

16

17

248 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

12.2 Switching Electric Motors • Continuous duty S1 and duty with separate constant 1
loads S10
The start-up and operating behaviour of the three-phase • S2, S3, S6 are operating modes that permit an increase in
induction motor is determined by two physical variables, output compared to continuous duty S1; the result is that 2
the torque and the consumed current. To switch electric the motor is not overloaded
motors, there are electromechanical solutions (direct start, • S4, S5, S7, S8, S9 are operating modes that require a
star-delta) and electronic solutions (soft starter, frequency
converter, semiconductor switching devices).
decrease in output compared to continuous duty S1; the
result is that the motor will probably be overloaded and
3
therefore, a more powerful motor must be configured
Ten operating modes according to IEC 60034‑1
(VDE 0530‑1) determine the main uses of the respective 4
electric motors (see Tab. 12/1). They can be divided into
three groups:
5

S1 – continuous duty P 6
• Constant load state with rated power
t
• Thermal steady state is reached Pv
7
t
Θ

t 8
S2 – short-time duty P
• Constant load state
t
9
• Thermal steady state is not reached Pv
• Pause long enough for the system cooling until (Θ – Θ0) < 2K
• Temperature limit of the components is not reached p tB, is
Θ
t
10
selected accordingly for only a short time
• (Load current i ≥ load time s) t

11
S3 – intermittent periodic duty P
• Constant load state
TC t
• Sequence of identical switching cycles (load and pause times can
vary)
Pv 12
• Thermal steady state is not reached t
Θ
• Thermal balance of the plant components is not achieved during
heating or cooling
13
t

S4 – like S3 with an effect on the start-up process

• Sequence of identical switching cycles with long start-up time tA,
P 14
TC t
constant load and pause
Pv

t
15
Θ

t
16
P  load  PV  electrical losses  Θ temperature  t time  TC  cycle time

Tab. 12/1:  Operating modes according to IEC 60034-1 (VDE0530-1) back to page 251
17

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 249

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 S5 – like S4 with electrical braking P

• Sequence of identical switching cycles with long start-up time tA,
t
2 constant load and pause TC

• Operating cycle includes electrical braking Pv

t
Θ
3 t

4 S6 – continuous periodic duty

• Sequence of identical switching cycles
P

TC t
• Constant load Pv

5 • Idle time tL
• No pause
t
Θ
• Thermal steady state is not reached

6 t

S7 – like S6 with electrical braking P

7 • Sequence of identical switching cycles

• Start-up time tA and electrical braking tBr TC
t

Pv
• No pause

8 Θ
t

9 S8 – like S6 with load / speed change P

• Constant load state t
TC
• Sequence of identical switching cycles (load and pause times can
10 vary)
Pv

• Thermal steady state is not reached t

• Thermal balance of the plant components is not achieved during Θ
11 heating or cooling
t

S9 – duty with non-periodic load / speed change P

12
Pref

• Non-periodic load / speed change in the permissible operating range

t
• Frequent load peaks above the rated power
Pv
• Suitably selected continuous load required as reference for the load
13 cycle t
• Mixture of short-time duty, intermittent periodic duty and Θ
continuous duty
t
14
S10 – duty with separate constant loads and speeds P Pref
• Thermal load state is reached
15 • Reference value for a constant load must have been specified
Pv
TC t

t
16 Θ

17 P  load  PV  electrical losses  Θ temperature  t time  TC  cycle time

back to page 251

250 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Direct and reversing starters malfunctions may occur during switching in certain circum- 1
stances. In this case, contactors may not make or break.
These devices are a cost-effective solution for switching
motors. They ensure a short acceleration time and a high Switching on: 2
start-up torque.
Because of the large voltage drop in long control cables,
There are two variants:
• Electromechanical switching devices (IEC 60947-4-1;
the control voltage applied at the contactor may fall below
the threshold value required to switch on the contactor.
3
VDE 0660-102) This affects both DC- and AC-actuated contactors. The
• Electronic (semiconductor) switching devices
(IEC 60947‑4-2; VDE 0660-117)
following countermeasures can be implemented here:
• Change the switching topology so that shorter control 4
cables can be used
With electromechanical switches, the operating mode (see • Increase the cable cross section
Tab. 12/1) must be taken into account during the selection • Increase the control voltage 5
because loads vary dependent on the type and operating • Use a contactor with less closing power for the solenoid
mode. If the ON time of the motor is short compared to the
start-up time, there is a higher load and the switching
device must be dimensioned larger. Since the service life
Switching off: 6
depends on the number of switching cycles for electrome- When switching off AC-actuated contactors, the contactor
chanical switching devices, it is recommended that elec-
tronic switching devices be used for a large number of
may no longer switch off when the control circuit is inter-
rupted because of a control cable capacitance that is too 7
switching cycles (constant switching frequency > 200 large. The following countermeasures can be implemented
switching cycles per hour). Since the inrush currents are here:
high for these devices (electromechanical as well as elec- • Change the switching topology so that shorter control 8
tronic switches) at the start-up of larger motors, star-delta cables can be used
start-ups are also used for three-phase motors. The motor is • Use DC-actuated contactors
first operated in star connection during start-up and then
switched to delta connection. The start-up current is lim-
• Reduce the control voltage
• Use a contactor with greater holding power for the sole-
9
ited to 1 / 3 compared to a direct switch-on. It is important noid
that the motor has the required electric strength for the
delta connection.
• Connect an ohmic resistance in parallel to increase the
holding power (additional load unit) 10
Direct start with contactor Star-delta start
11
In contrast to the motor, rather than the total energy The star-delta start-up is still used to switch on three-phase
(heating) it is the inrush and the breaking currents that induction motors particularly in order to limit system
must be considered for the contactor. The different switch-
ing cycles for each utilisation category are usually specified
perturbations through current surges that suddenly occur.
In this connection method, the start-up current is reduced
12
in the catalogues. The dimensioning of the contactors in to a 1 / 3 of the current for the direct switch-on, which also
the main circuit or the utilisation category can be deter-
mined from IEC 60947-1 (VDE 0660-100). The associated
results in a corresponding reduction of the start-up torque.
Because of this reduction in torque during a star-delta start,
13
device standards are also listed there. usually only one start-up operation is possible with con-
stantly low load torque (for example, when starting ma-
Note: With regard to the dimensioning in the control chine tools under no load). The motor overload protection 14
circuit, attention should be paid to the overvoltage must be effective in both the star and the delta connection.
damping when shutting down the contactor coils. Voltage
peaks with large steep edge up to 4 kV for approximately
250 μs (shower discharges) occur particularly during
Note: Due to an unfavourable constellation of system
frequency and rotor field, compensation processes may
15
shut-down. This may result in signal errors in the electronic occur increasingly in the motor when switching from star
control units or a defect, or a strong erosion of the contacts
that switch the coil.
to delta (rotor field induces a residual voltage), which
results in higher current peaks than during the direct
16
connection of the motor in standstill in star connection.
Long control cables also influence the switching behaviour
of contactors when switching on. If long control cables are 17
required for the control circuits of contactors or relays,

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 251

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 In the worst case, this results in the following problems: Tab. 12/2 lists typical settings and device dimensions; they
• Short-circuit devices trip are for information purposes only and are not binding. The
• The delta contactor is welded or is subject to high contact settings are application-dependent and must be optimised
2 erosion during commissioning. The load torque (the curve could be
• The motor is subject to a high dynamic stress constant, linear, square or inversely proportional like for
mills) and the motor torque curve influences selection and
3 Current peaks can be minimised through a preferred con-
nection during the switchover.
parameterisation of the soft starter. These tasks are simpli-
fied by the software “STS”.

4 Tip: An optimised wiring of the delta contactor produces a

favourable vector position of the residual voltage with
For better control, soft starters such as the Siemens SIRIUS
3RW devices have the patented “Polarity Balancing” activa-
regard to the line voltage and consequently the differential tion method. This eliminates DC components produced by
voltage is reduced. the phase angle and the superimposition of the phase
5 currents during a 2-phase activation in the start-up proce-
Semiconductor connection dure. These DC components would cause more noise on
the motor. It enables a motor start-up with a uniform
6 Semiconductor switching devices are designed for high
switching frequencies. They do not have any mechanical,
speed, torque, and current rise. The acoustic quality of the
start-up therefore nearly reaches the same level as a
moving parts and therefore have an almost endless service 3-phase controlled start-up procedure. This is made possi-

7 life. Further advantages are:

• Noiseless switching
ble through the continuous, dynamic adjustment or balanc-
ing of current half-waves with different polarity during the
• They are impervious to shock, strong vibrations, and motor start-up. “Polarity balancing” however does not
electromagnetic fields prevent the entire unbalance. But DC components in phase
8 • They can be used in damp and polluted environments currents which can cause audible noise and additional
• They switch without an arcing fault and therefore have heating are eliminated.
low interference emission
9
Soft starter

10 Another way to limit the start-up current is to use soft

starters. The soft start-up has the following advantages
compared to a load feeder / motor starter:
• Current peaks are cleared during start-up
11 • Smooth start-up
• Lower mechanical stressing for the load

12 The motor feeder between the soft starter and the motor
must not contain any capacitive elements (e.g. no reactive
power compensation unit). In order to avoid faults in the
13 compensation unit and / or soft starter, neither static sys-
tems for reactive power compensation not a dynamic
power factor correction (PFC) may be operated during the
starting and stopping of the soft starter.
14
When selecting a soft starter, it is important that the appli-
cation and the start-up time of the motor are considered
15 closely. Long start-up times mean a thermal load on the
soft starter. The software “STS” (Simulation Tool for Soft
Starters) can be used to simulate and select Siemens soft
16 starters taking into account various parameters such as the
power system conditions, motor data, load data, and
special application requirements.

17

252 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Normal starting CLASS 10 (up to 20 s with 350 % InMotor)

1
The performance of the soft starter can be selected the same size as the performance of the motor

Application Conveyor belt Roller conveyor Compressor Small ventilator Pump Hydraulic pump
2
Start-up parameters

• Voltage ramp and current

limiting
– Starting voltage % 70 60 50 30 30 30
3
– Start-up time s 10 10 10 10 10 10
– Current limiting value Deactivated Deactivated ·
4   IM ·
4   IM Deactivated Deactivated

• Torque ramp 4
– Starting torque % 60 50 40 20 10 10
– Final torque % 150 150 150 150 150 150
– Start-up time s 10 10 10 10 10 10

• Break-away pulse Deactivated Deactivated Deactivated Deactivated Deactivated Deactivated

5
(0 ms) (0 ms) (0 ms) (0 ms) (0 ms) (0 ms)

6
Stopping method Soft stopping Soft stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping

Heavy starting CLASS 20 (up to 40 s with 350 % InMotor)

The soft starter should be selected one performance class higher than the motor 7
Application Agitator Centrifuge Milling machine

Start-up parameters

• Voltage ramp and current

8
limiting
– Start voltage % 30 30 30
– Start-up time
– Current limiting value
s 30
·
4   IM
30
·
4   IM
10
·
4   IM 9
• Torque ramp
– Starting torque % 30 30 30
– Final torque % 150
– Start-up time s 30
150
30
150
30
10
• Break-away pulse Deactivated (0 ms) Deactivated (0 ms) Deactivated (0 ms)

Stopping method Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping of DC braking 11

Heavy starting CLASS 30 (up to 60 s with 350 % InMotor)

The soft starter should be selected two performance classes higher than the motor
12
Application Large ventilator Mill Crusher Circular saw / belt saw

Start-up parameters 13
• Voltage ramp and current
limiting
– Start voltage % 30
– Start-up time s 60
50
60
50
60
30
60
14
– Current limiting value ·
4   IM ·
4   IM ·
4   IM ·
4   IM

• Torque ramp
– Starting torque % 20
– Final torque % 150
50
150
50
150
20
150
15
– Start-up time s 60 60 60 60

• Break-away pulse Deactivated (0 ms) 80 %, 300 ms 80 %, 300 ms Deactivated (0 ms)
16
Stopping method Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping

Tab. 12/2:  Examples of starting methods and settings for different applications back to page 252
17

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 253

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 As the soft starter has a reduced starting torque, it is not Because of the increasing use of variable-speed drives, the
suitable for all applications. The starting torque of the load assessment of system perturbations is also increasingly
must be less than or at the most equal to the starting important. Not only the operators of supply networks, but
2 torque of the motor. Typical applications are: also the operators of variable-speed drives are demanding
• Conveyor belts, transport systems: more information from the manufacturers about the re-
–– Jerk-free starting sponse of the drives to harmonic effects so that they can
3 –– Jerk-free braking already check during the planning and configuration
phases, whether the limit values of the standards will be
• Rotary pumps, piston pumps
–– Avoidance of pressure surges adhered to. Line reactors or active filters must be provided

4 –– Extension of the service life of the pipe system

to limit the system perturbations. Line reactors are gener-
ally required for:
• Agitators and mixers:
• Networks with high short-circuit power (small
–– Reduction of the starting current impedance)
5 • Large fans: • Several converters on a common network connection
–– Protection of the gearbox and the V-belts point
For this reason, different starting and stopping methods • Converters in parallel operation
6 must be selected for the soft starter (see Tab. 12/3 and
Tab. 12/4).
• Converters with line filters for RF interference suppression

Frequency converters with AFE feed-in / feedback unit

7 Semiconductor fuses should be used as upstream protec-

tive devices to fulfill requirements of coordination type 2
(AFE = active front end, as available, for example, with
SIMOVERT and DYNAVERT converters from Siemens) pro-
according IEC 60947-4-2 (VDE 0660-117). With an duce almost no system perturbations. They are an ideal
increased switching frequency, the technical data of the solution for electrical utility companies and operators with
8 manu­facturer must be considered in any case. The aver- high supply system demands. Four-quadrant operation
age switching frequency is approximately 20 switching (drives and regenerative braking in both directions of
cycles per hour. During planning, the special regulations of rotation) is possible with AFE. With the active input
9 the device manufacturer must be observed. These refer to
the installation instructions and the selection of the switch-
­converter, not only a power factor of cos φ = 1 can be
implemented, but the reactive power of other loads
ing and protective devices. in the network can also be compensated as part of the

10 Frequency converter
power reserves. If the AFE is equipped with an input filter,
operation on the supply system is possible with almost
no harmonics.
Frequency converters are used to adapt the speed in order
11 to protect the mechanical system or reduce current peaks, According to the definition of the German EMC regula-
as with the soft starter. Frequency converters are better tion (EMCR from 2008 based on the EMC Directive
than soft starters for dynamic processes. The speed of the 2004 / 108 / EC) the electromagnetic compatibility of a
12 connected motor can be changed continuously, and with-
out almost any losses, by varying the voltage and the
device describes the “ability of equipment to function
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without
frequency. A motor can also be operated above the rated introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to
13 speed with a frequency converter, without the torque
dropping off. A further advantage of frequency converters
other equipment in that environment”. In order to comply
with the relevant EMC regulations, the devices must have
is the power feedback to the supply system. a sufficiently high interference immunity and the inter­
ference emission must be limited to acceptable values.
14 Note: Frequency converters are also available for 1- and
2-phase alternating current motors. The IEC 61800-3 (VDE 0160-103) standard “Adjustable
speed electrical power drive systems – Part 3: EMC require-
15 Particularities of frequency converters are system perturba- ments and specific test methods” defines the EMC require-
tions and the effect on the EMC. As described in chapter 5, ments for variable-speed electric drives. A variable-speed
converters produce harmonic currents and voltages. As the electric drive system (PDS, power drive system) as defined
16 other equipment in the supply system is designed for
sinusoidal voltages, a distortion of the voltage can have
in this standard comprises a drive converter and the electric
motor including the connection cables. The driven machine
negative effects or even destroy the equipment and electri- is not part of the drive system.
cal utilities.
17

254 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Starting method Meaning

1
If the "Direct" starting method is set, the voltage at the motor is increased to nearly the line voltage when the start
Direct
command is issued. This corresponds approximately to the starting behaviour with a contactor.

Voltage ramp
The terminal voltage of the motor is increased within a settable start-up time from a parametrisable starting voltage 2
to the line voltage.
With the torque control, the torque generated in the motor is increased linearly from a parametrisable starting
Torque control
torque to parametrisable final torque within a settable torque starting time.
In combination with the "Voltage ramp" starting method, the starter constantly measures the phase current during
3
Voltage ramp + current the current limiting via an integrated current transformer. A current limiting value (IB) can be set on the soft starter
limiting during the motor start-up. When this value is reached, the soft starter regulates the motor voltage so that the
current does not exceed the set value. The current limiting is superimposed on the "Voltage ramp" starting method.
In combination with the "Torque control" starting method, the starter constantly measures the phase current during
4
Torque ramp + current the current limiting via an integrated current transformer. A current limiting value can be set on the soft starter
limiting during the motor start-up. When this value is reached, the soft starter regulates the motor voltage so that the
current does not exceed the set value. The current limiting is superimposed on the "Torque control" starting method.
If IP54 motors are used outdoors, condensation can form when the motor cools down (for example, over night or in
5
Motor heating (supporting
winter). This can cause leakage currents or short circuits when the motor is switched on. A "pulsing" direct current is
function)
fed in to heat up the motor winding, which does not turn the motor.
Tab. 12/3:  Starting methods for soft starters and their meaning back to page 254 6

Stopping method Meaning 7

In "Free stopping", the energy supply to the motor is interrupted when the ON command is cancelled on the soft
Free stopping
starter. The motor runs down freely, only driven by the moment of inertia (rotating mass) of the rotor and the load.

Torque ramp
The free stopping is extended by the torque ramp. This function is used to prevent the load stopping suddenly. This
is typical of applications with a small moment of inertia or high counter torque (for example, conveyor belts).
8
Pump stop is used to prevent water hammer when the pump is switched off. This reduces noise and the stressing of
Pump stop
the pipes and any flaps contained therein.
Free stopping is shortened by DC braking. DC braking should be used for applications with large moments of inertia. 9
DC braking The moments of inertia of the load shouldn’t be more than 5 times the moments of inertia of the motor:
·
JLoad ≤ 5   JMotor

Dynamic DC braking /
Compound braking
Free stopping is shortened by DC braking. Compound braking could be used for applications with small moments of
inertia. The moments of inertia of the load shouldn’t be more than the moments of inertia of the motor: 10
JLoad ≤  JMotor

Tab. 12/4:  Stopping methods for soft starters and their meaning back to page 254
11

12

13
Line filters are used to reduce the radiation. These also limit • Pulse frequency fP of the inverter
the system perturbations. An electromagnetic-compatible • Converter output with or without motor reactor of motor
installation is required so that the line filters can achieve filter 14
their maximum effect. A shielded cable is required between • Impedance ZW (cable impedance) or capacitance C of the
the converter and the motor so that the parasitic currents motor cable
can flow back to the converter along a low-inductance
path. The motor cables should have a symmetric conductor
• Inductance of the earthing system and all earthing and
shield connections
15
structure.

The most important factors with regard to high-frequency

The length of the motor cable must also be taken into
account. Particularly with shielded cables, the cable capaci-
16
leakage currents are: tance increases with the cable length and causes additional
• Size of the DC-link voltage current peaks. This current must also be supplied by the
• DC-link voltage UZK of the converter frequency converter which may result in overload and 17
• Rate of voltage rise du / dt when switching therefore the shutdown of the converter.

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 255

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The following rules must be observed for an electromag- 12.3 C

 omparison of Connections for
netic-compatible installation: Motor Start-up
• Spatially separate sources of interference and susceptible
2 equipment in the control cabinet (zone concept) The previously described starting connections result in
• Route signal leads and power cables separately; minimum different behaviours during motor start-up, which are
clearance 20 cm illustrated graphically in Fig. 12/1 through a comparison of
3 • If possible, lead the signal leads and power cables only
from one side into the cabinet
the voltage, current, and torque curves.

• Lay the cables close to the earthed plates and not freely With a direct starter, the motors are stressed thermally and

4 in the cabinet
• Always install RFI suppression filters close to the sources
mechanically by the high current that is applied immedi-
ately. Voltage changes are also induced in the supply
of interference network. In order to limit these disturbances in the supply
• Connect the shields of the digital signal leads at both network, apparent power limit values are specified for the
5 ends and with good conductivity over a large area to direct start in the technical supply conditions [14] of the
earth (if required, several times) German distribution system operators. The following are
• Connect the shields of the analogue signal leads with permitted for motors that start occasionally (twice a day):
6 good equal potential bonding at both ends to earth. If
low-frequency interference occurs, connect the shield at
• Alternating current motors with an apparent power of not
more than 1.7 kVA or
one end to the converter. The other end of the shield • Three-phase motors with an apparent power of not more

7 should be earthed via a capacitor

• Shields must not have any interruptions (through inter-
than 5.2 kVA or
• For higher apparent powers, motors with a starting
mediate terminals, fuses, filters, contactors) current (r.m.s. value of current half periods) of not more
• Connect all variable-speed motors with shielded cables than 60 A
8 • Connect all metal parts of the control cabinet of a large
area with good conductivity With the star-delta starter in the star connection the volt-
• Execute equipotential bonding with cables as short and age over the motor-winding is limited to 1 / √3 = 0.58 times
9 thick as possible (10 mm2)
• Earth reserve conductors at both ends Avoid unnecessary
the phase-to-phase voltage, which also reduces the starting
current.
cable lengths

10 • Twist the unshielded signal leads of the same circuit

(phase and return conductors)
The soft starter increases the motor voltage within a speci-
fied start-up time. The starting voltage should be selected
• Connect contactors. relays, etc. in the control cabinet according to the break-away torque for the motor start-up.
with RC elements, diodes, and varistors For example, the break-away pulse can be set for the SIRIUS
11 3RW44 soft starter. With the “root 3 connection” (Fig. 12/2)
for soft starters, the rated current can be limited to 1 / √3 =
0.58 times the value of the rated motor current.
12 With the frequency converter, the drive can be ramped in
a controlled manner with the rated current, because the
13 start-­up characteristic can be set. During operation, the
control enables smooth changes in speed via variations in
the frequency, whereby the drive can be operated with
the rated torque even at low speeds. The speed control
14 can be used to improve the efficiency during operation.
The SIZER for Siemens configuration software supports
the selection and dimensioning of the motor and fre-
15 quency converter (further information on the Internet at
www.siemens.com/sizer).

16

17

256 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Direct Star-delta Soft starter Frequency converter

U
100 %
U
100 %
U
100 %
U
100 % 2
Terminal 70 % UBoost
58 %
voltage
30 % 3
Time Time Time Time

4
I I I I

Starting
current
5

Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed 6

M M M M
7
Torque

TIP04_13_139_EN
8
Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed

Fig. 12/1:  Characteristic behaviour of the various connections during motor start-up back to page 256
9

10

11
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3
N
L3
N
12
PE PE

13
U2 L2
U1
T1 T2 14
V1
L1 V2

W2 W1 T3 L3 15
TIP04_13_140_EN

Standard connection: Root-3 connection:

Rated current Ie corresponds
to the rated motor current In
Rated current Ie corresponds to approximately
58 % of the rated motor current In
16
3 cables to the motor 6 cables to the motor (as for star-delta starters)

Fig. 12/2:  Comparison of connections for soft starters between standard connection and root-3 connection back to page 256
17

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 257

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 12.4 Safety of Machines • Better chances in the worldwide market through compli-
ance with the required approvals and conformance with
Manufacturers and operators of machines are legally the EU directives
2 obligated to guarantee the safety of personnel and the • Simplified maintenance and plant expansion thanks to
environment. In other words: machines that are manufac- long-term product and system availability
tured or operated in Europe must be safe – irrespective of
3 whether they are new or used. Also for economic reasons,
any risk that may emanate from a machine, should be
In Europe, machine manufacturers (product safety) and
machine operators are legally obligated to guarantee the
avoided from the start. The safety of machines and plants safety of personnel and the environment. Lots of other

4 can already be integrated during the planning. With “Safety

Integrated”, Siemens provides a complete product and
countries, in which there are no such legal requirements,
are also becoming increasingly aware of this subject. In
service portfolio for functional safety for automation and Europe, “provided” machines must be safe – irrespective of
drives, which is described in more detail on the Internet at whether they are new or used. For this reason, “provision”
5 www.siemens.com/safety-integrated. has the following meaning: the machine is manufactured
or has a major refit in Europe – or it is imported into Europe
“Safety Integrated” offers seamless integration of safety and operated there.
6 technology in standard automation. This also applies to
installed components such as switchgear, protective de- European directives – such as the Low-voltage Directive,
vices, control units, sensors, communication equipment, Machinery Directive, EMC Directive, etc. (see Fig. 12/3)

7 etc. and not only brings advantages in the functional

safety, but also:
– describe the basic requirements for machine
manufacturers or plant operators, who modernise and
modify their own machines to a large extent.
Greater economy
8 Compliance with the Machinery Directive can be guaran-
• Minimisation of the number of types teed in different ways:
• Minimisation of the costs due to only one bus and one • In the form of a machine acceptance through a certifica-
9 engineering system
• More easily reproducible series machines through intelli-
tion office
• By satisfying the harmonised standards
gent software solutions • Through a separate safety certificate with increased test

10 Greater standardisation
and documentation work

The CE marking with the appropriate safety certificate is

• Easier to operate through uniform user interfaces always the visible proof of compliance with the Machinery
11 • Can be increasingly reused thanks to the use of libraries Directive. According to the EU Occupational Safety and
• Fewer control cabinet versions on the machines Health Framework Directive, this is mandatory.
• Simplified installation through bus systems
12 To ensure conformance with a directive, it is recom-
mended that you use the appropriate harmonised Euro-
Greater productivity
pean standards. The “presumption of conformity” is then
13 • Quick commissioning thanks to pre-wired and certified
components
assumed (see Fig. 12/3) and provides manufacturers and
operators with legal certainty with regard to the fulfil-
• Shorter downtimes thanks to fast fault localisation and ment of national regulations and also EC (or EU) direc-
comprehensive diagnostic functions tives. With the CE marking, the manufacturer of a ma-
14 • Quicker restart after plant modifications chine documents the compliance with all relevant direc-
• Production without standstill through additionally availa- tives and regulations in the free movement of goods.
ble safe, fault-tolerant systems Since the European directives are accepted worldwide,
15 • Space-, time-, and cost-saving installation their use is helpful, for example, when exporting to coun-
tries of the European Economic Area (EEA). The most
Greater flexibility important standards for functional safety are also listed in
16 • Tailor-made solutions from a modular system
Fig. 12/3. Further information is available on the Internet
at www.siemens.com/safety-infomaterial
• Easy expansion and integration in the world of Totally
Integrated Automation
17

258 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

9
Basic safety requirements Basics standards
in the manufacturing industry for safety-related control functions

Construction and risk assessment of the machine

10
ISO 12100 Safety of machines Basic terms,
general design guidelines

11
Functional and safety-relevant requirements
Article 114 EU Treaty Article 153 EU Treaty for safety-related control units
(free movement of goods) (occupational safety and health)

"Occupational Safety and Health" Design and implementation of safety-related control units
12
e.g. machines Framework Directive
(89/391/EEC) IEC 62061 (VDE 0113-50) ISO 13849-1
Harmonised standards

Safety of machines
Functional safety of safety-related
Safety of machines
Safety-related components 13
(presumption of
conformity)

electric, electronic and programmable of control units,

Individual control systems Part 1: General design guidelines
Low-voltage Machinery
Directive "Use of Successor to EN 954-1
Directive Directive

(2014/35/EU) (2006/42/EU)
Work Equipment"

(2009/104/EC)
14
General architectures, Intended architectures (categories)
safety integrity level (SIL) Performance level (PL)
SIL 1, SIL 2, SIL 3 PL a, PL b, PL c, PL d, PL e

15
Harmonised European National statutory provisions
standards
TIP04_13_141_EN

Manufacturer User Electrical safety aspects

IEC 60204-1 Safety of machines Electrical equipment of machines,
(VDE 0113-1) Part 1: General requirements 16
Fig. 12/3:  Directives and standards for the functional safety of machines back to page 258
17

Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 259

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

260 Totally Integrated Power – Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors

Chapter 13
Supply using Converters
and Generators
13.1 UPS Systems 263
13.2 Embedded Generation Systems 266
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 13 Supply using Converters and Generators

duction

1
In the guidelines for the connection of embedded or dis- The VDEW guideline "Emergency generators – Guideline for
tributed generation systems, emergency generators are the planning, installation and operation of systems with
2 considered as such and a distinction is made according to emergency generators" (2004 edition) describes the con-
the connection to the power supply system. The following nection conditions for UPS installations and explains the
are defined as power sources for safety purposes according methods of operation of emergency generators in different
3 to IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560):
• Rechargeable batteries
system configurations (for further information on standby
generating sets and uninterruptible power systems, refer to
• Primary cells section 13.1 and 13.2).

4 • Generators whose drive machine functions independently

of the normal power supply Electronic components do not only play a part as power
• A separate system feed-in (for Germany, supplemented consumers (soft starters and frequency converters, see
by a "dual system") from the supply network that is really chapter 14) but also as a source of energy. In wind turbines
5 independent of the normal supply and photovoltaic systems, the generated power is fed in
using grid-conforming converters whose perturbations can
affect the grid.
6

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

262 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
13.1 UPS Systems
Dynamic UPS systems
The use of a UPS system is for the protection of sensitive 2
consumers in the normal power supply system (NPS) and to Dynamic UPS systems Dynamic UPS systems
ensure their safe, continual operation during power failures as machine unit as machine unit with

TIP02_12_019_EN
(see Fig. 2/6). The proper integration of the UPS system
into the power supply concept is of vital importance for the
additional reciprocating
internal combustion
engine
3
availability of the entire power supply system. The follow-
ing general aspects concerning UPS should be considered
in the planning:
Dynamic UPS
systems with
Dynamic UPS
systems with
Dynamic UPS
systems as
Dynamic UPS
systems as 4
directly coupled storage battery or no-break standby quick-starting
• Selectivity for the switching and protective function in kinetic storage cell equivalent kinetic generating set standby generating
storage cell (without set (with short-time
conjunction with the UPS system
• Disconnect conditions (personal safety in accordance
interruption time) interruption)
5
with IEC 60364-4-41, VDE 0100-410) in conjunction with Fig. 13/1:  Overview of possible dynamic UPS systems in accordance
the UPS system with DIN 6280-12
• Factoring in the short-circuit energy I2t as well as the
short-circuit current Ik“ for the static bypass
6
• Simple, clearly structured network topology (short-circuit
behaviour see Appendix 17.1)
• Protection of the UPS main distribution (possible SPOF) at
Manual bypass
7
Electronic bypass
the UPS output; in particular in case of a UPS being
Reactor Loads
connected in parallel
Supply
network
Outer rotor
approx.
approx. 8
Basically, we distinguish between dynamic and static UPS Inner rotor 2,600
1,500 rev/min
systems. rev/min

Note: If a flywheel is used to supply critical loads via the

Rotor
9
electronic inverter in case of voltage problems, this is also

TIP02_12_020_EN
a static UPS system.
Diesel
engine
Electro-
magnetic
Flywheel Synchro-
nisation
10
coupling machine
13.1.1 Dynamic UPS Systems
DIN 6280-12 describes the different types of dynamic UPS Fig. 13/2:  Schematic view of a dynamic UPS system using
a combination of diesel engine, flywheel, and generator power
11
systems (Fig. 13/1). The two main components of a ­dynamic
UPS system are the electric motor and the generator,
synchronised as a machine unit. Following the standard,
the critical consumers are supplied by the generator.
12
The operating modes of dynamic UPS systems in accord-
However, the machine unit has a low kinetic energy for
bridging voltage failures in the millisecond range. This very
ance with DIN 6280-12 permit further distinctions to be
made:
13
short period can be extended to a limited time, mostly in • Stand-by active mode (quick-starting – short break: 2 to
the range of seconds or minutes, by using flywheel energy 500 ms interruption time)
storage and / or battery systems. The bridging time can be • Continuous operation mode (electrically isolated load 14
extended by connecting a diesel engine. Then, the interme- supply through UPS: no break readiness)
diate storage systems must supply the generator with • Active following mode (uninterruptible transfers between
energy for so long until the diesel engine has run up to
speed (Fig. 13/2).
load supply from the normal network and load supply
from the synchronised UPS: no break readiness)
15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 263

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Please note that this classification does not correlate with independent) provides an independent supply quality for
the classification of static UPS systems (see Fig. 13/3). the consumers. In the voltage independent (VI)-UPS, the
Even in the continuous mode, the dynamic UPS may be voltage is set independent of the UPS input voltage,
2 frequency-­dependent if the line voltage is not transformed whereas in an off-line circuit (VFD, voltage and frequency
into a so-to-speak independent supply voltage for the dependent) both the voltage and the frequency at the UPS
motor using a converter. output depend on the conditions at the input. In any case,
3 An active stand-by mode, for example, is not feasible for
planning must take into account that grid perturbations
and the consumers' load requirements have an influence
the IT components in the data centre, since manufacturers on the supply at the UPS input.

4 of power supply units established the ITIC curve described

in chapter 5 [4], in which the permissible voltage condi- If a spatial separation of electricity consumers from power
tions (see Fig. 5/2) for the power supply of ICT components supply components is desired, larger, better performing
are described. According to the ITIC curve, a voltage inter- UPS units with a 3-phase connection and double-converter
5 ruption is only permitted for a maximum of 20 ms. The system (on-line UPS system) are usually used. The systems
curve was introduced for single-phase 120-V equipment comprising UPS and battery should be accommodated in
with an AC frequency of 60 Hz. However, it is nowadays separate operating rooms for reasons that include ventila-
6 used in similar form for many other product series. tion, EMC, noise, maintenance, fire protection, etc.

To increase their performance and improve availability,

13.1.2 Static UPS Systems
7 To influence the supply voltage, power electronic compo-
parallel-connected UPS systems may be used. Do note that
with an increasing number of components, the servicing
nents such as diodes, thyristors, and transistors are used in outlay will also increase and that the higher system com-
static UPS systems. Dependent on the influence exercised, plexity may cause new kinds of faults. For reasons of usage
8 IEC 62040-3 (VDE 0558-530) classifies static UPS systems efficiency, the load-dependent UPS efficiency rate should
according to the quality of the UPS output voltage and the also be considered in the redundancy concept. Therefore,
behaviour in case of line faults (see Tab. 13/1). a (2+ 1) redundancy may create a somewhat higher availa-
9 The simplified schematic diagrams Fig. 13/3 illustrate that
bility, leaner maintenance costs, and lower losses in opera-
tion, than for instance, a (6+ 1) redundancy.
the double conversion principle (VFI, voltage and frequency

10
For
Line faults Time IEC 62040-3 UPS solution Supplier solution
example
11 1. Power failures > 10 ms –
VFD
Classification 3
Voltage
12 2. Voltage fluctuations > 16 ms
+ Frequency
Dependent
Passive standby
mode (off-line)
–

3. Voltage peaks 4 … 16 ms –

13 4. Undervoltages continuous VI Classification 2 –

Voltage Line-interactive
5. Overvoltages continuous Independent mode –
14
6. Surge > 4 ms –

Lightning and overvoltage

15 7. Lightning strikes sporadic
VFI
protection
(IEC 60364-5-53)
Classification 1
Voltage
8. Voltage distortion (burst) periodic Double-conversion –
+ Frequency
mode (on-line)
16 9. Voltage harmonics continuous
Dependent
–

10. Frequency variations sporadic –

17
Tab. 13/1:  Types of line faults and matching UPS solutions based on IEC 62040-3 (VDE 0558-530) [12]

264 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

A current trend which may be important for the planning In this context, it must be kept in mind that initially an 1
of reliable power supply is the extendibility and redesign investment must be made in oversizing parts of the modu-
capability gained from modular UPS systems. a modular lar system, which is often worthwhile only if the factual
UPS system allows the integration of extension modules extension corresponds to the planned scope of extension. 2
into an existing system when performance demands are Above that, the plant operator binds himself to a specific
rising. To this end, a possible final brown field scenario UPS model so that the framework parameters for subse-
should already be on hand when operation starts. It is
frequently argued that although the initial cost of invest-
quent purchases of modules may best be considered prior
to the first purchase. Model changes make subsequent
3
ment is somewhat higher, the investment total can be purchases much more difficult and expensive in most
reduced by the lower cost for the extension modules.
Moreover, easy extendibility and fast swapping of modules
cases.
4
shall reduce the UPS failure period in case of a fault – thus
increasing availability as against a conventional UPS solu-
tion. 5

7
a) 1
Supply
network
Load
Normal mode
1 Switch
8
without influencing
2 Rectifier/
charger

2 3 4
3 Battery 9
4 Inverter

5 4-quadrant
inverter 10
b) 7
6 Static bypass
switch
Normal mode
Supply
network using 4-quadrant inv. (5) 7 Manual bypass
switch
11
Load

12
3 5

13
c) 7

14
TIP02_12_021_EN

Normal mode
using rect. (2) and inv. (4)
Supply Load
network
15
2 3 4 6

Fig. 13/3:  UPS systems with energy flow during normal operation: back to page 264
16
a) Off-line UPS system (VFD)
b) Line-interactive UPS system (VI)
c) On-line UPS system (VFI) 17

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 265

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 13.2 Embedded Generation Systems

When an embedded electric power generation system is 13.2.1 Standby Power Generating Set
2 connected to the low-voltage grid of the distribution sys-
tem operator (DSO), German regulations require that the An emergency standby power system (ESPS) supplies
VDE application rule VDE-AR-N 4105 [13] is applied. The electricity in case of an outage of the public supply. It may
3 "Technical supply conditions for connection to the low-volt-
age power system" (TAB 2007; [14]) must also be taken
be required in order to
• Fulfil statutory regulations for installations for gatherings
into account. of people, hospitals, or similar buildings

4 1-phase connections can be used for embedded generation

• Fulfil official or statutory regulations for the operation of
high-rise buildings, offices, workplaces, large garages or
systems with a rated apparent power of less than 4.6 kVA similar buildings
(for photovoltaic systems below 5 kWp), 3-phase connec- • Ensure operation of safety-relevant systems such as
5 tions for systems greater than this. a control point with dis- sprinkler systems, smoke evacuation systems, control and
connect function that can be accessed by DSO personnel monitoring systems, or similar systems
at all times must be provided. Alternatively, an “Installation • Ensure continuous operation of IT systems
6 for monitoring the power supply with assigned switching
devices in series” with test certificate based on
• Safeguard production processes in industry
• Cover peak loads or to complement the power supply
DIN V VDE V 0126‑1‑1 can be used. a tie breaker must from the normal grid

7 ensure an all-phase, electrical isolation. The requirements

of IEC 61000‑3‑2 (VDE 0838-2) or IEC 61000‑3‑12 Dimensioning of the generator units
(VDE 0838‑12) must be fulfilled for operating an embed-
ded power generation system. DIN 6280-13 and the ISO 8528 series of standards apply for
8 the dimensioning and manufacturing of standby generator
If a standby power supply system is planned anyway, it units. The design class of the generator unit results from
must always be verified whether a combined heat and the load requirements. The following factors, among
9 power station (CHP) can be operated cost-effectively with
regard to the overall energy concept. As a rule, an invest-
others, are relevant for the power rating of the generator
units:
ment is justified when the payback period does not exceed • Sum of connected consumers = consumer power (about

10 seven years, or in certain cases, ten years. Whereby, in the

long term, it should be possible to obtain substantial
80 % of the nominal output of the generator unit, keep an
eye on critical consumers such as pumps)
revenues from the surplus power and / or heat. • Operating behaviour of the consumers (e.g. switched-
mode power supply units, frequency converters, and
11 An additional improvement in the utilisation can be static UPS units with high power distortions, observe
achieved by combining a combined CHP with an absorption harmonic content ≤ 10 % for standard generator units)
refrigeration unit. As no chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFHC) • Simultaneity factor g = 1
12 are used, this is an environmentally friendly alternative to
conventional refrigeration units.
• Turn-on behaviour of the consumers
• Dynamic response and load connection response of the
generator unit (the standard value for the first load
13 In addition to the capital costs, the following points should
be clarified for estimating the profitability of CHP opera-
injection step is about 60 % of the generator unit output)
• Ambient conditions at the installation site of the genera-
tion: tor unit
• The location of the combined heat and power station • Reserves for expansions
14 • The requirements for the simultaneous use of • Short-circuit behaviour (see Appendix 17.1)
heat / refrigeration and power
• The control of the fuel supply General
15 • The heat / refrigeration management to cover reserve and
peak loads First a distinction is made between a power generating unit
• The power management to cover reserve and peak loads and a power generating station. The power generating unit
16 • Service and maintenance
• Dedicated qualified personnel
is the actual machine unit comprising drive motor, genera-
tor, power transmission elements and storage elements.
The power generating station also includes the auxiliary
equipment such as exhaust system, fuel system, switchgear
17 and the installation room (Fig. 13/4). This then constitutes

266 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

a complete standby power supply system. The purpose of • Better power quality in extensive networks (voltage drop) 1
use and the design have not been taken into account yet. • More favourable energy purchase price for power
consumption (clue: approx. 20 % advantage over low
Integration into the power supply concept voltage) 2
• The required short-circuit current is attained much easier
The following selection criteria for the standby generating in the TN-S system for the "Protection through
set must be taken into account because of the consum-
er-dependent boundary conditions of the SPS such as
disconnection" measure. 3
power requirements, power distribution concept, simulta- Medium voltage has the following disadvantages:
neity factor, and reserves for expansions:
• Supply at the medium-voltage or low-voltage level
• Cost effectiveness should be checked when the power
requirement is less than approximately 400 kVA 4
• Distribution of the SPS load over several standby power • Expenses for the protection concept rise with the size of
generating sets connected in parallel or supply via one the networks
large standby generating set • (Additional) transformers with the associated switchgear 5
• Central installation or distribution of the individual power and appropriate protection are also required in the
supplies close to the SPS consumers network for the safety power supply

The differences in the cabling of the safety power supply,

• More devices and material are required
• A higher qualification of the operating personnel is
6
the breakdown susceptibility of the control system, the required
expense for switching and protection measures as well as
the supply of the consumers "privileged" to receive emer- Generally, a medium-voltage supply is only cost-effective if 7
gency power during maintenance and repairs must be high power quantities must be transmitted over large
taken into account in the selection and concept finding pro- distances.
cess. Some of the decisive criteria for making a choice 8
between the medium-voltage and the low-voltage level are
listed as seen from the medium-voltage viewpoint. Turn-on and operating behaviour of consumers

Medium voltage has the following advantages: The start-up or turn-on behaviour of electric motors, trans-
9
• Larger loads can be transmitted more easily over longer formers, large lighting systems with incandescent or similar
distances lamps has a major effect on the generator unit output.
10

A
A-A
11
Exhaust system
24-hour tank 12
with oil sump

13

14
Exhaust air Supply air
Muffler Muffler
15
TIP04_13_141_EN

Switchgear
16
A
17
Fig. 13/4:  Typical arrangement of a stationary standby power generating set

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 267

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Especially when there is a large proportion of critical con- • Short cable routes to the supply point (low-voltage main
sumers in relation to the generator unit output, an individ- distribution board)
ual test must be performed. The possibility of staggering • The room should be located as far away as possible from
2 the connection of loads or load groups significantly reduces residential rooms, offices, or similar (offending noise)
the required generator unit output. If turbocharger motors • Problem-free intake and discharge routing of the required
are used, the load must be connected in steps. air flow rates
3 All the available possibilities of reducing the start-up loads
• Arrangement of the air inlets / outlets taking into account
the main wind direction
of installed consumers should be fully exploited. The • Problem-free routing of the required exhaust pipe

4 operation of some consumer types can also have a major

effect on the generator unit output and generator design.
• Easy access for moving in the components

a special test must be performed when supplying consum-

ers by power electronic components (frequency converters,
5 power converters, UPS).

Dynamic response
6 The dynamic response of the generator unit at full-load
connection and for the load changes to be expected must

7 be adapted to the permissible values of the consumers. The

design class of the generator unit in accordance with
ISO 8528-5 is determined by the consumer type or the 160

TIP01_11_015_EN
relevant regulations concerning voltage and frequency 140
8 conditions. Fulfilling the required values can result in an
Spatial volume in in m3

120
oversizing of the engine, generator or both components.
100

9 As a rule, modern diesel engines with turbochargers – and

possibly charge air cooling – are usually not suitable for
80
60
load connections greater than approximately 60 % in one 40

10 load impulse. If no particular consumer-related require-

ments are set as regards the generator unit, the load con-
20
0
nection must be performed in several steps. 0 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000

11 Short-circuit behaviour
Power output in kVA

Fig. 13/5:  Space requirements of a complete  back to page 269

If no particular measures are taken, the unit generators
12 supply a 3-phase sustained short-circuit current of approx.
3 to 3.5 ∙ In at the generator terminals. Because of these
standby power generating set including soundproofing

small short-circuit currents, special attention must be paid

13 to the shutdown behaviour (personal safety
IEC 60364‑4‑41; VDE 0100-410). An oversizing of the 450
TIP01_11_016_EN

generator may be required in such cases. As the active 400

power may exceed the value of the rated generator unit 350
Fuel consumption in l/h

14 power when a short circuit occurs, the diesel engine may 300
also have to be oversized in this case. 250
200
15 Room layout and system components 150
100
When planning the generator unit room, the local building 50
16 regulations must be taken into account. The planning of
the generator unit room can also have a significant influ-
0
0 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000
ence on the acquisition costs of a standby power supply Power output in kVA
system. The installation room should be selected according
17 to the following criteria: Fig. 13/6:  Hourly fuel consumption in relation  back to page 269
to the rated power

268 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The intended generator unit room must be selected so that 1

is it large enough to easily accommodate all the system
components. Depending on the installation size, there
should be 1 to 2 m of access space around the generator 2
unit. The generator unit room should always have a tem-
perature of at least + 10 °C in order to prevent condensa-
tion and corrosion forming and to reduce the engine
preheating (Fig. 13/5).
3
Tank facilities 4
Diesel fuel or fuel oil can be used for diesel generator units.
Each generator unit tank facility should have enough fuel
for 8 hours of operation at full load (Fig. 13/6). Facilities 5
that are subject to IEC 60364-7-710 (VDE 0100-710) must
be dimensioned for at least 24 hours of operation at full
load. In tank facilities for emergency power supply, the fuel
level must be at least 0.5 m above the injection pump of
6
the diesel engine. In many cases, in particular for systems
in continuous operation, it may be better to divide the tank
facilities into a 24-hour tank and a storage tank. The 24- 7
hour tank then remains in the generator unit room with
capacity to suit the available space. The storage tank can
then be installed in another room, or designed as an over- 8
ground tank for outdoor installation or as an underground
tank. The 24-hour tank is refuelled by means of an auto-
matic filling device. 9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 269

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 13.2.2 Wind Turbine • The phase asymmetry (ratio of the voltage's negative-­
sequence component to the positive-sequence compo-
A wind turbine basically consists of the rotor system, the nent) shall not exceed 2 % (15 % for small wind turbines
2 nacelle with the generator (directly driven or geared), the in extreme conditions)
frequency converter, and the tower. a certified monitoring • Automatic reconnection period(s) must be within 0.1 s
and control system is crucial for the continuous adjustment and 0.5  s for the first reconnection (between 0.2 s and
3 of operating parameters to the actual wind conditions.
Every wind turbine requires reliable auxiliary power supply
0.5 s for small wind turbines) and for a second reconnec-
tion between 10 s and 90 s
in order to supply the many auxiliary circuits (for example

4 for the electric control system, air conditioning, navigation

lights, hoisting gear, lighting, and the lift) (Fig. 13/7).
The design of the electrical installation of a wind turbine
must meet the requirements on machine safety in accord-
ance with IEC 60204-1 (VDE 0113-1). Stationary equip-
In just 20 years, the revenue from wind turbines was raised ment, not the machine installations, must meet the re-
5 by a factor of 50. While capacities of about 3 MW are being quirements of the IEC 60364 (VDE 0100) series of stand-
installed onshore today, turbines in the windier offshore ards. The manufacturer must specify which standards were
sector are now sized with about 6 MW. Manufacturer applied. The rating of the electrical installation must take
6 development centres are already working on 10 to 15-MW
turbines, which will lead to further multiplication of reve-
account of the varying power output of the wind turbine.

nues (Fig. 13/8). It must be possible to disconnect the electrical installation

7 The electrical grid conditions for operating wind turbines

of the wind turbine from all power sources in such a way
that maintenance work or inspection can be performed
are specified in the IEC 61400 (VDE 0127) series of stand- without any hazard. Semiconductor devices must not be
ards. These parameters are relevant among others: employed as disconnecting devices on their own. For
8 • The voltage corresponds to the nominal value in accord- example, an air circuit-breaker can protect the main circuit
ance with IEC 60038 (VDE 0175-1) ± 10 % (for small wind against overload and short circuit. It is also used for safe
turbines with a rotor area ≤ 200 m², the tolerance is disconnection from supply during maintenance work.
9 ± 20 % in extreme conditions)
• The frequency corresponds to the nominal value ± 2 %
Locking devices preventing unauthorized reconnection
ensure optimum safety for the maintenance personnel.
(± 10 % for small wind turbines in extreme conditions) Equipped with communication options, the air cir-

10 cuit-breaker can be optimally integrated into the electronic

systems of the wind turbine. Lightning protection for
a wind turbine must be designed in accordance with
IEC 62305-3 (VDE 0185-305-3). Overvoltage protection for
11 Switching and protecting a wind turbine must be built up according to the require-
the main circuit of a wind turbine ments of IEC 62305-4 (VDE 0185-305-4). The selection and
installation of the earthing system (earth electrode, earth
12 Metering
conductor, main terminals, and busbars for earthing) must
be designed in compliance with IEC 60364-5-54
(VDE 0100-540).
13 G
=
Important components for connecting the wind turbine to
=
the electric power supply grids of the DSO are: transform-
Generator
ers (for transforming the low voltage into medium voltage),
14 medium-voltage switchgear, control systems, meters, and
main substations, as shown in Fig. 13/9. To complement
regulations, local grid connection requirements of the grid
15 operators must often be fulfilled, as described in the tech-
nical guidelines of the BDEW [15, 16] and the wind energy
promoting association Fördergesellschaft Windenergie
16 Grid (FGW) [17]. The requirements of Germanischer Lloyd [18,
19] are of international importance in the certification of
TIP04_13_142_EN onshore and offshore wind turbines.

17 Fig. 13/7:  Circuit diagram for connecting the wind turbine into the
supply grid

270 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Increasing performance and cost – higher risk
2
Rotor diameter
3

5
Rotor hub height

TIP04_13_143_EN
7
1990 2012

Rating
Rotor diameter
250 kW
30 m
1,500 kW
70 m
3,000 kW
90 m
6,000 kW
126 m
8
Rotor hub height 50 m 100 m 105 m 135 m
Annual output 400,000 kWh 3,500,000 kWh 6,900,000 kWh approx. 20,000,000 kWh
9
Fig. 13/8:  Technical development of wind turbines from 1990 until 2012 back to page 270

10
1 Wind turbine Wind farm
– Automation / SCADA / HMI
– Busbar trunking systems
11
– Circuit protection systems
– Electric drives
– Generator / inverter
– Video surveillance
4
12
2 Medium-voltage
transformer
3 Medium-voltage switchgear 5 13
– Circuit-breaker
– Switchboards 7
– Busbar trunking systems
4 Control centre 14
– Automation 3
– Monitoring

5
– Control
Supply meter 2
15
6 Operation and servicing
– Preventive maintenance
16
TIP04_13_144_EN

– Repair 6
7 Main substation and 1
high-voltage lines

17
Fig. 13/9:  Embedding wind turbines into the electric power distribution grid back to page 270

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 271

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 13.2.3 SIESTORAGE Energy Storage System plete failure of production plants. Such a failure means an
enormous loss of quality and time, along with noticeable
Electric power generation based on renewable energies is financial damage.
2 a key element for restructuring a strongly fuel-oriented
energy business towards more sustainability. Besides Storage characteristics
water power, wind and solar energy play the crucial part
3 in this context. The use of renewables on a large scale,
however, leads to new challenges for grid stability: Pro-
Traditional energy storage systems (Fig. 13/10) cannot
necessarily ensure stable grid operation in the lower distri-
ducers of wind and solar energy are usually not capable of bution grid levels today. a storage solution is called for

4 providing short-circuit power, which is a measure for grid

stability. When energy generated from distributed sources
which above all provides control power for primary control
almost instantaneously, from distributed sources and with
is fed into the grid, the energy flow may sometimes be sufficient capacity, until the power stations have run up.
reversed. This can result in damage on equipment and Important characteristics of the supply grid which are
5 power outages in distribution grids not designed for this positively influenced by energy storage systems are:
situation. Power generation from renewable sources • Increased power quality
naturally varies to a great extent. This quite often causes • Integration of distributed renewable energy sources into
6 imbalances between generation and load, which impairs
the stability of the grid. Operators of distribution grids are
the grid
• Deployment of control power reserves
increasingly faced with the question, how a sufficient • Improved voltage and supply quality

7 amount of control power can be provided to ensure

a constantly high quality of power supply.
• Flexibility in peak load management

Another important field of application for energy storage

Energy-efficient business activity is of great importance for systems is the emergency power supply of sensitive indus-
8 industrial firms and facility management companies as well trial production processes, data centres, and hospitals.
as for enterprises in the infrastructure sector in order to Furthermore, there are energy storage solutions for ener-
keep their energy costs as low as possible. Even exceeding gy-efficient buildings, isolated networks, and smaller
9 the maximum power demand agreed with the power
supplier once may incur high costs. Moreover, even the
independent grids for in-plant demand, for public trans-
port, and for electro-mobility applications.
shortest interruption of power supply can lead to a com-

10
Service time
11
Days/Months

H2-/methane storage tank

12 (stationary)

Redox-flow batteries Diabatic

Water-pumped
Adiabatic
CAES 1) storage facility
13
Hours

Technology
Chemical storage systems
Li-ion
NaS
batteries SIESTORAGE Electro-chemical storage systems
14
Minutes

Mechanical storage systems

Flywheel energy
Electrical storage systems
storage system

15 Electrical double
Maturity
TIP04_13_145_EN

layer capacitor Commercial use

Seconds

Superconductor Commercial launch

16 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1,000 MW

Demonstration

Power
1) CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage
Source: Study by DNK/WEC: "Energie für Deutschland 2011"; Bloomberg technologies Q2 2011

17
Fig. 13/10:  Comparison of the service times of energy storage technologies

272 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

SIESTORAGE is an advanced energy storage system. The Load variations 1

modular "Siemens Energy Storage" (SIESTORAGE) system
combines ultra-modern power electronics for grid applica- It is imperative that power generation follows such load
tions with high-capacity Li-ion batteries. With a capacity of variations. If this is not the case, deviations from normal 2
approximately 2 MWh, it can supply up to 8 MW power. Due voltage are the consequence. The permissible voltage
to its modular design, SIESTORAGE is suitable for many deviation as part of the power quality is specified in the
applications. SIESTORAGE balances variations in the gener-
ated power within milliseconds, thus ensuring stable grid
EN 50160 standard. Observance of this standard is up to the
grid operators. They must ensure that 95 % of the 10-min-
3
operation (Fig. 13/11). This energy storage solution enables ute means of the r.m.s. supply voltage value for every
weekly interval are within the range of Un ± 10 % under
an increasing amount of solar power plants and wind
turbines to be integrated into distribution grids without that normal operating conditions without failures or supply 4
these grids need to be immediately extended themselves. interruptions. As a result of the liberalisation of the energy
Furthermore, SIESTORAGE makes for a self-contained, market, the roles of grid operators, electricity suppliers, and
reliable power supply for isolated networks with renewable power generators are now separated by jurisdiction as well 5
energy sources. In addition, the Siemens solution safe- as by business administration, which aggravates this task.
guards fault-free power supply in industrial plants and Owing to the legal framework, more and more distributed
building facilities and helps avoid expensive load peaks. power generators are integrated into the grids. To let renew-
ables play a more prominent part, the obligation to pur-
6
Operator benefits from using SIESTORAGE: chase such energy quantities was introduced for grid opera-
• High availability and reliability owing to a modular system
• A great variety of applications owing to proven experi-
tors on the one hand, and power generation for one's own
use was subsidized on the other. But at the same time, the 7
ence in power electronics for grid applications grid operators bear the risk for the consequences of load
• Complete integration from a single source throughout the variations on the electricity grid. Therefore, grid operators
entire life cycle draw up forecasts, for example for large-scale consumers 8
• High man and machine safety through safe handling of and in a summarized form even for entire cities. Besides
the battery modules (safe extra-low voltage) such already common forecasts, the forecastability of
• Self-contained power supply, reliable owing to black-start
capability
feed-in from renewables is playing an increasingly impor-
tant role. But with every forecast, grid operators run the risk
9
• Environmentally friendly solution: No emissions of misinterpretation of actual consumption.

10

Grid Smart Network Control 11

Medium-voltage switchgear

12
Transformer System control

13
Filters

AC/DC
Inverter control 14
=

Data logging 15
TIP04_13_146_EN

Li-ion
Series
connection
battery
module
Battery managemen
16

17
Fig. 13/11:  Schematic design of SIESTORAGE

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 273

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 If the customer takes over the risk of such fluctuations, this Two vital factors which are to be observed when planning
will become noticeable in a better pricing. This energy de- a combined system are the size relations between power
mand forecast, known as schedule clause in ¼-h electricity generation and storage plus the so-called C factor for the
2 supply contracts, is gaining increasingly more importance charging / discharging characteristic of the storage system.
in this context (Fig. 13/12). The customer submits to his The C factor is defined as the quotient from the current and
distribution system operator (DSO) a forecast of his energy capacity of an accumulator.
3 demand (EU-wide always on Thursdays), in which optimisa-
tions at 24-h notice are permitted. The procurement of C factor = current / charge
these forecast energy quantities is up to the electricity = 1 / time (output / accumulator capacity in h-1)

4 supplier. Depending on what was contractually agreed, the

customer is permitted deviations in the range of ± 5 % or Example: When a storage system with a capacity of 400 Ah
± 10 %, for example. So far, forecasts are optional for the is discharged, a C factor of 2 C means that a current of
customer and result in more favourable price conditions. 800 A can be output. Vice versa, with a C factor of 6 C,
5 But in the long run, they will become mandatory with a continuous charging current of about 2,400 A can be
smart grids paving their way. assumed for recharging. To establish the charging
duration, a charge efficiency (also called charge factor)
6 Example for the interaction of power generation from must be considered which is to integrate the charge-
current-dependent heat developed during the charging
a photovoltaic system and energy storage
process.

7 In the future, the profitability of a photovoltaic (PV) system will

rise with the share of self-consumed solar electricity. There- In our example, we assume a sunny load curve for power
fore, the goal of a combined PV and energy storage system will deployment by a PV system with a power peak of 1,000 kWp
be to completely consume the self-generated power and (index p for peak) as shown in Fig. 13/14. A possibly feasi-
8 simultaneously achieve a good forecastability of the power ble scenario assumes feed-in with an ideal PV curve whose
drawn from the distribution grid operator (Fig. 13/13). output peak is adapted daily to the forecast noon peak for

9
Customer with ¼ h contract Electricity supplier
10 Forecast optimisation
150
kWh

11 100

50
Energy purchase

Dependencies 0

between

12
-50
power generation, use, 0:15 6:15 0:15

and energy demand Forecast

as well as captive Energy forecast
generation and storage kWh
9,000
behaviour 8,000

13
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

14
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Smart meter

15 Forecast management
kWh
2,000
Schedule

800 1,800
700
600 Limit
Controlling/ 1,600

regulating
1,400
500

16
1,200
TIP04_13_147_EN

400
Schedule
300 - Consumption 1,000
800
200
100 Consumption - Generation 600
0 400
11:00 11:05 11:10 11:15 - Storage 200
0

17
Fig. 13/12:  Transparency of the energy flows

274 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

sun radiation. The difference between power generation PV curve thus varies in amplitude (Fig. 13/14), the energy 1
from the PV system and the feed-in curve of the scenario balance at midnight is always equalized (Fig. 13/15).
defines the sizing of the SIESTORAGE energy storage sys-
tem. We expect that the storage system is completely In this case, the storage capacity needed amounts to about 2
discharged at the beginning of the assessment period 900 kWh, so that two standard storage containers with
(storage content 0 kWh). a total capacity of 1 MWh will be sufficient. The maximum

For the evaluation, the difference quantities between

charging power per hour which will be fed into the storage
container from the PV system is 350 kW, and the maximum
3
power generation and hourly mean feed-in are formed. power drawn is 200 kW. Hence a C factor of 3 C is suffi-
a positive difference means that the storage system is
being charged during the hour under assessment, whereas
cient. In this scenario, the investment required is within
acceptable limits so that a business assessment could be 4
it is discharged in case of a negative result. The required worthwhile.
storage capacity of the SIESTORAGE results from the differ-
ence between the maximum and minimum value of this 5
weekly curve in each case. No statement is made about
costs and C factors, since this is always a project-specific
task. 6
The evaluated scenario assumes a forecast for sun radia-
tion. The peak value for the feed-in curve is then calculated
day-specifically in such a way that it yields the forecast 7
energy quantity together with the ideal PV curve shape,
which is equal to the energy quantity from the PV output
curve for the individual day. Though the peak of the ideal 8

9
PV system SIESTORAGE

10

11
1,200 kW 600 kW

1,000 kW 400 kW

800 kW 200 kW

600 kW 0 kW

400 kW

200 kW
-200 kW

-400 kW
12
0 kW -600 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09 08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09

13

1,000 kW
Power distribution 14
800 kW

600 kW

400 kW

200 kW
15
0 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09

16
TIP04_13_148_EN

Consumers

17
Fig. 13/13:  Power supply concept integrating photovoltaics and a SIESTORAGE energy storage system back to page 274

Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators 275

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

7 1,000 kW PV system
Feed-in curve
800 kW

8 600 kW

400 kW
9

TIP04_13_149_EN
200 kW

10 0 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09

11 Fig. 13/14:  Weekly curve of PV power and the desired feed-in power according to the forecast about sun radiation  back to page 274
provided the day before

12
600 kWh
13 Storage load
min
400 kWh max

0.9 MWh
14 200 kWh

0 kWh
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09
15 -200 kWh
TIP04_13_150_EN

-400 kWh
16
-600 kWh

17 Fig. 13/15:  Weekly curve of the energy required which a storage system is to supply, respectively take in, based on the  back to page 275
power ratios from Fig. 13/14

276 Totally Integrated Power – Supply using Converters and Generators

Chapter 14
Energy Management
14.1 Measured Variables for
Energy Transparency 279
14.2 Graphic Representations in
Energy Management 281
14.3 Evaluation Profiles 284
14.4 Characteristic Values 284
14.5 Electricity Market Observations 286
14.6 Operational Management 291
14.7 Normative Basis for an
Energy Management System 292
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 14 Energy Management

duction

1 High supply and operational reliability as well as flexible Energy management

use are the key factors of every modern power distribution
system. In view of the increasing share of energy costs in The VDI 4602 Sheet 1 guideline defines energy manage-
2 the overall operating costs of a building, an operating cost ment as follows: “Energy management is the clear-sighted,
optimisation is a planning criterion which should not be organisational, and systematized coordination of procure-
neglected. Essential elements are an ecologically and eco- ment, conversion, distribution and usage of energy to meet
3 nomically focused optimisation of energy consumption and
thus of energy costs. Even in the design stage, energy
requirements whilst taking ecological and economical
objectives into account.” All resources enabling this coordi-
analyses are called for. When basic data is established and nation are defined in this directive as energy management

4 pre-planning work is carried out, which corresponds to

phase 1 and 2 according to the Regulation of Architects' and
systems: “Energy management systems comprise the
organisational and information structures required to put
Engineers' Fees (HOAI) in Germany, targets must be agreed energy management into practice. This includes the techni-
upon as to the kind of energy to be utilised and the measur- cal resources involved, such as software and hardware.”
5 ing systems to be employed and an energy concept must be
developed. If energy management requirements are to be considered
in addition to personal and system protection, measuring
6 Based on the energy flows in the building, energy transpar-
ency, energy management, and energy efficiency all inter-
instruments as part of electrical power distribution must
also be factored in. This is necessary in order to verify the
act. Data collection and processing ensure energy transpar- implementation and operation of an energy management

7 ency on which energy management as a process is based.

a building's energetic efficiency is directly influenced by the
system such as ISO 50001. For the planning work, this
means identifying measuring points at an early stage,
integration of automation systems and the definition of defining the scope of measurements and specifying meas-
energy efficiency levels for the equipment based on client uring instruments. Without metrology there is no energy
8 specifications (Fig. 14/1). transparency and thus no energy management.

Energy efficiency Even during the planning process, electrical designers are
9 Energy efficiency specifies the relationship of use to outlay.
increasingly expected to consider the life cycle costs.
However, the limits established when dimensioning the
Differing efficiency considerations are possible such as electrical energy distribution are unsuitable for determining

10 energy consumption, time, overall costs, operating costs,

and environmental burdens. Often individual criteria are
the cost for losses which reflect actual operating condi-
tions. The power losses of transformers, busbar trunking
consciously combined in efficiency considerations to sub- systems, and cabling figure prominently in life cycle cost
stantiate a conclusion reached. Relations between differing calculations under the envisaged operating conditions.
11 factors can also be drawn. For instance, consideration can Current is factored in with its square value.
be given in an eco-balance to the relationship between
material deployment at the manufacturing stage and en- For an ohmic load, power loss Pv is calculated
12 ergy consumption under operations. As the degree of
efficiency is physically clearly defined as the relationship
from (current I, specific resistance R):

between active power for use to the total active power to be Pv = I2 · R

13 applied, it must not be put on the same footing as energy
efficiency. The cost losses are the product of electricity price and
power losses. However, without a realistic load curve for
Energy transparency the period under review, it is not possible to obtain an
14 estimation of power consumption that reflects operating
Energy transparency creates the data basis for actions, conditions. After all to establish the energy losses, the
reactions, handling instructions, and improvements. time-specific power losses characterised by the load curve
15 ­Basically, energy transparency is part of operational man- are integrated by way of the period under consideration
agement, since energy flows can only be analysed with and – in connection with the electricity prices – the contri-
precision in practice. Even so, it is often overlooked that bution to the life cycle costs is defined.
16 the measuring, evaluation, and data management systems
are the basis for energy transparency. On average, 5 % of the energy procured is dissipated into
heat as energy losses within an electrical power distribution
system. Owing to consumption-optimised dimensioning of
17 individual distribution system components, such as trans-
formers, busbar trunking systems, and cables in keeping

278 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

with the load curve, there is an absolute energy saving 14.1 M

 easured Variables for Energy 1
potential of up to 1 % (in relation to the 5 % power loss in Transparency
the whole power distribution system, this means a relative
saving of 20 %) – really a non-negligible dimension over Feed-in, transformers, and generators are dimensioned on 2
a period of 20 years. Under the aspect of life cycle costs, the basis of their apparent power S in kVA. Currents meas-
the optimisation of transformers, busbar trunking systems, ured in a are crucial for the busbars, cabling, protection and
and cabling should be part of the standard scope of ser-
vices in present-day engineering and electrical design and
switching devices integrated in the electrical power distri-
bution system. Loads are always factored with their active
3
thus should be requested and / or offered. power P in kW and associated power factor φ into the
distribution dimensioning. If these electrical quantities,
which served as the planning basis, are to be substantiated 4
during the actual operation, appropriate measuring devices
need to be provided. When allocating the energy consumed
to different cost centres, the quantity of work or energy W 5
(in kWh) within the feed-in system and for every power
consumer to be allocated must also be measured.
6

7
Distribution
Electricity Supplier
System Operator
8
Power Management Power Distribution
9
- Coordination of purchase
activities Feed-in
- Covering application
requirements
10
- Following economic/ Transformer Generator
ecological goals G
(in-plant power generation)
11
Energy Transparency

- Documentation and
evaluation of energy flows
12
UPS
Distribution
13

14

Energy Efficiency Application

Automation
15
- Achieving the greatest benefit
with the least outlay
- Minimise losses
16
Lighting Drives Consumers
TIP04_13_152_EN
17
Fig. 14/1:  From energy management to energy efficiency with the help of energy transparency back to page 278

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 279

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 To ensure transparency of plant operation, it is useful to Leased or tenant areas are billed on the basis of electricity
measure voltage U in V, current I in A, the power factor, consumption W in kWh. An electricity meter records the
and total harmonic distortion THD (recorded separately consumption. Here it must already be clarified in the plan-
2 for the voltage and current) as the sum of all harmonics ning stage, whether this meter must be a calibrated meter
in addition to the above-mentioned apparent power for billing purposes. a non-certificated electricity meter is
(Fig. 14/2). a generator is treated like a transformer, but quite adequate given that cost-centres are internally in-
3 in addition, the produced energy W must be measured
in kWh.
voiced. For billing purposes it is essential that an MID-con-
forming instrument is used in accordance with the Euro-
pean 2004 / 22 / EG Measurements Instrument Directive

4 (MID).

6 Recommended Measurements

Transfer point meter of

7 Feed-in W measuring points operator –

Wtotal over all 3 phases

8 Transformer G Generator U
I
U, I, S of all 3 phases –
Power factor
G U
I
U, I, P, W of all
3 phases –
S P
cos of all 3 phases – W Power factor
Distribution THD THD of all 3 phases cos of all 3 phases
9
I I of all 3 phases –
I or
10 cos cos φ of all 3 phases

I I, P of all 3 phases – I
I of all 3 phases –
11 M P P
M
P Power factor
cos of all 3 phases
P
cos Power factor
of all 3 phases
Drives Consumers

12 P
Leased equipment P
W Billing meter
Wtotal over all 3 phases
TIP04_14_153_EN

13 Fig. 14/2:  Recommended measurements for the individual supply areas

14
Permissible voltage drop for lighting for other electrical equipment
Low-voltage installation supplied directly from the public 3 % 5 %
15 grid
Low-voltage network supplied from a private power 6 % 8 %
supply network*)

16 *) The voltage drop is preferably not to exceed the values for public grids

Tab. 14/1:  Permitted voltage drop in accordance with IEC 60364-5-52 (VDE 0100-520) from the distribution network / consumer installation
interface to the connection point of an item of equipment (mains equipment up to 100 m in length)
17

280 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

14.2 G
 raphic Representations in 1
Energy Management 8,000 kW

TIP04_13_154_EN
7,000 kW
The measured values as rows of figures constitute the basis 6,000 kW 2
for various graphics in an energy management system. 5,000 kW
Normally, users can only understand the response of
3
4,000 kW
individual system components and the interconnection
3,000 kW
between energy usage and corresponding energy demand
2,000 kW
by analysing the graphs of the measured values.

4
1,000 kW

Note: Owing to their time relation, mean values of power 1 kW

1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 kW
output and power consumption determined at 15-minute
intervals can be derived from one another.
Fig. 14/3:  Yearly load curve for a measuring point 5
• Measurement: Mean active power P in kWh
at 15-minute intervals
Mean energy consumption E = P · 0.25 h
• Measurement: Mean energy consumption E in kWh 6,000 kW
6

TIP04_13_155_EN
at 15-minute intervals
5,000 kW
Mean active power P = E / 0.25 h
4,000 kW
Load curve
Maximum
–5%
7
– 10 %
Load curves 3,000 kW

Load curves are graphs of measured values in their chrono- 2,000 kW 8

logical order. Time is entered on the X-axis, measured
1,000 kW
values are entered on the Y-axis.

A one-year load curve (Fig. 14/3) starts with the measured

1 kW
CW 53 CW 1 CW 2 CW 3 CW4 9
value of the first day of the year at 00:15 a.m. and ends
with the value of the last day of the year under considera-
tion at 24:00 p.m. The mean values are entered at 15-min-
Fig. 14/4:  Monthly load curve for a measuring point
10
ute intervals, beginning with the full hour. For performance
curves, the average power output of a 15-minute interval is
entered over the corresponding period. a graphical rep- 11
resentation as load curve allows for the following typical
analyses: The evaluation of yearly load curves is suitable for provid-
• When was it necessary to purchase considerable quanti-
ties of power?
ing an overview on:
• Load pattern
12
• Is there a typical energy consumption behaviour (e.g. • Continuity over months
a typical time / power pattern)?
• Are there correlations over time with pronounced
• Electricity peaks at certain points in time over the year
• Seasonal variations
13
changes in the measured power values? • Operating holidays and other special operating situations
• How high is the base load? • Minimum performance requirements as load base
14
Please note that with a mixed utilisation of a building, an The graph of a monthly load curve (Fig. 14/4) may be
analysis needs to be undertaken of the specific load curves utilised to demonstrate a possibly typical behaviour:
relating to the different applications. Such analyses can be
offered as services to tenants and building users. Depend-
• Similarities of power purchase
• Continuity at the weekends
15
ing on the resolution of the time axis, even more specific • Purchased power over night (i.e. power consumption)
interpretations, such as consumption behaviour in special
situations or trends, become feasible.
• Base load
• Bank holidays / bridging days / weekends and other
16
'operations closed' days

17

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 281

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The weekly load curve (Fig. 14/5) brings out clear day- 6,000 kW

TIP04_13_156_EN
specific differences:
• Daily demand 5,000 kW
2 • Daily variations
4,000 kW
• Typical work-shift patterns
• Demand peaks 3,000 kW

3 Individual 15-minute intervals are entered in the daily load

2,000 kW

curve (Fig. 14/6) so that, for instance, the following points 1,000 kW

4 can be recognized:
• Precise representation of the daily demand and moments
1 kW
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

of change
• Breaks Fig. 14/5:  Weekly load curves for a measuring point
5 • Work-shift changes

Synthetic load curves 6,000 kWh

TIP04_13_157_EN
6 Even during building planning phases, statements as to the
5,000 kWh
Early Shift Late Shift

life cycle costs – lying from the planning viewpoint well 4,000 kWh

7 into the future – are increasingly expected as they are

operation-linked. This means in planning the electrical
3,000 kWh

distribution of power that consideration should be given to 2,000 kWh

the possible energy costs for the power / heat losses of, for
8 instance, busbar trunking systems, switchgear, and cables.
1,000 kWh

Estimations for the maximum operating currents as needed 1 kWh

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
in designing the appliances usually produce unrealistic
9 maximum values for the energy costs, as if the assumption
was one of a permanent operation under maximum power. Fig. 14/6:  Daily load curve for a measuring point

However, as no load curves for a real power flow are known

10 of in the planning phases, the only way is to use a theoreti-

cally established course of the time-dependent power
The synthetic load curve approach expects that technical
installations and buildings of comparable use react in
demand and resulting energy consumption. Synthetic load a similar way, also in terms of energy consumption – and
curves are at the core of these kinds of theoretical estima- that, in particular, the pattern of the time-dependent
11 tions and are based on coming as close as possible to the changes is the same. The correlation between future
anticipated consumption pattern during operation. expectations and past findings allows the energy consump-
tion and thus some of the life cycle costs to be systemati-
12 cally determined.

13
Office building with ventilation Office building with air-conditioning system
2.40 2.20

14
2.23 2.03
2.20 2.00
2.00 1.80
1.80 1.60
Mon - Thurs
Factor

Factor

Mon - Thurs
1.60 Fr 1.40 Fr

15 1.40
1.20
Sat + Sun
Mean value
Peak factor
1.20
1.00
Sat + Sun
Mean value
Peak factor
1.00 0.80
0.80 0.60

16 0.60 0.40
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

0:00

1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

0:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

Time Time

17
TIP04_13_158_EN

Fig. 14/7:  Examples of synthetic load curves for specifying the power consumption in offices back to page 283

282 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Note: For the life cycle costs it is also a matter of and costs with the Siemens portfolio products. To illustrate 1
scheduling the depreciation or reinvestments for the matter, the power losses of selected GEAFOL transform-
replacement of components as well as service and ers are entered in Fig. 14/8. This permits a direct compari-
maintenance. This is where both technical and economic son to be made between different capacities. The synthetic 2
aspects have a major role to play. load profiles (with the number of operating hours shown at
a certain power demand above the related load value, see
To estimate energy losses in the planning process, the loss
can be integrated across the service life through the syn-
section 14.3) for an identical power range resulting from
the synthetic load curves for the various building types
3
thetic load curves. The requirement here is for the course serve to make it clear that raising the power by forced
of the curve to be cyclically repeated, for instance, for a day
during the planned operating behaviour. Conditional upon
ventilation of the transformer is sometimes appropriate or
that selecting a larger transformer involving a greater 4
the use patterns, consideration can, of course, be given to investment provides for benefits in operation. This kind of
different, day-specific load curves as, for instance, the comparison is calculated in the SIMARIS tool available to
differences between office working days and weekends the TIP Consultant Support contact partner. 5
and public holidays as well as possibly the vacation period.
Note: If on establishing a larger transformer in SIMARIS
The modelling for building use can, of course, also be
elaborated upon. For instance, the synthetic day load
design a renewed calculation comes about, then other,
usually larger appliances can be dimensioned.
6
curves of an office with air-conditioning differ from those
of a natural-ventilated office (see Fig. 14/7). At the same
time, various curves can be drawn and evaluated for rooms
The use of synthetic load curves for the sub-sections of an
electric power distribution system allows separate simulta- 7
of different uses in the building, such as those solely fitted neity factors to be established in SIMARIS design by adding
out with desks and for canteens and kitchens in office the subordinate synthetic load curves. These factors are
buildings. Process-specific cycles such as shift, charge or then subsumed in one simultaneity factor for rating. This 8
batch operation periods can be chosen for industrial pro- has the added advantage that with a single factor the
cesses. rating is better suited for subsequent utilisation.

The peak factors indicated in Fig. 14/7 represent the maxi-

9
mum credible power values and serve as the basis for Power percentage for the
dimensioning the electrical power distribution. In so doing,
consideration is usually given to an additional safety mar-
Power loss in kW
12.0
synthetic load profile
60 %
10
gin for the peak factor. The synthetic load curves are stand-
11.0
ardised to the mean value for the cycle period under con- Transformer type:
sideration. In Fig. 14/7, a weekly cycle is chosen and account 10.0
400 kVA, red, 6 %, 10 kV
630 kVA, red, 6 %, 10 kV
11
is taken of each day of the week for the mean value. The 1,000 kVA, red, 6 %, 10 kV
9.0 45 %
Monday to Thursday synthetic load curves and the Saturday
and Sunday weekend are averaged in such a way that for
the weekly cycle only three load curves are needed for
8.0 12
7.0
calculation.

Note: Power consumption values are laid down in guide-

6.0 30 %
13
5.0
lines and standards which can be utilised for classifying
the mean values. Where as the German VDI Guideline 4.0
3807-4 takes into account the entire electric power con- 3.0 15 %
14
sumption for buildings, the values from EnEV 2009 only
consider the electricity demand for the heating, ventilation 2.0 Load profile:
and air-conditioning installations in them, thus ignoring
the electricity needed for building use itself.
1.0
Office with air
Office w. air conditioning 15
0.0 0%
0 150 300 450 600
Our TIP Consultant Support provides personal planning
assistance in the analysis of losses for transformers and
Transformer load in kVA TIP04_13_159_EN 16
busbar trunking systems. With the aid of given synthetic Fig. 14/8:  Comparison of the power losses of various GEAFOL
load curves, they can – by using the values established in
SIMARIS and the selected products – carry out a loss and
transformer types (high voltage 10 kV, red = reduced losses, rated
short-circuit voltage uzr = 6 %) and synthetic load profiles for office 17
cost analysis. This can be followed up by comparing energy building types

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 283

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 14.3 Evaluation Profiles as to the continuity of power purchase. In particular,

­deviations from the mean curve progression allow such
To emphasize correlations, characteristic power values, and conclusions to be drawn. Typical evaluations gained from
2 typical conditions by graphics, the measured values are frequency distributions are:
processed in different evaluation profiles. These are for • Load peak characteristics
example • Electricity purchase continuity
3 • Load profile
• Frequency distribution
• Shift models
• Base load
• Evaluation of maxima

4 Load profile
Evaluation of maxima

In the maxima representation (Fig. 14/11), the highest

In terms of the load profile, the power values are shown on measured power values including the time stamp are
5 the X-axis and the number of hours in which the respective entered in a descending order. Two reference lines are
value was measured are shown on the Y-axis. The power frequently drawn to mark a peak load reduction by 5 % or
profile, which is based on the power values measured every 10 % respectively. a maxima power view clearly shows in
6 15 minutes, starts with the base load and ends with the
maximum purchased power. The load profile allows you to
how many 15-minute intervals a load management system
should have intervened and with which power reductions
identify power core areas, meaning the most frequently in order not to exceed a defined peak value. Variants of the

7 required power values of a plant or system (Fig. 14/9). maxima view map a daytime-specific distribution of load
peaks, or show monthly maxima to enable the identifica-
Frequency distribution tion of leverage for load management improvements or an
altered plant management.
8 The frequency distribution is a statistical complement of
the load profile by depicting cumulated values. It can be
read from the frequency distribution (Fig. 14/10) as to how
9 many operating hours a power range has been drawn. The
number of hours is shown on the X-axis with the curve
14.4 Characteristic Values
reflecting the power range from 0 up to the respectively The point of characteristic values is to provide an overview

10 indicated upper power limit (Y-axis). In (Fig. 14/10), for

instance, a power quantity of 2,000 kW or less was drawn
and enable comparisons to be made. Typical characteristics
are analysed as monthly or yearly-related summation,
for approx. 4,800 hours in the year. Conversely, the power maximum, mean, and / or minimum values. They can act as
demand was more than 2,000 kW for approx. 3,760 hours. a leverage for energy management, since they illustrate, for
11 instance, the spread of time-dependent power demands.
Since the number of hours is shown in an ascending fash- Characteristic variables are:
ion, the frequency distribution curve begins with the • Energy (important for the kilowatt per hour rate)
12 maximum purchased power and ends with the base load.
The frequency distribution allows conclusions to be drawn
• Power peak value (important for the demand charge)
• Usage period (important for prices)

13
300 h 8,000 kW
TIP04_13_160_EN

TIP04_13_161_EN

14
7,000 kW
250 h
Frequency distribution
6,000 kW
200 h Mean curve progression
5,000 kW

15
150 h 4,000 kW

100 h 3,000 kW

2,000 kW
5h

16 1,000 kW

0 kW
0 kW 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 0h 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000

17 Fig. 14/9:  Load profile of a measuring point over one year Fig. 14/10:  Frequency distribution over one year and mean curve
progression

284 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Full load hours 1

• Simultaneity factor
• Unit-specific energy values, e.g. work-shift values,
item‑based values, time-specific energy values 2
• Maximum, mean, and minimum values of current,
voltage, power factor, power, and energy etc.

Note: These kinds of directly indicated characteristic values

3
can be the basis for further analyses which may be utilised
to characterise buildings (energy per usable area, energy
demand related to the cooling demand, ambience-specific 4
dependency of extreme values, etc.) For more detailed
information on characteristic values, data analyses and
interpretations, please refer to [20]. 5

9
4,000 kW
10

TIP04_13_162_EN
3,900 kW

3,800 kW 11
3,700 kW

3,600 kW 12
3,500 kW

3,400 kW
13
3,300 kW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 14
15-min. value Date/Time 15-min. value Date/Time 15-min. value Date/Time Peak cutting • by 5 % 3,709 kW
3,904 kW
3,856 kW
12.1.10 9:00
12.1.10 10:30
3,816 kW
3,816 kW
12.1.10 8:45
12.1.10 8:45
3,792 kW
3,792 kW
11.1.10 10:45
11.1.10 10:45
• by 10 % 3,514 kW
15
3,848 kW 13.1.10 8:30 3,808 kW 12.1.10 9:00 3,784 kW 11.1.10 8:15
3,848 kW 13.1.10 8:30 3,800 kW 12.1.10 11:45 3,784 kW 11.1.10 8:15 Difference between highest
3,832 kW 12.1.10 11:00 3,792 kW 11.1.10 10:45 3,776 kW 13.1.10 8:15 and 20th value 3 %
3,824 kW 12.1.10 9:15 3,792 kW 11.1.10 10:45 3,776 kW 13.1.10 8:15 16

17
Fig. 14/11:  Maxima view as a ranking of peak load values back to page 284

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 285

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 14.5 Electricity Market Observations (n is an agreed number of maximum values) and the
demand charge in € / kW. Taxes and duties are to be paid
Alongside safety and availability, a further main planning to the national government. These taxes include the val-
2 criterion rests with efficiency of the electrical power distri- ue-added tax, eco tax, a duty on renewable energies and,
bution. The framework is provided by the electricity market if applicable, one for combined heat and power generation.
complete with supply / consumption control. Firstly to be The concession fee is raised for usage of the public sphere
3 presented are those factors influencing the electricity price
to be followed by the general setting affecting both the
and benefits the local authorities. Taxes and duties are
calculated as a percentage of the energy charge and
smart grid and the liberalised energy market. ­demand charge.

4 Internally, the price of electricity is normally calculated

14.5.1 Price of Electricity
from the energy charge and demand charge only. Taxes
The price of electricity is composed of the energy charge, and duties are not considered. The ongoing price of elec-
5 the demand charge, taxes, and duties: The part related to tricity in € / kWh is usually updated in the contractually
the energy consumption is owed to the power supplier for stipulated raster. The average electricity price (AEP) is
the amount of electrical energy supplied. It is the product calculated from the sum of energy charge and demand
6 of power c­ onsumption in kWh and the energy charge in
cent / kWh. The part related to the maximum power de-
charge divided by the quantity of electricity supplied:
(energy charge [€] + demand charge [€])
mand is owed to the distribution system operator for AEP [Cent / kWh] = —————————————————
7 providing the infrastructure. It is the product of the highest
15-minute-interval purchased power in kW or the average
Quantity of electricity [kWh]

of n x 15-minute-interval purchased power values in kW

9
Lower Consumption Present Lower Power Peak

10 –10 %
21,160,000 kWh
AEP
23,511,492 kWh
–10 %
23,511,492 kWh
15.5 7,086 kW 7,086 kW 6,400 kW
3,178,000 € 3,436,500 € 3,351,500 €
11 Ct
15.02 kWh Ct
14.62 kWh Ct
14.25 kWh
AEP in Ct/kWh

15.0

12 14.5

13 14.0 Price
Negotations
13.5 Reduced energy charge
14 Ct
13.52 kWh
–10 % to 9.9 Ct/kWh
Lower demand charge
13.0 –10 % to 108 €/kW

15 Ct
12.83 kWh
TIP04_13_163_EN

12.5
2,800 2,900 3,000 3,100 3,200 3,300 3,400 3,500 3,600 3,700 3,800
16 Usage period in h

17
Fig. 14/12:  Example of an "optimisation window" for the average price of electricity back to page 287

286 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The development of the electricity price as a function of the generation in small units within the distribution grid. The 1
usage period can be graphically represented. The different flow of energy may even be reversed with it being fed from
options for optimisation as a result of energy charge and the distribution grid into the transmission grid. In Germany,
demand charge variations as well as specific time limits can 97 % of the regenerative energy generated in a distributed 2
thus be illustrated. fashion was fed into the distribution grids at the end of
2012. The capacity installed was 83 GW. The capacity
Shown in Fig. 14/12 on the X-axis is the usage period as
a quotient from kW / h consumed per year and maximum
generated in a distributed fashion is likely to rise substan-
tially as the energy turnaround gathers pace.
3
15-minute purchased power within the year and on the
Y-axis the AEP. In so doing, the following key points are
definable:
Within the smart grid, consideration is being given to
directly controlling consumer equipment and guiding 4
• Current AEP consumer attitudes by applying special tariffs so as to
• Possible energy savings while maintaining the maximum match consumption to power generation. a considerable
power purchase planning outlay is required for generating power in a host 5
• Possible saving of purchased power while keeping to the of small to medium-sized plants, most of which are sup-
same amount of energy consumption plied from regenerative energy sources. The vital regenera-
• Possible revised kilowatt-per-hour rate
• Possible revised demand charge
tive power generators are weather-dependent (PV systems
from solar radiation which, in turn, is conditional upon
6
locality and time, wind turbines from wind conditions
The assumption for the dashed curve in the view is a price
reduction of energy charge and demand charge of 10 %
dependent on locality and time). No generating forecasts
are possible here without a detailed weather forecast. In 7
each. In the three tabs above the “optimisation window”, addition, one needs to have forecasts of the consumption
the demand charge (120 € / kW) and energy charge of the many electricity customers within the distribution
(11 cent / kWh) are fixed prices. Variations of the consump- grid. Without them, a balance between generation and 8
tion or required power peak result in changes to the usage consumption is impossible. What is absolutely needed is
period and AEP respectively. Please note that it is not effective communication between the parties involved.
the absolute cost of electricity that can be read from the
“optimisation window” but a mean electricity price per
• Load and storage management
To ensure maximum grid stability, the need is to use
9
kilowatt-hour consumed. specialised load management solutions to reduce or shift

Depending on the supply situation on the part of the power

load peaks. Good load management not only undertakes
switching (switching loads on and off) but also plans 10
supplier and grid operator, the variation of consumption shifting loads into other time windows. That is also the
and power peak can result in different starting positions for reason why increasing importance is attached to using
price negotiations. Of course, other characteristic parame- distributed storage solutions. Storage management is 11
ters, distributions, and evaluations may also have an influ- concerned with specific loading and discharging of the
ence here. storage cell based on a forecast which complies with both
demand and actual generation. This entails having
a broad information base and – as always with forecasts
12
14.5.2 Smart Grid – some uncertainties still remain when cost considera-

The term "Smart Grid" describes the intelligent interplay of

tions rule out the storage solution being as large as
possible
13
power generation, storage, distribution, and consumption • Automatic outage avoidance and restoring the supply
as an energy and cost-efficient overall system (Fig. 14/13). Intelligent networking enables real-time monitoring and
In a distributed and differentiated energy system, power automatic system control to come from smart grids. 14
generation and consumption must be balanced to the Protective relays, fuses, and sensor systems forecast
extent that today's quality standards (EN 60150) retain overloading and automatically switch off components
their validity. For the smart grid, grid modernisation and
optimisation mainly affecting the distribution networks are
before any damage has a chance to occur 15
very much to the fore. The following requirements placed
on their operators impact on the interface between smart
grid and consumer.
16
Today's still usual flow of energy from large power station
to consumer by way of the transmission and distribution 17
grids is increasingly being replaced by a distributed power

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 287

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
Biomass power station
2

3 Power control system Energy

management
Energy exchange

system Billing

5 Communication Network

CHP
Weather service
6
Concentrator

7
Wind power Influenceable
8 PV system station
Remote meter reading loads

9 Communications
unit

TIP04_13_164_EN
10 Distributed
mini-CHPs and
Fuel cell PV systems Distributed loads

11
Fig. 14/13:  Energy management in the smart grid through communication effected across all energy networks back to page 287

12

13

14

15

16

17

288 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

14.5.3 Liberalised Power Market • Transmission grid 1

Transmission grids represent national ultra-high voltage
Liberalisation of the power markets leads to unrestricted power grids (e.g. 220 kV, 380 kV) transferring large
trading in electricity involving vigorous competition. It quantities of energy over considerable distances. The 2
began with the separation of generation, distribution, and associated service companies running the transmission
sales. An electricity exchange has been established for grid infrastructure are the transmission system operators
electricity to be traded in line with market requirements.
Liberalisation splits up the electricity market into a physical
(TSO). They ensure voltage and frequency stability under
EN 50160 and, if necessary, must procure the control
3
and commercial component (Fig. 14/14). The point of power needed for frequency and voltage control on the
liberalisation was to improve transparency and create
competitive incentives for those participating on the elec-
electricity market. These companies also ensure that the
electricity traders / suppliers are in a position to direct the 4
tricity market: required quantities of electricity across the grids. On the
basis of EC Directive 1228 / 2003 / EC and electricity
• Power generators instruction 2003 / 54 / EC, a description of the network 5
The power stations of power generators produce the and system regulations for Germany are given in the
electricity which is fed into the transmission grid. Distrib- Transmission Code
uted power generation involves the electricity being
generated near to consumers in, for instance, combined
• Distribution grid
The distribution grid assumes the task of supplying the
6
heat and power stations, industrial power plants, biomass area at large with electricity. The electricity itself is either
plants, and distributed wind turbines and solar power
plants
acquired from the transmission grid or from distributed
power generators. Operation is the responsibility of the 7
DSO. He is also responsible for metering (exception: the
requirement in Germany is for the metering to be carried
out by a metering operator). The DSO also sees that the 8
energy quality in keeping with EN 50160 is upheld. He
supplies the electricity to the consumers on the low- and
Power generator / Power plant
medium-voltage level. The assignments and obligations
of the DSOs in Germany are saved in the Distribution
9
Code
• Metering operator
The metering operator operates the metering equipment 10
between DSO and consumers. He ensures that the meter-
Electricity
Power grids ing point operates properly and provides the readings to
Transmission grid
exchange
both consumer and DSO. An obligation came into being 11
Amprion in Germany in 2010 for smart meters to be fitted in all
Tennet TSO new buildings and for modernisations. The consumer is
Transnet BW
50 hertz transmission free to choose his / her metering operator
• Electricity exchange
12
Power supplier The EEX (European Energy Exchange) a market place for
Distribution network
Municipal utilities
services ~ 1,000
energy and energy-related products. It arose from merg-
ing the Frankfurt and Leipzig electricity exchanges and is
13
Regional power stations based in Leipzig – with offices in Brussels, London and
Paris. Traders from 22 countries currently participate in
the exchange. As a public institution, the EEX is subject to 14
German stock exchange legislation. Trading is done in
Consumer / Customer
TIP04_13_165_EN

spot and futures market products, such as base and peak.

a distinction is made between day-ahead and continu-
ously possible intraday auctions on the spot market for
15
Germany / Austria, France and Switzerland. On the day-

Fig. 14/14:  Energy market structure in Germany representing that

ahead market, hour and unit bids are traded for the
following day, whilst on the intraday market this relates
16
for the EU to individual hours (individual contracts) for delivery up
to 45 minutes before its start
17

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 289

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • Electricity traders • The DSO provides the connection to the supply grid and
Only authorized traders are allowed to operate at the expects a statement of the maximum power which he is
exchange. They implement the orders of the power to provide at the interface to the consumer. Cost is allo-
2 suppliers at the exchange cated on the basis of the negotiated demand charge
• Power supplier multiplied by the highest 15-minute power value within
The power supplier is the bridge between power genera- the period under consideration (month or year). a con-
3 tors and electricity consumers. He forecasts his electricity
demand and covers this directly with the power genera-
trolling role will increasingly be assigned to the DSO in
the smart grid as well as possibly the responsibility for its
tors and the electricity exchange. The power supplier operation

4 concludes electricity supplier contracts with his custom-

ers. a number of energy service contracts are also on In view of their growth, clarification is needed on the
offer which – along with the supply of electricity – incor- contribution of distributed power generators towards grid
porate contracts with the DSO (grid connection contract, stability (e.g. providing reactive power and / or control
5 grid utilisation contract) power). The ever-increasing feed-in of power from volatile
• Consumer energy sources has both markedly raised the need for
The consumer buys electrical energy in order to operate control power and, at the same time, negatively impacted
6 his applications. Commercially viewed, he concludes
a contract with the power supplier; whereas the supply is
the cost-effectiveness of its generation.

physically undertaken by the DSO

7 Given that the power market – as with any other commer-

cial market – exists from predicting supply and demand,
increasing importance is attached to the forecasts for
8 consumption demand / power generation supply and to
their adherence. The smart grid as the link of many low-­
capacity and large-scale power stations as well as the
9 exchange is very much dependent on steadfast forecasts.
Consumer forecasts can be monitored on-line if smart
meters are introduced across the board. In this way, the

10 costs which the power supplier has from any variations

from the forecast can be directly allocated to the party
having caused them. In view of the fact that no 100 %
forecast is possible by consumers and that variations from
11 it result in additional costs, the need is for load manage-
ment here for aligning actual consumption to the forecast.

12 By controlling and adjusting generators, storage, and loads

within a 15-minute cycle, ongoing demand can be adjusted
to the schedule:
13 • The consumer is part of the smart grid and has an inter-
face to this grid. By presenting forecasts and keeping to
them he will, in future, be able to significantly influence
his costs
14 • In supplying the current, the power supplier still expects
a forecast of the energy import every 15 minutes one
week in advance. Cost is allocated on the basis of the
15 energy schedule ordered by the consumer and multiplied
by the negotiated energy charge

16

17

290 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

14.6 Operational Management The following reasons are strong arguments in favour of 1
a technical operation management system:
Technical operation management for a building uses the • Quick and simple online overview of states and the power
energy management system as a basis for its own plan- flow / consumption in the building (Fig. 14/15) 2
ning. Under the power supply aspect, efficient monitoring • Validity check of the recorded values, avoidance of read-
of operations and energy consumption using status dis- ing errors
plays and signalling equipment must be planned in line
with the envisaged building usage possibilities. Even at the
• Optimisation of the purchasing contracts adjusted to the
individual consumption shares
3
building concept stage, the associated measuring and • More precise specification and more efficient power
control systems for building automation are to be provided.
They should provide the following functional layers:
consumption from exact knowledge of the demand
profile 4
• Acquisition of status and measurements; processing level • Transparency of costs in the energy sector
for data acquisition • Benchmarking (comparison of orientation values)
• Operator control and monitoring with visualisation, 5
archiving, reports, control of switchgear, status monitor-
ing / measuring points
6

7
G Distribution:

Current
• Switching
• Protecting
8
P
• Measuring
M P P

9
4.000 kW
8,000 kW 300 h Maximum value
3.500 kW
7,000 kW 250 h Mean value
3.000 kW
6,000 kW
200 h Minimum value
5,000 kW 2.500 kW

4,000 kW 150 h 2.000 kW

Controlling:
3,000 kW

10
100 h 1.500 kW
2,000 kW
6,000 kW 5h 8.000 kW 1.000 kW
1,000 kW
7.000 kW 500 kW
1 kW 5,000 kW
1 5 10 15 20 25Lastgang
30 35 40 45 50 KW 0 kW 1.000 6.000 kW
2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000
Maximum 0 kW
4,000 kW –5% 5.000 kW 0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15

• Transparency of the energy / power flows

– 10 %
3,000 kW 4.000 kW
4.000 kW

Current
6,000 kW Monday
3.000 kW 3.500 kW
2,000 kW Tuesday
2.000 kW 3.000 kW
5,000 kW Wednesday
1,000 kW 2.500 kW
1.000 kW Thursday
4,000 kW 2.000 kW
1 kW 0 kW 1.500 kW Friday

• ISO 50001
KW 53 KW 1 KW 2 KW 3 KW 4 0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 h 1.000 kW
3,000 kW
500 kW 20 %
Maximum value
2,000 kW 12. Januar 2010 0 kW 15 %
6,000 kWh 0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15
Frühschicht Spätschicht Mean value
1,000 kW 10 %
5,000 kWh Minimum value
5%
1 kW
Monday
4,000 kWh
Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
0%
0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15

11
-5 %
3,000 kWh
-10 %
2,000 kWh
-15 %
1,000 kWh -20 %
-25 %
1 kWh
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 -30 %

6,000 kW

5,000 kW

4,000 kW
Forecast: 12
3,000 kW Current • Power purchase forecasts
2,000 kW • Power consumption forecasts
1,000 kW
13
1 kW
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Energy
supplier
Current
Heat
14
Primary energy
District
Operational management:
Current Gas, oil, coal
heating Current • Purchase forecasts
15
Emission CO2
Biomass
kWh
CO2
kWh
CO2
m3
CO2
Biogas m3
CO2 Heat • Generating forecasts
Own power generation
Power transformation
Boiler
Fossil
CHP
Fossil
Solar
Thermal, photovoltaics
Wind Geothermy
Heat pump
• Consumption forecasts
Regenerative Regenerative
Cold
• Horizontally integrated optimisation

Storage cell
Storage cell

Absorber Compressor
Gas • Deployment optimisation 16
Energy application Current Heat Cold

17
Consumption TIP04_13_196_EN

Fig. 14/15:  Operational view of electric power distribution and incorporation into the operational management

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 291

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 14.7 N
 ormative Basis for an Energy application. In the standard, the term “organisation” is used
Management System generally to include undertakings, companies, and institu-
tions. As early as 2008, the US Office for Standardizing
2 To remain commercially competitive, companies need to Industrial Operations in conjunction with Brazilian associate
continually subject their competitive position and thus their ABNT was involved in developing ISO 50001:2011. Experts
energy consumption to critical examination and optimisa- from over 40 countries were rendering assistance. Thanks
3 tion. a further incentive here comes from governments
which increasingly have and want to ensure a cut in the
to close cooperation with the European ISO member states,
a lot of subjects and contents was transferred from prede-
greenhouse gas emissions of their country. The result is an cessor standard EN 16001.

4 increasing number of statutory regulations being decided

on, which target emission reductions.
14.7.2 ISO 50001 Goals and Setup
Playing an increasingly important role is energy consump- The idea behind using the standard in setting up energy
5 tion, as attested to by the stipulations of government and management systems and processes is to bring about
society concerning energy and the environment. Thus the a continuous improvement of energy-related performance
necessity to optimise energy consumption entails consider- and energy efficiency. This is to enable unused energy
6 able efforts on the part of the companies. They include:
• Reducing costs
efficiency potentials to be used, CO2 emissions to be
permanently cut, and for energy savings to be realized.
• Strengthening company future prospects from clear- Furthermore, the current energy concept of the German

7 sighted consideration being given to rising energy costs

• Keeping to emission targets either imposed by govern-
government envisages an energy management system
being the requirement for organisations to obtain tax
ments or set down by the companies themselves concessions. The standard is to make employees and
• Promoting sustainability of energy use and lessening especially the management level of an organisation more
8 dependence on fossil energy sources receptive for comprehensive, long-term energy manage-
• Improving the standing of the company on matters of ment. This approach allows saving potentials to be ex-
responsibility within society hausted and competitive benefits and a marked image
9 gain for the company to be obtained.
14.7.1 Definition Of Energy Management
In view of the fact that ISO 50001 has a similar structure
and Energy Management System
10 Energy management is accorded a vital task in lowering
to that of other management standards (for example
ISO 9001 and ISO 14001), an EnMS can easily be incorpo-
energy consumption. VDI Directive 4602 specifies energy rated into other management systems – for instance for
management as that coordinating energy procurement, quality management. Also possible is separate examination
11 transformation, distribution, and application in a clear- of energy management in the company. This is why an
sighted, organised and systematic fashion for the fulfilment EnMS can be introduced by organisations of whatever type
of a task – with consideration given to both ecological and and size. The standard is drafted irrespective of the energy
12 economic conditions. In ISO 50001, a definition is given of
the Energy Management System (EnMS) as “all those
type so that consideration can be given in the EnMS to all
energy types such as electricity, cold, heat and the related
associated, interacting elements for introducing an energy coal, oil, and gas primary energy sources or the regenera-
13 policy and strategic energy goals as well as processes and
operations for attaining these strategic goals”.
tive energy sources. Implementation of ISO 50001 require-
ments can be certificated by specific institutes and organi-
sations. Recurrent audits then endorse this certification.
Those countries propelling the introduction of a standard However, at the moment there is a considerable lack of
14 for energy management systems were China, Denmark, transparency and specific knowledge as to how energy
Ireland, Japan, South Korea, the Netherlands, Sweden, flows and how energy flow can be sub-divided. Compara-
Thailand, and the USA. They drafted energy management tive values are also frequently missing, on which quanti­
15 standards, specifications, and provisions. This was followed fiable statements can be derived and on whose basis
by the European Standards Committee (CEN; fr: Comité decisions can then be made. By introducing an EnMS,
Européen de Normalisation) publishing EN 16001:2009 organisations make it clear that by continuing an improve-
16 Energy Management Systems – Requirements with Intro-
duction as to Application as the first European Energy
ment process involving a sustainable use of energy they
wish to bring about a cut in energy consumption. An EnMS
Management Standard. The standard published in July has been a requirement since 2013 for energy-intensive
2009 was replaced by international standard ISO 50001 in organisations wanting to benefit from tax concessions.
17 2011. ISO 50001 also features the requirements placed on
energy management systems and an introduction for their

292 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

14.7.3 Management Process aids, training courses and information are to be provided. 1
A documentation on the key EnMS elements and their
ISO 50001 describes a continuous improvement process for interaction must be present. Controlling documents and
a more efficient use, monitoring and analysis of energy. processes is oriented to the corresponding specifications 2
The principal setup follows the PDCA cycle as applied, for for other management processes, such as that of quality or
instance, to the ISO 9001 standard and which is to be environment management, and needs to conform to
adapted to the daily operation of an organisation: Plan, Do,
Check, Act. Proceeding on the basis of this cycle, a model
management standards. 3
for the EnMS is described (Fig. 14/16) followed by specifica- Demanded by ISO 50001 is the monitoring, testing and
tion of the requirements. In particular, the responsibility of
the manager of an organisation is gone into.
analysis of the main energy-relevant operations of an
organisation at scheduled intervals. The improvement of 4
energy-related performance needs to be taken into account
The energy policy specifies the energy framework and when designing new, modified or renovated buildings,
establishes the strategic goals to be aspired to by the systems, plants, facilities, and processes. This also applies 5
organisation regarding energy utilisation. a description is to energy metering and the attendant scope for evaluation
also given of the communication on this and the reaction and analysis.
to be expected of those employed in the organisation. The
obvious goal of the energy policy must be towards continu- A supplier assessment can be carried out when purchasing
6
ously improving energy handling. energy and energy services as well as products and facili-

The energy plan describes the energy deployment analysis,

ties to enhance the energy-related performance of an
organisation. Possible criteria here are, for instance, energy 7
establishment of relevant determinants and influencing quality, cost structure, environmental impact, and deploy-
scope for energy utilisation, energy policy implementation ment of renewables. Those suppliers taking part need to be
in enhancement operations and verification of operative informed about the assessment and the criteria. 8
goals attainment. Explicitly, the need is for an energy
measurement plan to be laid down and implemented. An EnMS includes self-appraisal as to adherence to statu-
Campaign plans to enhance the energetic performance of
the organisation need to be introduced and implemented.
tory regulations and execution of internal audits at sched-
uled intervals. Both need to be documented and a report
9
Under a bi-directional communication process, appropriate drafted for senior management. Any variations and

10

Energy policy 11
Energy planning
Management
review Introduction and 12
implementation
D
an 13
Pl
o

Monitoring,
metering, and
Management
systems Checking
analysis
14

ct Ch
ec
k
ISO 50001 15
A

TIP04_13_167_EN

Internal auditing of
the EnMS
Non-conformities,
corrections, corrective and
16
preventive measures

17
Fig. 14/16:  Implementation of the PDCA management cycle for EnMS in ISO 50001

Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management 293

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 nob-conformities are to be recorded. Corrective and pre-

ventive measures are to be defined and examined as to
effectiveness. It is the responsibility of senior management
2 to check on the EnMS at defined intervals and document
the findings.

3 Planning, realisation, and implementation of measures to

enhance the energetic performance will involve the electri-
cal designer increasingly looking into consultancy services.

4 To this end, formulating operative goals is only appropriate

if they can be attained through activities which benefit the
organisation. By means of a system overview involving
knowledge of dependencies between appliances, installa-
5 tions, and systems and equally from ongoing market
knowledge, a consultant can then distinguish between
what is feasible from half-truths and one-sided benefit
6 considerations and also present his customers with cost-­
effective solutions. For instance, metering the power
consumption of a pump given proper metering interpreta-

7 tion provides the same information as a significantly more

expensive flow meter. a solution with the right instruments
and data transfer opportunities at the decisive points (see
Fig. 14/2) can keep the costs in check and be especially
8 appropriate for a future extension.

Consultancy services of organisational relevance could, for

9 instance, refer to preparing and depicting measurement
data as described above in sections 14.2 to 14.4. They form
the basis for an analysis leading to an even clearer case of

10 transparency. This analysis can also become part of the

consultant's work. To this end, the Siemens TIP Consultant
Support Promoters provide assistance for electrical
designers.
11
www.siemens.com/tip-cs/contact

12

13

14

15

16

17

294 Totally Integrated Power – Energy Management

Chapter 15
SIMARIS Planning Tools
for the Efficient Planning
of Power Distribution
15.1 Dimensioning
with SIMARIS design 297
15.2 Determining Space Requirements
with SIMARIS project 298
15.3 Displaying Characteristic Curves
with SIMARIS curves 299
15.4 Tool Efficiency 299
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 15 SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient

duction
Planning of Power Distribution
1
Since the requirements for the equipment of non-residential In addition, the SIMARIS planning tools are available in
2 and industrial buildings as well as the expectations with many languages and numerous country-specific product
regard to system safety and documentation are steadily portfolios, so that you can also plan projects for foreign
increasing, the planning of electric power distribution countries without difficulties. A reference list (for countries
3 becomes more and more demanding and complex. The
SIMARIS planning tools support you in planning power
and languages) can be found at

distribution systems in buildings and allow for convenient www.siemens.com/simaris/faq

4 and easy operation thanks to well designed user inter-

faces and functions which can be used intuitively. To help
you familiarise and work with the SIMARIS planning tools,
tutorials, help files, and a Technical Manual are integrated in
5 the programs. These aids can also be directly downloaded at

www.siemens.com/simaris/help
6

10

11

12
Fig. 15/1:  Power losses of the network configured with SIMARIS design professional

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 15/2:  Defining the longest fire section for a busbar trunking system in S back to page 297
IMARIS design

296 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

15.1 Dimensioning with Prior to dimensioning, the electrical designer defines the 1
SIMARIS design operating modes required for the project. This definition
can be more or less complex, depending on the project size
Based on specifications resulting from the project require- and the type and amount of system infeeds and couplings 2
ments, SIMARIS design can be used to dimension the equip- used. However, with SIMARIS design this definition is quite
ment according to the accepted rules of good installation simple, since the relevant devices and their switching
practice and all applicable standards (VDE, IEC), from medi-
um-voltage supply to the power consumers. SIMARIS design
conditions required for the respective operating modes are
presented graphically in a clear and well structured man-
3
supports the calculation of short-circuit currents, load flow ner. All common switching modes can be mapped and
and distribution, voltage drop, and energy report. Moreover,
SIMARIS design assists in the selection of actually required
calculated thanks to the option of representing directional
and non-directional couplings and infeeds at the sub-­ 4
equipment, for example medium-voltage switching and distribution level and isolated networks. Sizing of the com-
protective devices, transformers, generators, low-voltage plete network or subnetworks is done automatically accord-
switching and protective devices, and in conductor sizing, ing to the dimensioning target of “selectivity” or “backup 5
meaning the sizing of cables, wires, and busbar trunking protection” and the calculation results can be documented
systems. In addition, the lightning and overvoltage protection with various output options. With the “professional” version
can be included in the dimensioning process. The “profes-
sional” version of SIMARIS design also allows determining the
of the software, it is possible, among other things, to per-
form a selectivity evaluation of the complete network.
6
power losses of equipment during network calculations. To
this end, an overview is created in SIMARIS which shows
where the greatest losses occur in the network. Suitable
From experience, planning an electric power distribution
system is always subject to considerable changes and adapta- 7
adjustments in equipment selection then allow reducing such tions both in the planning and in the implementation stage, for
power losses, thus the energy efficiency of the network can example also due to concept changes on part of the customer
be optimised (Fig. 15/1). The power supply system to be forwarded at short notice. With the help of the software, adapta- 8
planned can be designed graphically in a quick, easy, and tions of the voltage level, load capacities, or the technical
clear way with the help of the elements stored in the library. settings for medium or low voltage can be quickly and reliably

If functional endurance is to be considered in the network

worked into the supply concept, for example; this includes an
automatic check for permissibility in accordance with the
9
calculation, the relevant data can be specified in SIMARIS applicable standards integrated in the software (Fig. 15/3).
design in order to include this requirement in the dimen-
sioning process. The longest fire section relevant for calcula- An overview of the features integrated in SIMARIS design 10
tion can very easily be defined when the network configura- as  well as the additional functionality of the paid version
tion is created. For example, a slider can be set for busbar “SIMARIS design professional” is available at
systems, or the start and end point of the longest fire 11
section within this busbar line can be entered (Fig. 15/2). www.siemens.com/simarisdesign

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 15/3:  Network design with SIMARIS design

Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution 297
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 15.2 Determining Space transmission, if required. In accordance with the ­respective

Requirements with functional endurance class and the speci­fication whether
2-, 3- or 4-sides with Promat® are ­desired, the quantity and
2 SIMARIS project thickness of the Promat plates required to attain functional
endurance are calculated automatically.
After network calculation was completed in SIMARIS design
3 professional, an export file can be generated which con-
tains all the relevant information on the established equip-
In SIMARIS project, the devices required for low-voltage
switchboards and distribution boards are first compiled in
ment. This file can be imported in SIMARIS project for a list and then automatically placed in the cabinets / cubi-

4 further editing within the scope of the planning process.

Here, the established devices and other equipment can be
cles. The device arrangement created in this process can
then be modified in the graphic view. In addition, a purely
allocated to the concrete systems. Thus, the space require- graphical plant design is offered for the low-voltage
ments of the planned systems can be determined and the switchboards. To this end, cubicles and devices with the
5 budget be estimated. If an export file from SIMARIS design matching assembly kits can be selected from the library
is not available, the electrical designer can determine the contained in SIMARIS project and graphically placed with
required medium-voltage switchgear, transformers, busbar drag and drop actions.
6 systems and devices for the low-voltage switchboards and
distribution boards directly in SIMARIS project on the basis In the further course of the project, the planning can be
of the given technical data and defined project structure. continually adapted to current requirements, becoming

7 An overview of the functionality integrated in SIMARIS

project can be obtained from
ever more detailed as the project proceeds. The user gets
concrete technical data as well as dimensions and weights
for all components in the power distribution system. For
www.siemens.com/simarisproject the documentation of the planned systems, SIMARIS pro-
8 ject also allows the creation of view drawings, technical
Depending on the type of system, the systems are repre- descriptions, component lists and even tender specifica-
sented graphically or in list form. For example, the elec­ tions (BOQ, bill of quantites). The budget for the planned
9 trical designer can directly select and graphically place
the panels required for the medium-voltage switchgear,
systems can either be obtained by sending the project file
to the responsible Siemens contact or, you can perform the
whereas selected transformers and the components re- calculation yourself. To support your own calculation, a list

10 quired for the busbar trunking systems are presented in list

form. It is also possible to factor in the functional endur-
of the configured systems is created in SIMARIS project as a
summary, in which every system can be assigned a price as
ance of busbar trunking systems, especially for power well as additions and reductions (Fig. 15/4).

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 15/4:  System planning with SIMARIS project

298 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

15.3 Displaying Characteristic 15.4 Tool Efficiency 1

Curves with SIMARIS curves
Frequently required modules, devices and systems can be
If detailed information on the tripping performance of saved as favourites and integrated in later planning files 2
individual devices is required for planning preparations or again. The planning expense can thus be further reduced
for documentation purposes, SIMARIS curves can be used by using the SIMARIS planning tools. Online updates enable
to visualise and assess tripping curves and their tolerance
ranges. The curves can be adapted by simulating parameter
the user to update saved product data in an uncomplicated
way. The specifications are, of course, synchronised be-
3
settings. Moreover, SIMARIS curves can also be used to tween the programs.
display and document cut-off current and let-through
energy curves for the devices (Fig. 15/5). A selectivity Link to the topic 4
evaluation is not implemented. It must be carried out in
SIMARIS design. www.siemens.com/simaris
5
An overview of the functionality integrated in SIMARIS
curves can be obtained from

www.siemens.com/simariscurves
6

10

11

12
Fig. 15/5:  Characteristic curves (fuse, moulded-case circuit-breaker, air circuit-breaker) in SIMARIS curves
13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution 299
 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

300 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
Chapter 16
Lighting Inside Buildings
16.1 Basic Data Establishment 302
16.2 Building Analysis 305
16.3 Normative Specifications 305
16.4 Lighting Scheme 312
16.5 Lighting Calculation 318
16.6 Emergency Lighting 329
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 16 Lighting Inside Buildings

duction

1 People stay in buildings and perform various activities illuminances. Numerous brochures state typical characteris-
there. Visual perception is the most frequently used human tic values that refer specifically to this standard.
sensory impression inside buildings. Therefore, specific
2 lighting is required which reflects the correlations between The data for the illuminance maintenance value (Em), the
architecture, daylight, visual task, biological effect, energy maximum unified glare rating limit value (UGRL) for dis-
efficiency, illuminant, and luminaire in buildings. In the comfort glare assessment, the minimum uniformity ratio of
3 end, light is the form of energy that brings together people
and building including the equipment. The planner faces
illuminance (U0) and the minimum value of the colour
rendering index (Ra) should be agreed with the client. In
a versatile organisational task that goes far beyond consid- view of an increasing consideration of the biological effect

4 ering lighting merely as part of the architecture. of light, these parameters have to be regarded more in-
tensely in the planning phase.

For the purpose of integrated planning, the electrical

5 16.1 Basic Data Establishment designer should know the basic task of lighting designers
and architects and be able to synchronise with them. There-
The basic requirement for a good lighting solution is the fore, crucial points in the creation of a lighting scheme will
6 compilation of constructional and technical conditions and
a founded establishment of all parameters against which
be dealt with in the following (see Fig. 16/1). First of all,
the prerequisites for the normative clarifications are created
the lighting is pitted. Therefore, no lighting task equals within the scope of a building analysis. Then, the lighting

7 another and each one is a new challenge. The procedure

should be selected appropriately and includes the basic
scheme is created and the lighting calculations are made.

data establishment as the first planning step: To find optimal lighting solutions, interdependencies
• Clarification of the task with the client and important between lighting and work task, workflows, working appli-
8 electrical planning engineers involved ances and tools, furnishing, workplace layout, interior and
• Clarification of the user's needs and requirements as to building design have to be considered (see Fig. 16/2). This
the use and room function (wishes, assessment criteria, becomes noticeable in energy and economic efficiency as
9 experiences, standards)
• Consideration of the operating conditions (dust, humid-
well as in “soft” factors such as orientation, well-being and
naturalness.
ity)

10 • Establishment of the structural conditions (building and

building grid, room geometry)
• Consideration of the building's macrostructure (technical
development, lifts, staircase, office levels)
11 • Consideration of façade views and surroundings (daylight
factor)
• Determination of the value and quality standards of the
12 building (degree of automation and value of the illumi-
nants and luminaires)
• Efficiency of the energy use (optimisation through suita-
13 ble illuminants and luminaires and their positioning as
well as through matched automation)

Therefore, technical and architectural factors as well as

14 purely subjective influences such as light colour, brightness
distribution, time- and calendar-dependent brightness
course and the users' vision need to be considered in the
15 planning phase. For the economic aspect of lighting, the
lamps and luminaires as well as the use of light energy and
an energy-efficient transformation of electric current into
16 light have to be minded.

The basis of planning is the synchronisation with the users'

requirements profile and the architectural requirements. As
17 a reference for interior rooms, EN 12464-1 specifies rated

302 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
16.1 Basic data • Creation of the users' requirements specification
establishment • Creation of the architect's requirements specification 2

3
16.2 Building • Project analysis
analysis • Zoning in detail 4
• First technology concept for technical building
equipment is available (control system, bus systems etc.)
• Façade details are known (daylight factor) 5
• Ceiling system is known
6
16.3 Normative specifications
7
Lighting of Biological
Energy efficiency 8
workplaces effect

European level European level 9

EN 12464-1 Directive 2012/27/EU,
Directive 2010/31/EU
(2006/32/EC, 2002/91/EC) Germany 10
Germany Germany DIN Spec 67600
DIN 5035-7/-8 EnEV 2014 / (see also VDI 6008
ASR A3.4 DIN V 18599-1, -4, -10 Sheet 1 and Sheet 3) 11

16.4 Lighting • Design principles 12

scheme • Determination of the mounting position
• Definition of the light distribution 13
• Consideration of daylight and lighting management
• Determination of the illuminants
• Selection of the luminaires 14

16.5 Lighting • Calculation proof conforming to standards

15
calculation • Determination of the maintenance factor
TIP04_13_175_EN

• Visualisation and documentation 16

• 3D representation

17
Fig. 16/1:  Flow diagram for lighting planning back to page 302

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 303

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2
Furnishings:
Tables, desks
Chairs
3 Building:
Climate
Cabinets
Shelves
Building orientation High desks
Surroundings Accessories:
4 Lighting management
Room: Light:
Pictures, boards, calendars
Curtains
Windows / doors Luminaires Plants
Walls / ceilings / floors Illuminants
5 Sun protection
Colours
Mounting position

Reflections

8
People
Safety: Light colour Working appliances:
9 Personal safety
Occupational health and safety
Light distribution
Daylight utilisation
Monitor, computer,
Keyboard
Orientation ability Energy efficiency Writing materials
Feeling: Projector / screen
10 Well-being
Natural vision
Control panel
Working equipment:
Work task Treatment chair
Workflows Workbench

11 Communication needs Conveyor belt

Test facility
TIP04_13_176_EN

12

13 Fig. 16/2:  Task fields in lighting planning back to page 302

14

15

16

17

304 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

16.2 Building Analysis requirements for energy-related products (replaces 1

Directive 2005 / 32 / EC)
The architectural surroundings and design of the building • Regulation 244 / 2009 of the European Commission (plus
structure have a great influence on the lighting planning. modifications in accordance with EU regulation 2
After clarification of the basic specifications, a building 859 / 2009):
analysis is conducted to emphasize the correlations. This implementing Directive 2005 / 32 / EC to define ecodesign
analysis comprises the following:
• Analysis of the existing lighting system (if any) including
requirements for non-directional household lamps
• Regulation 245 / 2009 of the European Commission (plus
3
the recording of positive and negative experiences modifications in accordance with EU regulation
• Analysis of the determined basic information, the archi-
tecture, the client's wishes, and the users' requirements
347 / 2010):
implementing Directive 2005 / 32 / EC to define ecodesign 4
• Analysis of the first plans (floor plans and sectional views) requirements for fluorescent lamps without integrated
• Zoning of floors, rooms and areas into traffic routes, ballast, for high intensity discharge lamps, and for bal-
workplaces, common zones etc. lasts and luminaires able to operate such lamps 5
• Analysis of an existing technology concept (control • Regulation no. 1194 / 2012 of the European Commission:
system, bus systems etc.) implementing Directive 2009 / 125 / EC with regard to
• Recording of the technical requirements (the building
control system to be considered, integration of further
ecodesign requirements for directional lamps, light
emitting diode lamps and related equipment
6
components outside the subject area, requirements for • Directive 2010 / 30 / EU:
control systems, electrification options)
• Analysis of the ceiling system
on the indication by labelling and standard product
information of the consumption of energy and other 7
• Analysis of the mounting options and restrictions (beams, resources by energy-related products (replaces
recessed ceiling installations) 92 / 75 / EEC)
• Definition of possible mounting positions based on the • Directive 2010 / 31 / EU: 8
structural conditions on the energy performance of buildings (successor of
Directive 2002 / 91 / EC)
• Directive 2012 / 27 / EU:
on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009 / 125 / EC
9
16.3 Normative Specifications and 2010 / 30 / EU and repealing Directives 2004 / 8 / EC

Standards serve for rationalisation, quality assurance,

and 2006 / 32 / EC
10
protection of users and surroundings as well as for safety In Germany, the energy saving ordinance for buildings
and communication. As for the lighting, a variety of aspects (EnEV 2014) serves for the transposition of Directives
such as the biological effect of light, the energy input for 2010 / 31 / EU and 2012 / 27 / EU for saving energy in build- 11
the generation of light and the technical aspects of light ings and thus for the definition of criteria for the energy
distribution are important, various normative specifications efficiency of lighting. In addition to that, in Germany the
have to be considered for the planning task. At this point,
we refer to the numerous country- and trade-specific
“Energy Consumption Relevant Products Act” (Gesetz über
die umweltgerechte Gestaltung energieverbrauchsrelevanter
12
directives, regulations and ordinances that are to be com- Produkte – EVPG) of 25 Nov. 2011 serves for the imple-
plied with. Examples from Germany:
• ASR A3.4
mentation of Directive 2009 / 125 / EC. It is to contribute
to the improvement of energy efficiency and eco-friendli-
13
Technical workplace regulation on lighting systems ness of the affected products.
• BGI 650
Information of the German Employer's Liability Insurance As the electric power supply of buildings takes centre stage, 14
Association about monitor and office workplaces the following overviews focus on relevant standards for the
• VDI 6011-1 lighting of rooms inside buildings:
VDI guideline on the optimisation of daylighting and
artificial lighting – Fundamentals
• EN 12665
Light and lighting – Basic terms and criteria for specifying
15
lighting requirements
With regard to energy efficiency and ecological framework
conditions for lighting, the EU directives form a framework
• DIN 5035-7 and -8
Artificial lighting due to the revision of EN 12464-1 of
16
that is to be implemented in the national legislation of the 2011, DIN 5035-7 is currently being revised
Member States of the European Union: • EN 12464-1
• Directive 2009 / 125 / EC: Lighting of indoor workplaces 17
establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign (in areas close to buildings such as residential streets,

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 305

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 parking sites and footways, lighting requirements in rooms, workplaces or activities from the data in ASR A3.4,
compliance with the applicable standards for the lighting for example.
of outdoor workplaces in accordance with EN 12464-2 or
2 the standard series EN 13201 for road lighting are to be EN 12464-1 identifies visual comfort, visual performance
observed) and security as basic human needs. The purpose of lighting
• EN 15193 is to influence these criteria with daylight and artificial
3 Energy performance of buildings – Energy requirements
for lighting
lighting. The following lighting factors are considered:
• Luminance distribution
In the national annex for Germany, reference is made to • Illuminance

4 the simpler calculation methods of the German pre-stand-

ard DIN V18599-4, which are to be used for the planning
• Spatial illumination
• Level and colour of light, through variability and render-
(EN 15193 is currently being revised due to the revision ing of light
of Directive 2010 / 31 / EU). • Interferences such as glare or flickering
5 • Pre-standard DIN V18599-1, -4, -10
Energy efficiency of buildings The technical and ergonomic aspects of lighting are consid-
Part 1: General balancing procedures, terms and defini- ered in EN 12464-1. There, a differentiation is made be-
6 tions, zoning and evaluation of energy sources
Part 4: Net and final energy demand for lighting
tween the visual task area, the immediate surroundings,
and the background (see Fig. 16/3).
Part 10: Boundary conditions of use, climatic data

7 • DIN SPEC 67600
Biologically effective illumination – Design guidelines
The illuminance on the immediate surroundings depends
on the illuminance on the visual task area. The mainte-
nance value for the illuminance of the immediate surround-
Based on the flow diagram depicted in Fig. 16/2, the nor- ings may be lower, but it must not drop below certain
8 mative bases with regard to technology, energy consump- levels (Tab. 16/1). For the background area, the illuminance
tion and the biological effect of lighting inside buildings must correspond to a maintenance value of 1 / 3 of the
will be touched in the following. value for the immediate surroundings.
9 EN 12464-1 specifies the illuminances as maintenance
16.3.1 Lighting of Indoor Workplaces –
values, that is, as minimum values that must not be under-
EN 12464-1
10 The normative specifications for the requirements imposed
shot. The maintenance factor (MF) takes into account
operational influences such as ageing and pollution. When
on the state of the art that have to be met at the minimum these minimum values are reached, the lighting has to be
are described in EN 12464-1 on the European level. For the maintained (Fig. 16/4). The planner must state the main­
11 first time, uniform characteristic values apply for the spe- tenance factor and assumptions for value determination,
cific requirements imposed on the lighting of different
buildings, rooms and usages.
12 The standard on the lighting of indoor workplaces is Background
­regarded as a recommendation for the technical implemen-
13 tation of good lighting and does not impose any require-
ments on the lighting of workplaces with regard to the Immediate surroundings
safety and health of the people working at the workplaces.
In Germany, specific ordinances and associated guidelines
14 apply to that, such as the Workplace Ordinance and ASR Visual task
A3.4 or specifically for monitor and office workplaces
BGI 650.
15
When planning lighting systems, the state of the art as
described in EN 12464-1 is to be applied in consultation
16 with the clients. It is reasonable, however, to mind the
compliance with specific requirements (occupational safety
TIP04_13_177_EN

and health, workplace-specific requirements such as for Fig. 16/3:  The visual task area with immediate surroundings (strip
a display workstation etc.) already in the planning phase, as
17 the data on illuminance or colour rendering index in sec-
of 0.5 m beyond the visual field) and background area (within the
room limits at least 3 m wide)
tion 5 of EN 12464-1 may differ for individual working

306 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Illuminance Illuminance • Disposition of reflecting surfaces to discolouring and 1

“visual task” “immediate surroundings”
in lx in lx
yellowing
• Annual periods of use
≥ 750 500
• Switching frequency 2
500 300 • Accessibility and cleaning or maintenance intervals
300 200 • Use of more or less economical equipment, for example,
≤ 200 = E”visual task” electronic ballasts (EB) 3
Tab. 16/1:  Correlations between the illuminance levels The maintenance factor directly influences a system's

determine the lighting system dependent on the operating

energy efficiency. High-quality luminaires and illuminants
assume a key function in that. In combination with lumi- 4
conditions, and attach a comprehensive maintenance plan. nous flux adjustment, the energy consumption can be
This maintenance plan should describe the cleaning and influenced additionally. Since the power requirement is
replacement of lamps and luminaires as well as the clean- proportional to the illuminance, time-dependent control of 5
ing and modification of the rooms. the illuminance based on the time course of the mainte-
nance factor can be used to optimise the power require-
For the determination of the maintenance factor,
EN 12464-1 refers to the international standard
ment and to reduce the energy consumption – as described
in [21] (see Fig. 16/4).
6
CIE 97-2005 (International Commission on Illumination,
French: commission internationale d‘éclairage). There,
it is described as a product of single components:
The planner’s tasks:
• Determination of the maintenance factor 7
• Identification of the influencing factors
MF = LLMF ∙ LSF ∙ LMF ∙ RSMF • Definition of the maintenance plan
8
where When planning with LED luminaires it has to be minded
LLMF Lamp lumen maintenance factor that the manufacturers' specifications are applicable to
LSF Lamp survival factor
a limited extent only. The LED's performance is considera-
bly influenced by the luminaire. The decline in luminous
9
LMF Luminaire maintenance factor flux depends on the respective current load, the thermal
RSMF Room surface maintenance factor management and the ambient temperature of the lumi-
naire. The better the luminaire manufacturer's thermal 10
Criteria influencing the MF: management, the lower the decline in luminous flux of the
• Use of lamps with lower or higher luminous flux collec- luminaire over time in the respective surroundings.
tion (dependent on the burning time) 11
• Disposition to dust accumulation in luminaires Example: LED luminaire, specification L70 / B50 at 50,000
• Dust and smoke exposure of lamps and luminaires due to operating hours. After 50,000 h, the luminous flux of 50 %
the room utilisation and environmental influences (may
lead to discolouring / yellowing)
of the modules (B50) will still be at least 70 % (L70) of the
initial luminous flux. The luminous flux and lifespan
12

13
Illuminance Power demand
in lx in W

14
TIP04_13_178_EN

Maintenance value
Maintenance factor
Maintenance

Maintenance

Maintenance

Maintenance

Maintenance

Maintenance

ΔE ΔE ΔE

15
Maintenance
value Em
Controlled lighting Controlled lighting
16
Time Time

Fig. 16/4:  Operation-dependence of illuminance, power demand and energy saving ΔE 17

(dark grey areas in the right-hand diagram) for controlled lighting with constant illuminance

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 307

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 behaviour of LED modules is described in the standard EnEV 2009 has been revised to EnEV 2014 for two reasons:
IEC / PAS 62717. 1. Transposition of Directive 2012 / 27 / EU with higher
requirements into German law
2 If the system will presumably be in operation for less than 2. Reference to the new pre-standard series DIN V18599.
50,000 h, a correspondingly lower luminous flux decline For the lighting, DIN V18599-4:2011-12 replaces
value has to be assessed! The luminaire manufacturers are DIN 18599-4:2007-02 to which EnEV 2009 refers.
3 obliged to publish information on their luminaires. For
detailed explanations and planning notes, specifically for Publication of EnEV 2014 was in May 2014.
LED lighting, refer to the ZVEI Guide “Reliable Planning

4 with LED Lighting” [22] and to LiTG publications. This also results in a change to the current
DIN V18599‑4:2011-12 and for lighting control a daylight-
dependent control is considered in the constant light
16.3.2 Normative Specifications as to Energy
control (Tab. 16/3).
5 Efficiency
The European Parliament and the Council of the European For the planning of energy-efficient lighting in compliance
Union stated in Directive 2006 / 32 / EC that 78 % of the with EnEV, DIN V18599-4 is applied. In that, the different
6 greenhouse gas emissions of the European Community are
caused by human activities that are referable to the energy
utilisation zones of the building, the specific electrical
efficiency of artificial light, the consideration of the day-
field. The directive's objective is to increase the efficiency light utilisation and the influence of presence detection

7 of the final energy use cost-effectively in the member

states.
systems are determined.

It has to be noted that EN 15193 is a European standard

EnEV 2009 [23] is the implementation of Directives serving a similar purpose as DIN V18599-4. The “exhaus-
8 2002 / 91 / EC and 2006 / 32 / EC into a  German regulation in tive” energy demand calculation method presented in
accordance with the specifications of the European Union. EN 15193 complies with DIN V18599-4 (EN 15193 is
In compliance with that, the energy consumption in currently being revised due to the revision of Directive
9 non-residential buildings is to be determined for the in-
stalled lighting and stated in kWh per year and square
2010 / 31 / EU on the building efficiency). In the national
annex NA of EN 15193 for Germany, it is stated that the
meter of the net floor area. The target value is the annual installed illuminance in accordance with DIN V18599-4 has

10 primary energy consumption of a building per square meter

of the net floor area.
to be determined with one of the following alternatives:
• Tabular method
• Efficiency factor method
With regard to the calculation of the energy demand of the • Detailed specialist planning
11 lighting, EnEV 2009 refers to DIN V18599-4: 2007-02 and
provides different methods for the planning of a lighting Software-based tools considering all installations are
system taking into account a specific type of lighting and provided for the calculation. The electrical and lighting
12 a use-specific maintenance value of the illuminance. As
a requirement basis for non-residential buildings, EnEV
planning engineer can use, for example, the lighting calcu-
lation programs DIALux or RELUX to calculate the reference
2009 states specific component and system designs of value to be observed for the energy demand. The lighting
13 a reference building, among them also for the lighting:
• Glass roofs, lighting strips, light domes
calculation programs are able to calculate the value for the
net energy demand of the lighting by applying the formu-
• Windows, French doors, skylights las described in DIN V18599-4.
• Daylight supply in the case of sun and / or glare protec-
14 tion, shading More information about DIALux and RELUX can be obtained
• Type of lighting, lighting control on the Internet at: www.osram.com/osram_com/tools-and-
services/tools/dialux-and-relux/index.jsp
15 In particular for lighting control, EnEV 2009 provides
specifications for the different types of use of a building in
accordance with DIN V18599-10:2007-02 (see Tab. 16/2).
16

17

308 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Lighting control for types of use in accordance with DIN V18599-10:2007-02 1

Presence control effected by presence detector Meeting, conference, seminar, kitchen (preparation, storage), lavatories
and sanitary facilities in non-residential buildings, other common
rooms, ancillary areas (without common rooms), circulation areas,
server room, data centre, gym (without grandstand)
2
effected manually otherwise
Daylight-dependent control
Constant light control
effected manually
available
all
Meeting, conference, seminar, kitchen (preparation, storage), lavatories
3
and sanitary facilities in non-residential buildings, other common
rooms, ancillary areas (without common rooms), circulation areas,
server room, data centre, gym (without grandstand) 4
not available otherwise

Tab. 16/2:  Lighting control in accordance with EnEV 2009 back to page 308
5
Lighting control for types of use in accordance with DIN V18599-10:2011-12
6
Presence control effected by presence detector Cellular office and group office, meeting, conference, seminar, class
room (school), group room (kindergarten), lecture hall, auditorium,
hotel room, kitchen (preparation, storage), lavatories and sanitary
facilities in non-residential buildings, other common rooms, circulation
areas, server room, data centre, sports hall / gym (without grandstand),
7
car parks (office or private use), laboratory, examination and treatment
rooms, doctor's surgeries and therapeutic surgeries
effected manually otherwise 8
Constant light control / daylight- Constant light control effected Counter area, lecture hall, auditorium, wards, kitchens in non-residential
dependent control in accordance with buildings, commercial and industrial halls, library – open access section,
DIN V18599-4:2011-12
Section 5.4.6
car parks (public use), fitness room, examination and treatment rooms,
special nursing areas, corridors of the general nursing area, doctor's 9
surgeries and therapeutic surgeries

Daylight-dependent control in
combination with constant light
Cellular office, group office (two to six workplaces), open-plan office
(from seven workplaces on), conference room, meeting room, seminar,
10
control is effected in accordance class room (school), group room (kindergarten), cafeteria, library –
with DIN V18599-4:2011-12 reading room, sports hall / gym (without grandstand), laboratory
Section 5.5.4
effected manually otherwise
11
Tab. 16/3:  Lighting control in accordance with EnEV 2014 back to page 308
12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 309

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 16.3.3 Design Guidelines for the Biological biological factors connected with the “human photo­
Effect of Lighting receiver” – thus, not only the visual factors, but also the
non-visual factors (Fig. 16/5). That is, for artificial light,
2 For a long time, the biological effect of light on the human energy in different spectral ranges is used, which are not
being had been regarded as a mainly medical topic. This required for the actual visual process. Therefore, it may
changed when another photoreceptor was discovered in happen that the biological effect of light theoretically
3 the human eye (in 2001). Light is perceived with light-­
sensitive sensory cells and passed on to the body in biologi-
opposes an efficient energy use, but in a holistic view, it is
reasonable also in an efficient energy use approach.
cal signals. For example, the production of melatonin is

4 regulated, a hormone that controls the body's circadian

rhythm and is sensitive to blue light.
DIN SPEC 67600 is not a standard in the conventional sense
of lighting planning, but a recommendation to consider for
the planning the biological effect of light on the human eye
Light influences physiological and psychological states such and body. Some notes in DIN SPEC 67600 are important:
5 as moods, emotions and also attention. Thus, lighting can • Preference of daylight in the planning; artificial light
have a controlling impact on people's health and well-­ should be a supplement and only a substitute where
being. Intelligent lighting planning is not just restrained to daylight is not sufficiently available
6 the technical aspects of lighting, but also considers the

8 Lighting
9

10

11
Visual path Non-visual path
12
Ÿ Recognition of pictures Ÿ Circadian rhythm
Ÿ Brightness, lighting Ÿ Internal clock
13 Ÿ Contrast Ÿ Attention, fatigue
Ÿ Shapes Ÿ Hormone production
Ÿ Movement Ÿ Vitality, relaxation
14 Ÿ Perception Ÿ Blood circulation
Ÿ Information Ÿ Metabolism
Moods, impressions
15 Ÿ Relaxation, tension
Ÿ Concentration, unrest
Ÿ Well-being, discomfort
16
TIP04_13_179_EN

Ÿ Activity, restraint
Ÿ Security, unease
Ÿ Confidence, caution
17
Fig. 16/5:  Effects of light

310 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Visual requirements on the lighting planning are values of the reflectance coefficients specified in 1
described in EN12464-1 and for workplaces in ASR A3.4 EN 12464-1 should be reached
(binding for Germany) • Geometrical arrangement of the light:
• Integrated planning taking into account the biological Beyond the requirements of EN 12464-1, the following 2
effect of light is structured according to the HOAI phases has to be observed with regard to the geometrical
(German Fees Ordinance for Architects and Engineers): arrangement for biologically effective lighting:
requirements planning – basic evaluation – preliminary
planning etc.
–– Area and solid angles (for example, small light sources
do not contribute to the biological effect, bright areas
3
are to be aimed at)
As criteria for biologically effective lighting,
DIN SPEC 67600 explicitly describes the following aspects:
–– Light direction (for example, the wide-area lighting of
bright areas should be visible in the upper part of the 4
• Spectral composition of the light: visual field)
The natural circadian rhythm of the human body (chrono- • Light dynamics:
biological effect of the so-called “internal clock”) is deter- The adaptation of the light to the time of day and time of 5
mined by the increased red component at sunrise or sun- year or even to the weather plays an important part. The
set on the one hand, and the lower illuminance before circadian rhythm can be stabilised with biologically
and after sunrise on the other hand (despite the
increased blue component in the light spectrum). This
effective light, for example, when the melatonin produc-
tion is reduced before falling asleep. When the daylight
6
colour effect in connection with the illuminance can also has only low illuminance, it may be desirable to supple-
be used for artificial light. To be considered for that is that
reflections and transmissions as well as the spectral
ment it with biologically effective artificial light. Since the
human biological system responds relatively slowly, the 7
properties of materials may have considerable influence duration of the light exposure is an important factor for
on the light. For example, wooden elements and floors or the biological effect, resulting in a restriction to rooms
walls in earthy browns can reduce the blue component in with longer dwell times 8
the light. The correlation between colour temperature • Energy efficiency of biologically effective lighting:
and biological effect is shown schematically in Wide-area light from the top makes for a more distinct
DIN SPEC 67600 (Fig. 16/6)
• Illuminance:
biological effect, as the receptor cells in the eye's retina
are reached better and more uniformly. However, this
9
As reference value for a biological effect, DIN SPEC 67600 usually requires more power installed to achieve the
specifies 250 lx for the vertical illuminance at a correlated
colour temperature of 8.000 K at the viewer's eye. For
desired illuminance in the case of spatial distribution of
the light. According to experience values – as noted in 10
illuminated surfaces, the reflectance coefficients of the DIN SPEC 67600 – the installed power increases by factor
surfaces play an important part, and the upper limit 3. However, in a conversion to biologically effective
lighting, an efficient new system with modern luminaires 11
and lighting systems can at the same time make for
Biological efficiency a relative decrease of the energy consumption (see
in acc. with DIN V 5031-100

1.6
section 16.5.2 and section 16.5.3). Due to the moderni-
sation and use of lighting management systems, the
12
TIP04_13_180_EN

1.4
increase of energy consumption in a conversion to biolog-

13
17,000 K
ically effective lighting is limited to about 25 % (in accord-
14,000 K
1.2
ance with DIN SPEC 67600)
D75
1.0
D65 8,000 K
0.8 D55
D50 14
0.6 F10
F11
0.4

0.2
F12
15
0

16
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Correlated colour
Planckian radiator Standard illuminants
temperature
Daylight spectrum Fluorescent lamps
Halogen lamps in K
LED

Fig. 16/6:  Biological efficiency factors as a function of the 17

correlated colour temperature in accordance with DIN SPEC 67600

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 311

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 16.4 Lighting Scheme Glare may considerably impair the sight. It diminishes the
visual performance (disability glare) and visual comfort
For a lighting scheme, the requirements described in (discomfort glare). A differentiation is to be made between
2 EN 12464-1 have to be implemented project-specifically. direct glare and indirect glare. Direct glare comes from
For that, the rooms are divided into the visual task area(s), luminaires or other areas with excessive luminance, for
the respective immediate surroundings and the background example, the incidence of light through windows. Glare by
3 (Fig. 16/7). reflection acts indirectly, caused by reflections on shining
surfaces.
Room structuring serves for the planning of a balanced

4 luminance distribution and thus for an adaptation to differ-

ent illuminance levels in the room that is favourable for the
16.4.1 Design Principles
human eye. The requested uniformity U0 is specified in In addition to the general or basic lighting, it is reasonable
EN 12464-1 for the different rooms. For the immediate to use lighting for visual focussing or emphasising. In that,
5 surroundings, U0 = 0.4 is assessed, and for the background architecture, design elements in the room, forms, materials
U0 = 0.1. or surface properties are immersed in light. This can also be
used to draw the viewer's attention to something or to
6 The spatial recognisability of faces, bodies or objects in the
room is basically characterised by the mean cylindrical
foreground the light itself as an object of viewing (catch-
word: light sculpture). The following questions are to be
illuminance. Directional light can highlight visual details. In asked in particular:

7 buildings and in areas for which good visual communica-

tion is important, in particular in offices, meeting rooms
• Where do I want to achieve the effect? Where is the light
focus to be created?
and class rooms, the mean cylindrical illuminance should Light direction (top, bottom, lateral, vertical, horizontal
not be less than 150 lx. etc.) and light distribution (punctiform, wide-area, accen-
8 tuated etc.)

10
Minimum 0.5 m

11
EU EU EU

12
Minimum 3 m

13
EH = 1/3 · EU
14 EU
TIP04_13_181_EN

Size and position of the

15 EU surrounding and background area
should be defined and documented

16 Visual task EH

EU
Mean illuminance in the background

Mean illuminance in the immediate surroundings

Immediate surroundings

Background
17
Fig. 16/7:  Room structuring for the lighting concept

312 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• How do I want to achieve the effect? on luminaires that work efficiently and sustainably, 1
For example, through colour contrasts, different optimally comply with normative, qualitative and design
illuminances, colour temperatures, light density beam requirements, have long maintenance intervals and are easy
focusing or scattering and adjustable light effects (time-, to assemble. 2
environment-, event-dependent)
• Which design functions are to be assumed by lamps and The term “luminaire” describes the entire lighting appliance
luminaires?
Architectural integration through form language,
including all components required for fixing, operation and
protection of the illuminants – in colloquial speech often
3
arrangement, number, grid, bundling etc. referred to as “lamp”. Luminaires are differentiated by:

Possible mounting positions for the lighting systems are

• the type of illuminant used (for energy saving lamps, for
fluorescent lamps, for discharge lamps) 4
defined on the basis of the structural conditions. This • the number of illuminants (single-, two-lamp etc.)
conception results in the required light distribution curve • the field of application (interior lamps, exterior lamps)
(LDC), which is characterized by the spatial distribution (for • the place of installation (desk luminaires etc.) 5
example, a symmetric, asymmetric, wide-angle, or narrow • the degree of protection (luminaires specifically for dry,
beam LDC). humid and dusty rooms)

The selection of the required LDC and illuminants leads to

• the design (open, closed, reflector, mirror, louvre, diffuser
luminaires, spotlights)
6
the selection of the corresponding luminaires, taking into • the mounting type (wall, ceiling, pendant or portable
account the lighting task, design intention and mounting
options. Finally, the mounting positions are checked and
luminaires)
• the intended purpose or lighting task (technical lumi- 7
tailored to the space requirements of the lighting system. naires, housing luminaires, decorative or effect lumi-
Also to be considered is any additional equipment and naires, workplace luminaires etc.)
cooling elements for the luminaire or stipulated clearances. 8
Lighting engineering properties
16.4.2 Illuminants
The light quality is primarily determined by the selection of
The selection of suitable luminaires is determined by:
• the distribution of the luminous flux and luminous inten-
9
the illuminants. Specific properties such as light colour, sity (light distribution curve – LDC)
colour rendering, efficiency, dimming behaviour, and
dimensions should be considered for the selection and
• the light output ratio
• the glare limitation 10
combination of illuminants. • the photobiological safety

The selection of the light colour is a matter of taste, design Luminaires distribute, deflect and transform the light 11
and application. The light colours influence the room emitted by the illuminant. Every illuminant type has a spe-
atmosphere: warm white light is mainly perceived as cosy cific light output. This is referred to as luminous flux, stated
and comfortable, neutral white light rather as unemotional.
The light of lamps with the same light colour may have
in lumen (lm). The LDC is the basis for lighting planning in
indoor and outdoor areas. It determines the local illumi-
12
different colour rendering properties. The minimum values nance distribution and is used as a reference for glare
for the colour rendering property (colour rendering indexes
Ra) are stated in the tables of DIN EN 12464-1 dependent
assessment.
13
on the areas of activity. For a comprehensive overview of The luminaire's light output ratio describes, how effectively
the illuminants, refer to the Appendix. a luminaire distributes the light of an illuminant. The higher
it is, the less energy has to be spent to achieve the desired 14
illuminance.
16.4.3 Lighting Tools

The objective of good lighting planning is to design a visual

The luminaire's glare limitation mainly serves for improve-
ment of the lighting quality, for example, through light
15
environment and its usage with the help of light. In that, deflexion as in SiTECO ELDACON luminaires (http://www.
light serves as a tool, motivation aid, inspiration, attraction,
for presentation, marketing etc. To this end, the designer
osram.com/osram_com/news-and-knowledge/the-biological-
effects-of-light---light-means-quality-of-life/index.jsp).
16
has to use suitable lighting tools, which goes far beyond the Glare may arise as direct glare or glare by reflection. The
arrangement of illuminants in the room. The designer's cause of direct glare is excessive luminance, for example,
professional and creative handling of lighting tools ensures due to unsuitable or incorrectly installed luminaires, 17
an optimal lighting system. For this purpose, designers draw ­unshielded lamps, or even through windows. Glare by

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 313

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 reflection is caused by reflections on shining surfaces, for Electrical properties

example, on screens, glossy paper or even on wet streets.
The electrical properties of the luminaire are decisive for
2 Direct glare can be prevented by sufficiently screened safe and fault-free operation. The case of application plays
luminaires and tinted windows. Protection against glare by an important part for luminaire selection.
reflection is provided by a correct arrangement of the
3 luminaires in the room, a luminance limitation and the use
of matt surfaces.
These electrical properties are generally regarded as
important:
• Protection against excessively high touch voltage

4 The requirements of IEC 62471 (VDE 0837-471) for photo-

biological safety regulate the protection of skin and eye
with safety classes in accordance with IEC 61140
(VDE 0140-1, see Tab. 16/4)
against optical radiation [25]. This standard must also be • Protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and
observed for CE marking. Depending on the degree of moisture with the degrees of protection in accordance
5 danger, lamps are classified into four different groups. Risk with IEC 60529 (VDI 0470-1, see Tab. 16/5)
group 3 is not allowed for general lighting and risk group 2 • Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC in accordance with
must be marked as described in the standard. Risk groups 0 EN 55015 / VDE 0875-15-1, IEC 61000-3-2 / VDE 0838-2
6 and 1 need no marking. The standard IEC 60598-1
(VDE 0711-1) points out that luminaires require the appli-
and IEC 61000-3-3 / VDE 0838-3)
• Immunity to interference in accordance with IEC 61547
cation of IEC 62471 (VDE 0837-471). (VDE 0875-15-2)

7 • Exposition of persons to electromagnetic fields

(IEC  62493 / VDE  0848-493)
Safety class I Luminaires for connection to the
• Fire protection
line-side protective conductor. • Protection against flying balls: In gymnasiums, balls
8 The symbol is applied at the hitting luminaires at full tilt must not damage these so
connecting point. severely that parts of it fall down (VDE 0710-13)
Safety class II Luminaires with additional or
9 reinforced insulation. They do
not provide a protective
To meet the safety requirements on lighting, the luminaires
must comply with the standard series IEC 60598
conductor connection.
(VDE 0711). As a prerequisite for that, also the associated

10 III
Safety class III Luminaires for operation with
safety extra-low voltage.
electrical components must comply with the relevant safety
regulations (for example, the standard series
III IEC 61347 / VDE 0712 for equipment). Moreover, also the
so-called performance requirements for the equipment's
11 Tab. 16/4:  Symbols for safety classes in accordance with IEC 61140 principle of operation should be considered and observed.
(VDE 0140-1) To indicate conformity with the standards, the luminaires
should carry the ENEC approval mark.
12
First code figure Second code figure
0 Not protected 0 Not protected
13 1 Protected against solid objects with 50 mm in diameter and 1 Drip-proof against vertical drops
more
2 Protected against solid objects with 12.5 mm in diameter and 2 Drip-proof when tilted at angles of up to 15°
14 3
more
Protected against solid objects with 2.5 mm in diameter and 3 Rain / spray-proof
more

15 4 Protected against solid objects with 1.0 mm in diameter and

more
4 Splash-proof

5 Dust-accumulation protected 5 Jet-proof

6 Dust-penetration protected 6 Strong jet-proof
16 7 Watertight
8 Pressure watertight

17 Tab. 16/5:  Degrees of protection in accordance with IEC 60529 (VDE 0470-1) back to page 315

314 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

To ensure standard-compliant performance also for the • Free-standing luminaires such as Futurel® 5MS or 1
luminaires, in particular LED luminaires, the standards Futurel® LED are lighting systems that are individually
IEC / PAS 62722-1 and 62722-2-1 were published (here, dimmable and locally adjustable.
PAS stands for “publicly available specification”). These 2
standards are currently being prepared as drafts for Euro-
pean standards (EN 62722-1 and EN 62722-2-1). The
requirements are already met in the development of LED
luminaires, which is of great importance for the planning
3
of lighting systems [22].

Degrees of protection
4
The degree of protection of a luminaire indicates whether
it is suitable for the desired lighting application and can 5
be operated safely. The luminaires must be constructed
such that no foreign bodies or moisture can ingress. The
degree of protection is indicated on the luminaire; the IP
code is applied for marking. The first code figure after the
6
abbreviation “IP” (international protection) describes the
protection against the ingress of foreign bodies, the
second code figure the protection against the ingress of • Pendant luminaires such as ARKTIKA-P LED are sus- 7
water (see Tab. 16/5). pended from the ceiling on steel wires or threaded rods.
They are thus also design elements and optionally availa-
Constructional properties ble with direct / indirect light distribution. 8
The building's ceiling construction influences the selection
of luminaires. The luminaire design is differentiated into
free-standing luminaires, surface-mounted luminaires,
9
recessed luminaires or pendant luminaires. The mounting
and maintenance options are an additional criterion for the
luminaire construction. The luminaire design (housing 10
form, surface structure and colouring) has a significant
influence on the appearance of interiors and becomes
more and more important in the subjective decision in 11
favour of or against a luminaire. Objective distinguishing
features are reliability, economic efficiency and stability of
value. 12

13

14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 315

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 • Surface-mounted luminaires such as Quadrature®2 are • Downlights are special, normally round ceiling lumi-
mounted visibly on the ceiling. They are thus part of the naires fitted with reflectors and other optical elements
room impression and a means of architectural designing. (such as Lunis® 2), which can also be swivel-mounted.
2 They are available as recessed downlights for recessed
mounting in ceilings and as surface downlights for sur-
face mounting on ceilings.
3

7 • Recessed ceiling luminaires such as Mira®LED are

suitable for mounting in cavities or ceiling voids. Most of
the luminaire is put into the ceiling out of sight. The
8 luminaire face is often flush with the ceiling. • Strip lighting systems are aligned and through-wired
luminaires for surface or recessed mounting (such as
Modario®), which can be equipped with different covers
9 (reflector, louvre, microprismatic cover). They are also
available with high IP protection for areas with increased
dust density, for example in workshops. Strip lighting

10 systems are suspended and are optionally available with

an indirect lighting component to lighten the ceiling.
Strip lighting systems can be used flexibly, as luminaires
and spotlights can be applied at any position on the bar
11 via adapters.

12

13

14

15

16

17

316 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

• Moisture-proof luminaires comply at least with degree arises. Glare is minimised by that. At the same time, the 1
of protection IP X4 (such as Monsun®). They are primarily many facets provide for very uniform lighting. Due to the
used in industry and trade as well as in garages and cellar lamp's low mounting position, maintenance is also facili-
rooms. A positive side effect of the higher degree of tated. Under normal conditions, the mirror remains 2
protection is often a lower sensitivity to dirt and associ- maintenance-free.
ated with that an extension of the maintenance intervals.
3

7
• Floodlights and projectors are designed for lamps with
• High-bay / mirror hall luminaires (such as NJ600) are high power ratings (in watt). Lamps with lower power 8
primarily useful for high halls. The luminaires have a rota- ratings are used in spotlights or mini floodlights. In
tion-symmetric and narrow-angle intensity distribution. outdoor lighting, floodlights lend themselves to applica-
tions such as the illumination of buildings. Indoors, their
principal application is theatrical stage lighting and
9
stadiums (such as FL Midi S).

10

11

12

13
• Mirror reflector systems (such as Mirrortec®) can be
used for uniform and directed wide-area lighting. Light is 14
directed from a very tightly bundled lamp to a multi-facet
mirror and there reflected either symmetrically or asym-
metrically, depending on the properties of these mirror
facets. The application-specific selection of the lamp and
For more information, see www.siteco.com/en/uk_en/
products/indoor-luminaires-catalogue.html
15
mirror and the distance between these two allows for
special lighting comfort. Compared to conventional
luminaires, the light source is fractionalised into single
16
points of light with low intensity via the multi-facets
system. Depending on the viewer's position and size of
the single facets, the so-called light point resolution 17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 317

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 16.5 Lighting Calculation For this equation, the following correlations apply with
regard to the luminous fluxes:
In the next step of professional lighting planning, the
2 lighting concept is reviewed on the basis of the speci­ ΦN
fications for the simplified efficiency factor method as ηB · ηR =
described in the standard DIN V18599-4. The electrical Φtot
3 efficiency referred to a floor area can be determined for
a calculation area with the following formula: En · A
ΦN =
MF
4 kA · Em
Φtot = n · z · Φ
pj =
MF · ηS · ηLB · ηR
5 Where
Where

ΦN Usable luminous flux

pj Electrical efficiency
Φtot Total luminous flux of lamps
referred to the floor area considered
6 kA Reduction factor, considering the boundaries
of the visual task
Em Maintenance value of illuminance in accordance The room efficiency factor ηR is dependent on the luminous
with DIN V 18599-10
7 ηS
ηLB
System light output of illuminant plus equipment
Light output ratio of the luminaire applied
flux distribution of the luminaire, the room geometry and
the reflection conditions in the room. The relevant data are
ηR Room efficiency factor stated in the LiTG publication no. 3.5 [27].
MF Maintenance factor
8 To simplify distinctions, DIN V18599-4 introduces three
types of lighting: “direct”, “direct / indirect”, and “indirect”,
This formula is an adaptation of the equation presented by and specifies corresponding room efficiency factors
9 the Deutsche Lichttechnische Gesellschaft e. V. (LiTG –
German Light Engineering Society) for a simple estimation
­dependent on the room index k in a table. The room
index k is calculated as follows:
of the required number of luminaires or lamps referred to

10 the desired illuminance [26]:

a·b
k=
En · A hN · (a + b)
n·z=
11 Φ · ηB · ηR · MF
Where
Where

12 n
z
Number of luminaires
Number of lamps per luminaire
a
b
Room depth
Room width
En Rated illuminance hN For "direct" or mainly "direct" lighting: difference
A Floor area of the room in height between luminaire plane and working plane
13 Φ Luminous flux of lamp For "indirect" or mainly "indirect" lighting: difference
in height between ceiling and working plane
ηB Total luminous efficacy
ηR Room efficiency factor
MF Maintenance factor
14 The table values for the room efficiency factor can be
interpolated. For simplification, Fig. 16/8 shows three
interpolated curves for the correlation between room index
15 and room efficiency factor.

16

17

318 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Room efficiency factor

16.5.1 Lighting Calculation Programs 1
ηR in %
Special software programs assist in the calculation of
2
110

TIP04_13_182_EN
a lighting system. With the efficiency factor method, the
100 number of luminaires required for a given illuminance can
be determined. The illuminances at relevant points in the
90
room are calculated by the computer. The lighting engi-
neering result is output in various display forms (mean
3
80
value, iso-illuminance curves, value tables, diagrams).
70 Moreover, a clear picture of the lighting system is conveyed
(Fig. 16/9). 4
60

50 The lighting simulation has proven to be a helpful method

to visualise and review the lighting. Compliance with the 5
40 Type of lighting applicable national or international guidelines is proven.
direct
direct/indirect
For professional lighting simulations, the user applies
30
indirect specialised software such as DIALux or RELUX. 6
20

10
0 1 2 3 4
Room index k
5
7
Fig. 16/8:  Room efficiency factor ηR as a function  back to page 318
of the room index k 8

10

11
N
12
m 12
10

8
13
6

4 14
2
15
0
TIP04_13_183_EN

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 m
16
100 200 300 400 500
Illuminance in lx
17
Fig. 16/9:  Example of a calculated spatial distribution of the illuminances in an office

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 319

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Additional planning support by manufacturer-based online 16.5.2 Lighting Management Systems

tools:
• Sample systems: The sample systems from SiTECO and Lighting management systems (LMS) autonomously recog-
2 OSRAM are sample calculations of lighting systems with nise and control different light levels. However, the user
various luminaires of the respective application. The can also determine the desired light level himself any time,
calculations comply with the normative specifications. for example, the lighting to dim the incident daylight. LMS
3 The sample systems can be downloaded as RELUX file
and PDF, edited and saved. Numerous applications are
thus allow for need-based lighting control. Through intelli-
gent and need-based lighting control, the requirements of
available under the headings industry, office, shop, comfort and energy saving intermesh seamlessly.

4 street & urban, and sports at

www.siteco.com/en/planning-guide/sample-projects.html Apart from well-being and function, the priority of lighting
management is also to consider energy efficiency as a con-
stant of the lighting solution. Depending on the task,
5 • SiTECO Lighting Tool: The tool facilitates the transfer of a differentiation is made for interior rooms between lumi-
product-specific data to the lighting planning programs naire, room, and building solutions:
RELUX and DIALux, as the product selection of luminaires • Luminaire solutions:
6 is possible with just a few clicks. The product ranges
indoor and outdoor are available. For download, go to:
Time-dependent, daylight- and presence-dependent
luminaire control, for example, a free-standing luminaire
www.siteco.com/en/planning-guide/lighting-calculation.html with an integrated brightness and presence sensor to

7 switch off the luminaire automatically with a time delay

as soon as there is nobody in the room any more
• Room and building solutions:
Luminaire groups are set to different switching and
8 dimming states, which can be called via the LMS as
defined light scenes

10
Course of daylight

11
Rated illuminance
12

13

14
Power consumption

15
Time

16 Person entering

Person leaving
17
TIP04_13_184_EN

Fig. 16/10:  Daylight- and presence-dependent lighting requirements for an assembly facility back to page 321

320 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

By using a LMS for offices and industrial buildings, consid- –– Switching of the luminaires can be effected through 1
erable energy savings can be achieved if a daylight- and the control line
presence-dependent lighting control complements the –– A relay is not required
available daylight (Fig. 16/10). Light sensors detect the –– The inrush currents are very low 2
existing light level and automatically control the additional –– Feedbacks like “Lamp status” and “EB status” are
light input. The user can manually control the desired possible
illuminance any time. If a motion / presence sensor is used
in addition, the lighting only switches on automatically if
–– Synchronous scene transitions, all relevant light values 3
are saved in the EB
people are in or enter the room. This again increases the –– Group allocation can be changed without rewiring
savings potential considerably.
• DMX for effect lighting: 4
As an additional application, LMS allow for dynamic colour DMX stands for “digital multiplex” and is another digital
solutions which are easy to integrate and operate. Lumi- communication protocol for lighting control. DMX allows
nous intensity and colour for effect light can then be for the simultaneous control of up to 512 light channels. 5
selected dynamically or at the push of a button. Application The data rate is rapid 250 kB / s. Especially lighting scenar-
examples for so-called ambience lighting are: shops, show- ios in which a large number of RGB light points and
rooms and points of sale (PoS), fitness and wellness areas,
restaurants, bars, hotel lobbies, conference rooms, schools,
numerous dynamic, quick colour changes are required
can thus be illuminated excellently. Dimmable control
6
universities, further education institutions, façade illumina- gear with DALI interfaces are able to implement DMX
tion. For so-called scene-based lighting, moods can be
enhanced or a biological effect can be caused, for example,
dimming commands exactly and in real-time
• EnOcean – wireless in buildings: 7
activation through a high blue component in the light EnOcean is a battery-free radio technology. The sensors
spectrum with high illuminance. get their energy from the proximity – tiny changes in
movement, pressure, light, temperature, or vibration are 8
Typically, one of the following interfaces is used for LMS sufficient to transfer radio signals. The maximum reach of
control: the signals is 30 m inside buildings and 300 m in the free
• Dimming EB with 1...10 V interface:
In this standard solution, ballasts and control unit are
field. EnOcean transmits the signals on the licence-free
868 MHz frequency band. Clients benefit from EnOcean
9
connected via a poled 2-core control line. The control radio products in terms of planning flexibility and low
current intensity determines the dimming position of the
connected EB
installation costs. There is no wiring expense. This is a sig-
nificant advantage not only in the planning phase but 10
• DALI for general lighting: also in the later usage of the rooms. Adaptation of the
Lighting control, sensors, operating units, electronic wireless components to the room usage is straightfor-
control gear and lamps communicate via the professional ward. EnOcean light and presence sensors or wall 11
interface standard DALI (digital addressable lighting push-buttons can be relocated without disturbing opera-
interface) and respond optimally to each other. DALI is tional workflows and without causing any dirt or noise
a manufacturer-independent interface standard for
dimmable electronic ballasts and provides high function-
• 3DIM and Powerline for outdoor lighting:
3DIM can be used to implement three different con-
12
ality as well as easy handling. Via a 2-core control line, trol and dimming functions in one electronic ballast. Tab.
a maximum of 64 DALI control gears can be flexibly
controlled either individually or together and in up to 16
16/6 shows a simple comparison of the different scope of
functions
13
groups. Switching and dimming of the lighting is effected
via the control line. A relay is not required. Important In DALI mode, bidirectional communication takes place
information such as the lamp status is saved in the con- between the EB and LMS, as described above. StepDIM is 14
trol gear and forwarded to the control unit as informa- used if a special control line (switched phase) is available in
tion. Advantages as opposed to the 1…10 V interface (see addition to the power supply line. In contrast, AstroDIM
Fig. 16/11): gets by without any control line, as a dimming profile can
be preset in the 3DIM module.
15
–– The selection of the mains phase is independent of the
control line
–– The DALI control line is protected against reverse
polarity; a special bus cable is not required
With the Powerline technology, existing power supply
systems can be utilised to create a network for the data
16
–– One control line is sufficient for a maximum of 64 EB in transfer, without the need for an additional data cable. As
outdoor lighting is usually supplied via an in-house power
up to 16 groups
supply system, Powerline communication is not subject to 17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 321

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1
e. g. L1 L2 L3
2 1...10V
KNX/EIB

3 1...10V

1...10V

4
1...10V

5 1...10V

1...10 V

6 1...10V

1...10V

7
1...10V

8 Determination of the light groups prior to installation!

9
e. g. L1 L2 L3
KNX/EIB
10

11

12

13

14

15
TIP04_13_185_EN

16 Determination of the light groups possible after installation!

New group allocation possible without rewiring!

17
Fig. 16/11:  Comparison of the system design between 1…10 V and DALI back to page 321

322 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

any disturbances caused by other consumers or climatic 1

influences. Moreover, it is protected against unauthorized
access and is not disturbed by radio networks (WLAN), as it
is cable-based. Obstacles such as buildings or trees have no 2
influence on the signal transmission either.

Lighting management on the Internet:

www.siteco.com/en/products/lighting-management.html
3

10

11

Operating modes 12
DALI
DALI
DALI
DALI StepDIM
StepDIM
StepDIM
StepDIM AstroDIM
AstroDIM
AstroDIM
AstroDIM
13

Energy saving by dimming ◊

2)
◊ ◊ 14
Integration into existing installations ◊ ◊ ◊

Flexibility to control different light points

15
◊

Bidirectional communication in telemanagement

◊
systems
Autonomous dimming
Use of the existing bi-power approach with
◊
16
◊ 1)
conventional ballasts (half-night switching)
1) In mixed installations, special precautions have to be taken when installing the luminaire
2) DALI must already be available in the existing installation 17
Tab. 16/6:  Comparison of the 3DIM scope of functions

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 323

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 16.5.3 Comparison of Lighting Concepts Tab. 16/7 are selected in compliance with EN 12464-1
(in particular Table 5.11.5) for the usage profile “Industrial
In the configuration and planning of lighting systems, the activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry –
2 lighting costs are usually the decisive criterion. The basic rough assembly work”.
considerations deal with the question: refurbishing or
purchasing a new system? In the example, no local restriction of the visual task is
3 Since nowadays the energy costs represent more than half
assumed. Therefore, the lighting must be designed as
general lighting so that the visual conditions are equally
of the total costs of a lighting system, concepts should be good at all places in the room. For test stations and other

4 compared that point out significant differences with regard

to the energy consumption as well as investment and
activities with higher visual requirements, additional light-
ing with workplace luminaires is required. Sufficient verti-
maintenance costs. Generally, it is to be expected that – cal illuminance must be ensured for workplaces intended
by using energy-efficient lighting over a longer operating for handling large equipment.
5 life – savings can be achieved compared to existing
solutions. Possible mounting positions for the lighting systems are
defined on the basis of the structural conditions. Due to the
6 Apart from the selection of lamps, ballasts and luminaires,
the use of lighting management systems plays an impor-
beams in the room, the light point height is 5 m, resulting
in a rather wide-angle radiation characteristic (LDC) for the
tant part for usage-based planning. However, for the lighting system. The light quality is determined by the

7 following comparison of different lighting concepts, only

the lighting elements are considered. When planning
selection of the illuminant. The selection and combination

a lighting concept, assumptions and specifications are

applied for different mounting positions, illuminants and
8 luminaires. The lighting solutions resulting from that can
Parameter
Room geometry (L × W × H)
Data for the considered example
50 m × 30 m × 6.5 m
be compared and evaluated. For holistic system compari-
sons, it is essential that the quality, service life, service Reflectance values 70 × 50 × 20
(C × W × F)
9 performance, spare parts supply, and maintenance proper-
ties of the luminaires as well as the compliance with the
(Ceiling x Walls x Floor)
Maintenance factor 0.67 (normal rooms and
quality characteristics are comparable. In the following, var- a maintenance interval of 3 years)

10 ious lighting systems for the refurbishment of an industrial

hall are compared (Fig. 16/12).
Working plane h 0.75 m
Operating hours per year 5,000  h / a

The base data such as hall dimensions, working plane, Em ≥ 300  Ix

11 operating hours, lighting conditions etc. for the determina- UGRL < 25
tion of the lighting system are stated in Tab. 16/7. The U0 ≥ 0.6
planning requirements for the illuminance maintenance
12 value Em, the maximum glare (UGRL), the uniformity
ratio of illuminance (U0), and the colour rendering index
Colour rendering index 80

Tab. 16/7:  System and lighting data for an  back to page 325
industrial hall

13

14

15

16

17
Fig. 16/12:  Lighting concept finding for the refurbishment of an industrial hall (left: 3D view; right: floor plan)

324 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

of illuminants is designed to the specific system require- Luminous flux 2 ⋅ 3,300 lm 1

ments (see last table in this chapter). Luminaire efficiency factor 93.4 %
• SiTECO Modario strip lighting system – LED 70 W – EB
In the industry sector, fluorescent lamps, high intensity (electronic ballast EB, LED) 2
discharge lamps, and LED illuminants are suited for light- Luminous flux 6,200 lm
ing. Fluorescent lamps have a high luminous efficacy, Luminaire efficiency factor 100 %
a long service life and are available in various light col-
ours and lengths. The lamps have a uniform light distri­ For these systems, first the number of luminaires required
3
bution. Fluorescent lamps are continuously dimmable each is determined with the simplified efficiency factor
(from 100 % to 1 %) so that the system can be automated. method and then compared with the results of the corre-
sponding software calculations. 4
High intensity discharge lamps (metal halide lamps) have
a high luminous efficacy, too, as well as very good colour Efficiency factor method
rendering. In particular lamps with ceramic technology are 5
suited for high requirements on the colour rendering and In the simplified efficiency factor method, the data from
for long burning times. Lamps with ceramic technology are Tab. 16/7 are used to determine the room index for direct
dimmable subject to restrictions via a special electronic
ballast.
lighting (height difference between luminaire plane and
working plane):
6
a·b
LEDs are suitable for all applications. By selecting and
combining suitable LEDs, specific requirements are met.
k=
hN · (a + b)
7
LEDs have a long service life, are highly efficient, have
a high switching capability, and can be used for a wide 50 m · 30 m
range of operating temperatures (caution at high ambient k=
(5 m – 0,75 m) · (50 m + 30 m)
8
temperatures!). LEDs have a high shock and vibration
resistance, do not emit any UV and IR radiation, and are
k = 4,4
continuously dimmable (from 100 % to 1 % – caution: at
low dimming values, they switch to pulse width modula-
9
tion (PWM)!). From Fig. 16/8 (in accordance with DIN V18599-4), a room

The selection of the required light distribution curve (in the

efficiency factor of 100 % can be read for a direct lighting
with k = 4.4 (in accordance with DIN V18599-4, the value is 10
example, wide-angle is selected) and illuminants (fluores- to be interpolated between 1.03 and 1.05; limitation of the
cent lamp,high intensity discharge lamp, or LED) determines room efficiency factor to 100 %). Using the formula
the selection of the corresponding luminaires. Generally 11
suitable in industrial areas is strip lighting, as the applied
flexible systems can easily be adapted to changes in the Em · A
n=
production flows. Luminaires and spotlights can be applied
at any position on the bar with the aid of adapters.
z · Φ · ηLB · ηR · MF 12
In high halls (from heights of 6 m on), high-bay / mirror hall
luminaires are an alternative. In the often dirty environ-
and data on the following three luminaire systems and
from Tab. 16/7, the number of luminaires n is determined:
13
ments of industry and handicrafts, it is reasonable to use • n (DUS, 2 × 58 W T26, LLB) = 90 pieces
luminaires with a higher degree of protection. The lumi- • n (Modario, 2 × 35 W T16, EB) = 109 pieces
naires remain clean for a longer period, which extends their • n (Modario, 70 W LED, EB) = 108 pieces 14
service life and maintenance interval.

For the sample calculations, lighting systems with strip

lighting on the basis of fluorescent lamps (T8 and T5) as
Software-based solution 15
well as LEDs are selected: In calculation tools such as RELUX or DIALux, the room is
• SiTECO DUS strip lighting system – T26 2 × 58 W – LLB
(low-loss ballast LLB, fluorescent lamp T26)
mapped (mind the reflectance coefficients of the boundary
room areas!), the area of the visual task is defined, and the
16
Luminous flux 2 ⋅ 5,200 lm corresponding reference surfaces are inserted. The lumi-
Luminaire efficiency factor 71.9 % naire type is selected in the tool's project manager and the
• SiTECO Modario strip lighting system – T16 2 × 35 W – EB maintenance factor is defined. 17
(electronic ballast EB, fluorescent lamp T16)

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 325

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 The calculation tool allows the luminaires to be distributed In the project, almost identical piece numbers have been
automatically using a quick planning feature or manually. calculated for the different lighting solutions. However,
While the simplified efficiency factor method just differenti- the maintenance time varies considerably between the
2 ates direct, partly / partly direct / indirect and indirect light- variants. Additionally, attention should be paid to the
ing, the calculation tools consider the radiation characteris- specific connected loads, which generate costs in electric
tics of the luminaires (Fig. 16/13). power distribution in proportion to the loads connected.
3 The calculations with the software tool supply the follow-
The conventional solution with T26, 2 × 58 W achieves
9.2  W / m2, the modern variant with fluorescent lamps T16,
ing piece numbers: 2 × 35  W 5.8  W / m2 and the solution with LED lighting
4.9  W / m2. Thus, the LED solution involves significantly less
4 • n (DUS, 2 × 58 W T26, LLB) = 90 pieces
• n (Modario, 2 × 35 W T16, EB) = 110 pieces maintenance expense and at the same time the most
• n (Modario, 70 W LED, EB) = 105 pieces efficient lighting technology with the same number of
pieces. Tab. 16/8 states important basic data for a system
5 A typical evaluation of the calculation with a software tool and energy cost comparison.
for the illuminances on the working plane and the associ-
ated data is given in Fig. 16/14. The data from Tab. 16/8 can be used for a calculation of
6 The very high consistency of the results of the simplified
profitability. The following manufacturer-based online tools
provide assistance:
efficiency factor method and the software tool can be

7 explained by the simple design and homogeneous lighting

effected by the selected lighting systems. Deviations result
www.siteco.com/en/planning-guide/cost-efficiency-
calculator-for-indoor-applications.html
from the slight differences of the radiation characteristics
and the unification for the room efficiency factor. In the
8 software tools, light distribution curves and room reflec-
tance coefficients are usually converted to a specific room
efficiency factor for a room and the lighting system under
9 consideration and then further employed.

Basis for energy cost considerations

10 For all calculations, the same maintenance factor was
assessed. By implication, this means that the lighting
systems will be maintained at different times. The variant
11 T26 2 × 58 W after 10,000 h, the T16 solution 2 × 35 W after
18,000 h, and the LED solution after 50,000 h.

12

13

14

15
TIP04_13_186

16
DUS, T26 2 × 58 W Modario, T16 2× 35 W Modario, LED 70 W

17
Fig. 16/13:  Radiation characteristics for the three sample lighting systems

326 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

4
m N
30.0

27.5 5
25.0

22.5
6
20.0

17.5

15.0 7
12.5

10.0 8
7.5

5.0

2.5
9
0.0

10

TIP04_13_187_EN
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 m

150 200 300 500 750

Illuminance in lx
11

Total luminous flux of all lamps:

Total power:
651,000 lm
7,350 W
12
Total power per area: 4.90 W/m2 (1,500.00 m2)

User profile: Industrial activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry 5.11.5 (EN 12464-1, 8.2011)
Assembly work: rough, e. g. large transformers (Ra > 80.00)
13
Evaluation area 1 Reference plane 1

Em
Horizontal
313 lx (≥ 300 lx)
14
Emin 252 lx
Emin/Em (U0) 0.80 (≥ 0.60)
UGR (8.0H 13.3H)
Position
≤ 24.3
0.75 m
(< 25.00)
15
Type No. Make

1 105
SiTECO
Order no.: 5TR202D2T
16
Luminaire name: Modario®
Equipment: 1 × LED 840 / 6,200 lm
17
Fig. 16/14:  Excerpt of the results of a software calculation for the LED lighting system back to page 326

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 327

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Luminaire DUS Modario Modario

Designation T26 2 × 58  W T16 2 × 35  W LED

2 Radiation characteristics Wide-angle Wide-angle Wide-angle

Degree of protection IP20 IP20 IP20
Type of lamp T26 2 × 58  W T16 2 × 35  W LED

3 Lamps per luminaire 2 2 1

Total luminous flux of all lamps 10,400 lm 6,600 lm 6,200 lm
Efficiency factor of the luminaire 71.9 % 93.4 % 100 %
4 Luminous flux of the luminaire 7,478 lm 6,164 lm 6,200 lm
Maintenance factor calculation 0.67 0.67 0.67

5 Illuminance
Uniformity
322
0.74
315
0.76
313
0.8
Costs (energy, maintenance)

6 Power consumption of the luminaire 145 W 79 W 70 W

Total efficiency of the luminaire 52  lm / W 78  lm / W 89  lm / W
Number of luminaires in the room 95 110 105
7 Useful life of the system 20 a 20 a 20 a
Annual operating time 7,300  h / a 7,300  h / a 7,300  h / a

8 Energy costs per year

Maintenance cycles in the useful life
1,059  kWh / a
14
577  kWh / a
8
511  kWh / a
2

Tab. 16/8:  Result overview for the calculations with a software tool and basic data for energy cost considerations back to page 326
9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

328 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

16.6 Emergency Lighting • Lighting of fire fighting and alarm stations 1

• Facilitating rescue actions
When planning emergency lighting, laws, guidelines, and
ordinances have to be complied with. An important basis Ordinances and provisions as to safety lighting apply to 2
for that are the technical standards characterising the state locations such as:
of the art. Often, country-specific standards, provisions, • Emergency escape routes at workplaces
and regulations have to be observed. Tab. 16/9 lists the
essential legal and normative bases that are relevant to
• Workplaces involving special hazards
• Guest accommodation facilities, homes
3
safety lighting in Germany. • Shops, restaurants

Emergency lighting is requested in building law, industrial

• Places of public assembly, theatres, stages, cinemas,
exhibition halls, as well as temporary structures intended 4
safety legislation, or rules of the German Employers' for public assembly
Liability Insurance Associations (BGR) etc., in case the • Basement and multi-storey car parks
power supply for the general artificial lighting fails. There- • High-rise buildings 5
fore, in accordance with EN 1838, it has to be ensured • Airports, railway stations
in the installation phase that the emergency lighting • Schools
is supplied independently of the power supply for the
general artificial lighting. In the dimensioning of the
6
emergency lighting, distinctions are made with regard to
the intended use (Fig. 16/15). Emergency lighting there-
fore sets special requirements, which often involve costs 7
Emergency lighting
and specific space assignments, so that bearing these
requirements in mind is usually indispensable even in basic
planning considerations. The planner and his client should Emergency escape lighting Standby lighting 8
exchange ideas early on a building layout that includes
emergency escape routes and the fitting of emergency
lighting systems. Escape route lighting
9
In order to meet the safety objectives such as the chance to Open area (anti-panic) lighting

TIP04_13_188_EN
leave a place safely, to avoid the outbreak of panic, and to
ensure the safety of potentially hazardous workplaces, 10
safety lighting has to maintain the following functions High risk task area lighting
during a failure of the normal power supply:
• Lighting or back-lighting of the safety signs for emer- 11
gency escape routes Fig. 16/15:  Types of emergency lighting in accordance with
• Lighting of emergency escape routes EN 1838
12
Requirements Installation Devices Inspection / maintenance
National building law
ASchG / ArbStättV / ASR
ISO 23601
Standard series IEC 60364
EN 50171 (VDE 0558-508)
IEC 60896-21
ArbStättV
MPrüfVo 13
MBO / LBO (VDE 0100) IEC 60598-2-22 (VDE 0711-2-22) IEC 60364-6 (VDE 0100-600)
BGR 216 / BGR 131-1 and -2 IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560) DIN 4844-1 and -2 IEC 60364-7-718 (VDE 0100-718)
EN 12193
EN 12464-1 and -2
IEC 60364-7-718 (VDE 0100-718)
EN 50172 (VDE 0108-100:2005)
Standard series ISO 3864
Standard series IEC 61347
EN 50172 (VDE 0108-100:2005)
VDE V 0108-100 14
BGR / GUV-R 108 VDE V 0108-100 (VDE 0712) EN 50171 (VDE 0558-508)
Standard series EN 50272 EMVG Standard series EN 50272
(VDE 0510) (VDE 0510)
EN 1838
EN 15193
Manufacturer's instructions
BetrSichV
15
MLAR BGV A3
EltBauVo
Tab. 16/9:  Statutory bases, standards and guidelines around safety lighting 16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 329

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Power generator, short-time interruption

Power generator, mid-scale interruption

Physical structures for the gathering of

Power generator, uninterruptible (0 s)

Continually operated illuminated or

Central power supply system (CPS)

Rated operating time of the power
2

Power supply system with power

Specially backed power system

source for safety purposes (h)
Max. switch-over time (s)
3

Self-contained system
back-lit safety sign
Illuminance (lx)

limitation (LPS)
4

(≤ 0.5 s)

(≤ 15 s)
people

5 Places of public assembly and such

involving temporary structures,
theatres, cinemas, exhibition halls, b) 1 3 × × × × × × – –
shops, restaurants, airports, railway
6 stations 1)
Stages 3 1 3 × × × × × × – –
Guest accommodation facilities, homes b) 15 a) 8 e) × × × × × × × –
7 Schools b) 15 a) 3 × × × × × × × –
Basement and multi-storey car parks b) 15 a) 3 × × × × × × × –

8 High-rise buildings b) 15 3 d) × × × × × × × –
Emergency escape routes at workplaces b) 15 × × × × × × × ×
Workplaces involving special hazards b) 0.5 c) × × × × × × – ×

9 a) Depending on the panic risk from 1 s to15 s and risk assessment.

b) Illuminance of safety lighting in accordance with EN 1838.
c) The period entailing danger for people.
d) 8 h for residential buildings if the lighting is not switched as detailed under g).
e) 3 h are sufficient if the lighting is switched as detailed under g).

10 f) 1 h is also permissible for overground areas in railway stations depending on the evacuation concept.
g) Rated operating time of 3 h if the safety lighting is continually operated together with the general lighting; it must be possible to identify at least one light switch as

local switching device from any place even if the general lighting fails. Safety lighting is automatically switched off after a settable time if it is supplied from
a power source for safety purposes.

11 × = permissible  – = not permissible

Tab. 16/10:  Safety lighting requirements of physical structures for the gathering of people based on the pre-standard VDE V 0108-
100:2010 (Note: EN 50172:2004 correlates with VDE 0108-100:2005 and deviates from the newer pre-standard VDE V 0108-100:2010 in
12 some parts)

13 VDE V 0108-100 states the requirements placed on safety The German pre-standard VDE V 0108-100, which is based
lighting for the different rooms and buildings (see also on the older European standard EN 50172 for safety light-
Tab. 16/10). Standby lighting is used to enable people to ing systems, requires the following for electrical installa-
14 continue economically and / or technically important work tions, circuits, control and bus systems among other things:
during the failure of normal lighting. For this reason, the • Along the course of emergency escape routes, two or
provisions applicable to safety lighting have to be fulfilled more lamps must be installed in every area for reasons of
15 and the wattage of standby lighting has to correspond to system integrity
that of normal lighting. At a low illuminance level, safety • If more than one safety light is required in a room, the
lighting may only be used for shutting down or terminating number of luminaires must alternate between two cir-
16 work processes. cuits. A maximum of 20 luminaires may be connected
into one circuit. Their load may not exceed 60 % of the
rated current of the overcurrent protection device
• The following types of power sources can be distin-
17 guished:

330 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

–– self-contained systems –– Must be placed in F30 / T30 areas (MLAR) 1

–– central power supply systems (CPS) –– E30 cabling required down to every fire section (MLAR)
–– power supply systems with power limitation (LPS) • Self-contained system
–– power generators with defined interruption time in ++ Low investment costs 2
seconds
++ Easy retrofitting
–– specially backed power system
++ High redundancy
• A distinction is made between permanent lights and
standby lights. Safety lights may only be operated
–– High follow-up costs due to inspections and 3
replacement
together with the general lighting in rooms and on
–– Only suitable for low power outputs
emergency escape routes that
–– can be sufficiently illuminated with daylight –– Fitting in distributed luminaires not possible 4
–– cannot be fully darkened during normal operation –– Use under low temperature conditions not possible or
–– are not permanently occupied only with external heating
• Control and bus systems for safety lighting have to be –– Limited light point height (max. 5 to 8 m) 5
independent of the control and bus systems for normal • Power generators (uninterruptible, short, mid-scale
lighting interruption)

Boundary conditions for planning that are dependent on

++ Long operating time ratings 6
++ AC-capable power consumers
the building are specified in standards. A safety lighting ++ Low follow-up costs
system consists of the following components: safety power
source, distributors, monitoring devices, cabling, lumi-
++ Only for safety-relevant consumers in accordance with 7
IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560)
naires, and rescue signs. First, the power source type
should be determined as the core element of the safety –– Monitoring of individual luminaires not possible
supply. The systems listed below have specific advantages –– Circuit reduction not possible 8
(+) and disadvantages (–): –– Expensive and / or intricate construction work for tank
• Central power supply system (CPS) and exhaust gas routing
++ Cost reduction due to common circuits for continuous • Specially backed power system (normally second system
feed-in)
9
operation, standby mode, and switched permanent
light possible ++ Long operating time ratings
++ Central monitoring from every peripheral location
possible
++ AC-capable power consumers 10
++ Low follow-up costs
++ Monitoring of individual luminaires ++ Only for safety-relevant consumers in accordance with
++ Cost reduction due to common circuits for continuous
operation, standby mode, and switched permanent
IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560)
–– Monitoring of individual luminaires not possible
11
light possible –– Circuit reduction not possible
++ Low follow-up costs
–– Must be placed in F30 / T30 areas (MLAR – Sample
–– Only permitted at workplaces 12
Directive on Fireproofing Requirements for Conduits Since a second independent system feed-in is usually not
and Line Systems, 2005)
–– E30 cabling required down to every fire section (MLAR)
available, it will be difficult in reality to obtain a specially
backed power system from different supply network opera-
13
• Power supply system with power limitation (LPS) tors. With standby power generating sets, it is often neces-
++ Cost reduction due to common circuits for continuous sary to consider long transmission lines and verify 100
operation, standby mode and switched permanent percent emergency standby capability. The planning ex- 14
light possible pense for factoring in other power consumers connected
++ Central monitoring from every peripheral location to the standby power generating set has to be taken into
possible account, too. 15
++ Monitoring of individual luminaires possible
A disadvantage of battery power for safety lighting is that
++ Cost reduction due to common circuits for continuous
operation, standby mode and switched permanent
self-contained luminaires become economically inefficient
if more than about 15 to 25 luminaires are used. The
16
light possible
boundary conditions for ageing-related luminaire replace-
++ Low follow-up costs ment should always be looked into, too, when considering
–– Power and energy limitation (for example, 1,500 W for the use of self-contained luminaires. 17
1 h or 500 W for 3 h)

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 331

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 If the building layout allows for splitting the safety lighting supply. In those cases, the requirements placed on battery
into fire sections, the choice could be low power systems rooms must be observed additionally.
(LPS, previously known as group battery systems). In most
2 cases, however, a central power supply system (CPS), also When planning a safety lighting system, the spatial condi-
known as central battery system, can be recommended. tions (Fig. 16/16) and operational requirements should be
clarified early. In this context, EN 1838 sets the following
3 The final circuits from the low power and central power
systems to the luminaires are wired in compliance with the
requirements: The luminaires of a safety lighting system
should be fitted as follows:
Sample Directive on Fireproofing Requirements for Con- • At least 2 m above the floor
• Close to every exit that is to be used in an emergency 1)
4 duits and Line Systems (MLAR) in Germany. The advan-
tages of these systems are their relatively short cable paths • At stipulated emergency exits and safety signs 1)
and the fact that the energy required in case of a failure is • Close to staircases 1) so that every step is lit directly
available in the form of batteries very close to where the • Close to every level change 1)
5 energy is consumed. It is therefore not necessary to build • At every directional change of a corridor 2)
up and maintain intricate and costly switchgear and cable • At every corridor junction 2)
networks for standby power distribution. • Outside of and close to every exit 1)
6 With regard to functional endurance, rooms containing
• Close to every first aid point 1)
• Close to every fire-fighting or alarm station 1)
battery systems and distribution boards for safety power • Close to escape equipment, call systems and safety zones
for disabled persons 1)
7 supply must comply with the requirements of MLAR 2005
and the model building code EltBauVo 01 / 2009. In particu-
lar, it must be ensured that the distribution boards for For the safety zones and call systems for disabled persons,
safety power supply are kept separate from the distribution two-way communication equipment has to be provided,
8 boards for normal power supply in functional endurance
class E30. This also applies in cases where these batteries 1 Usually a horizontal distance of 2 m max.
are part of the main distribution circuit of the safety power 2 All directions must be illuminated

10

11

12

13
TIP04_13_189_EN

14
Rescue sign luminaires at escape doors
15 Rescue sign luminaires at turns and junctions
Safety luminaires for escape route lighting

16 Safety luminaires at exits

Additional safety luminaires at fire-fighting,
alarm and first aid facilities

17
Fig. 16/16:  Safety lighting plan for a whole storey in an office building

332 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

and alarm devices have to be installed in lavatories for For the subitems 'safety lighting of emergency escape 1
disabled persons. In addition to this, first aid points and routes', 'anti-panic lighting and safety lighting of work-
locations with fire fighting equipment that are not near the places involving special hazards', the requirements of
emergency escape route or inside the area of anti-panic EN 1838 have to be met. Tab. 16/11 gives a brief overview 2
lighting must be especially well lit (5 lx vertical illuminance of the most important aspects to be considered for electri-
measured on the equipment). Signs at emergency exits and cal engineering.
exits along an emergency escape route must be lit or
back-lit. For an initial power estimation of the required emergency
3
lighting system, a correlation of the installation height of
When assessing the budget for emergency lighting, you
should not only look into the pure investment costs, but
the luminaires and the required power per area can be
stated in the form of a straight line (Fig. 16/18). For a more 4
you should also factor in the expense for inspection, moni- detailed determination, the ratio 40 : 1 has to be adhered
toring, replacement and power consumption (Fig. 16/17). to for the uniformity between the maximum and minimum
Emergency lighting is to be installed, monitored, and illuminance (Emax / Emin) in accordance with EN 1838 along 5
maintained in accordance with VDE V 0108‑100 or the the centre line of the emergency escape route. In that,
older EN 50172. IEC 62034 (VDI 0711-400) describes the emergency escape routes broader than 2 m are to be
requirements on automatic testing options in case these
are to be provided. Safety luminaires have to comply
divided into multiple strips of 2 m or equipped with anti-­
panic lighting. For workplaces involving special hazards, an
6
with IEC 60598‑2-22 (VDE 0711‑2-22) to reach the illuminance of 15 lx (or 10 % of the illuminance of the
required lighting level. For a cost estimation, the depre-
ciation period should be clarified.
general lighting) and a ratio Emax / Emin of 10 : 1 must be
adhered to. 7

10

Luminaires, Power Visual Standard test Luminaire, Maintenance 11

back-up systems consumption inspection batteries
FT *

12
BT *

13
Labour cost Luminaire Labour
Cost of Cost of Cost share
for visual and battery cost for
investment electricity
inspection
FT/BT *
replacement maintenance 14
Labour cost Maintenance
for test cost
15
Operating
cost
16
TIP04_13_190_EN

Time
* FT functional test
Cost of emergency light system
BT battery test

17
Fig. 16/17:  Cost factors of emergency lighting

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 333

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Use of LEDs advantage as to the operating costs compared to conven-

tional lamps. Due to the low energy consumption of the
In the past few years, the luminance of commercially LEDs, the battery volumes can be reduced (see Fig. 16/19)
2 available LEDs has been increasing considerably. With more and the advantages of lithium ion accumulators can be
than 100 lm / W, high-power diodes supply ten times the utilised. Compared to conventional nickel metal hydride
luminous efficacy value of the first LEDs. At the same time, and nickel-cadmium batteries, lithium ion accumulators
3 LEDs provide their full light output immediately after
switch-on, which is a decisive criterion in particular for
provide the following advantages:
• Small size
emergency lighting. In the draft version of IEC 60598-2-22 • No memory effect

4 (Draft VDE 0711-2-22), emergency lights with fluorescent

lamps in combination with neon starters are explicitly
• Low self-discharge
• Low follow-up costs (about half the follow-up costs)
excluded from the use in emergency lighting.

5 An important argument for the use of LEDs is a maximum

possible service life of 50,000 hours and more. To be Required output [W/m2]
minded is that the degradation in the LED's semiconductor
0.7
6 material results in a decrease of the luminous flux in the
course of operation. The manufacturers declare the LED 0.6
service life as the time when the luminous intensity is still

7 50 % (sometimes the value is given for a luminous intensity

of 70 %) of the measured initial value. The LEDs' service life
0.5

is considerably influenced by the operating and ambient 0.4

temperature.
8 0.3

The illuminance control described before can also prolong 0.2

TIP04_13_191_EN
the service life of the LED emergency lighting in continuous
9 operation and help reducing the operating costs, as LEDs
have very good dimming properties. This is because the
0.1

LEDs' efficiency diminishes with the operating current

0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10
10 increasing, so that the losses and thus the operating costs
as well as the operating temperature increase. Therefore,
Room height [m]

the service life of a controlled LED is longer than that of an Fig. 16/18:  Power estimate for emergency  back to page 333
LED operated with permanently high current. Moreover, lighting systems with a central battery, based on experience
11 LEDs are virtually maintenance-free, which is an additional gained with fluorescent lamps at an illuminance of 1 lx

12 Requirements Safety lighting for emergency escape Anti-panic lighting Safety lighting for workplaces
for ... routes involving special hazards
Illuminance In 2 m wide strips, the horizontal The horizontal illuminance on the free The maintenance value of the
13 illuminance along the centre line of an
emergency escape route must be 1 lx
floor area (except for 0.5 m wide border
areas) must be 0,5 lx minimum.
illuminance on the working surface
must be at least 10 % of the task-related
minimum maintenance value for the illuminance
or 15 lx minimum
14 The middle section of the emergency
escape route (at least 50 % of the route
width or a 1 m wide strip) must be lit
with 0.5 lx minimum

15 Duration Operating time 1 h min. Operating time 1 h min. Operating time corresponds at least to
the hazard duration for persons at the
workplace
Readiness 50 % of the illuminance in 5 s, 50 % of the illuminance in 5 s, The requested luminous intensity must
16 100 % of the illuminance in 60 s
(for Germany 15 s)
100 % of the illuminance in 60 s
(for Germany 15 s)
be either permanently given or reached
within 0.5 s
Other Required in lavatories for people with
disabilities
17 Tab. 16/11:  Excerpt of the requirements in EN 1838 for the safety lighting of emergency escape routes, workplaces  back to page 333
involving special hazards and for anti-panic lighting

334 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

The small size of the LED luminaires leaves room for the The energy demand comparison of specifically planned LED 1
architectural integration of emergency lighting. However, emergency lighting from CEAG with uncontrolled, conven-
optics and reflectors for the required lighting are to be tional emergency lighting integrated into the general
considered as well as the temperature conditions in small lighting depicted in Fig. 16/19 points out the technical 2
installation spaces. development. In the example, a corridor with a length of

Standard EB 58 W / 100 % luminous flux

4

5
3m
100 %
6
2m

113 lx 4 lx 113 lx 4 lx 113 lx 4 lx 113 lx

E-EB 58 W / 30 % luminous flux 7

8
3m
50 %
9
2m

34 lx 1.2 lx 34 lx 1.2 lx 34 lx 1.2 lx 34 lx

GuideLed with LED 2 × 1.6 W / 100% luminous flux 10

15 m 6.6 m

11
3m
10 %

12
2m

15 lx 1.5 lx 15 lx 1.5 lx

Emergency operation 13
Number of Number of Dimming Battery current Total battery
luminaires luminaires level consumption current
Emin
emergency Emin Emax
14
Control mains emergency g2 = per luminaire consumption Energy
Variant Luminaire gear operation operation operation [lx] [lx] Emax [A] [A] demand

EVG +
Louvre luminaire,
No. 1 CEAG 5 3 100 % 4 113 1:28 0.250 0.750 100 %
white, 1 × 58 W
V-CG-S
Louvre luminaire, CEAG 15
TIP04_13_192_EN

No. 2 5 3 30 % 1.2 34 1:28 0.110 0.330 44.0 %

white, 1 × 58 W N-EVG
CEAG GuideLed SL CEAG
No. 3 with asymmetrical V-CG- 0 3 100 % 1.5 15 01:10 0.022 0.065 8.6 %
optics SLS500
16

Fig. 16/19:  Lighting engineering instead of battery use back to page 334 17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 335

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 30 m and a ceiling height of 3 m is considered. The re- In case of danger, they must be easily and safely accessible
quested illuminance for the general lighting is 100 lx. For from generally accessible rooms or from the outside. The
the emergency lighting, EN 1838 requests 1 lx minimum at doors to the electrical operating rooms must not lead
2 a uniformity directly into the staircase with the required (emergency)
stairs. The emergency escape route from an electrical
g2 = Emax / Emin greater than 40 / 1 operating room to the exit must not be longer than 35 m.
3 As an intermediate stage, the use of controllable electronic
The doors must be self-closing and easy to open from
inside with an emergency lever.
ballasts (CEAG E-EB in Fig. 16/19) can already reduce the

4 energy demand considerably and thus halve the size of the

required accumulator.
For central battery systems, functional endurance must be
complied with in accordance with the requirements for the
installations to be supplied. MLAR for Germany and
ÖVE / ÖNORM E8002-1 for Austria request a functional
5 Functional endurance endurance of at least 30 minutes for safety lighting sys-
tems. Therefore, the battery systems, distributors, and lines
Self-contained luminaires do not require any cabling to be between the distributors, too, must comply with this func-
6 designed in functional endurance, as the luminaire is
supplied by a (usually installed) battery. Thus, the installa-
tional endurance.

tion expense can be reduced and the costs for smaller In accordance with EN 50272-2 (VDE 0510-2), the doors

7 systems are lower than those for a central supply concept.

The considerable additional expenditure for inspection and
to central battery systems must be marked with a sign
“Accumulator, battery room”. EN 50272-2 (VDE 0510-2)
replacement makes more than 20 self-contained luminaires is complied with by each of the following types of
uneconomical, even if central monitoring systems are installation:
8 installed. • Battery room in a building
• Separate battery areas in electrical operating rooms
For the installation of central battery systems (including • Cabinets or containers inside or outside of a building
9 CPS and LPS) and distributors, country-specific guidelines
and standards have to be observed. For Austria, the stand-
• Device battery compartments (“combi cabinets”)

ard series ÖVE / ÖNORM E8002 defines the fire protection

10 requirements for safety lighting systems. In Germany,

EN 50272-2 (VDE 0510-2), EltBauVO, and MLAR are the
basic regulations to be consulted.

11 The safety objective is functional endurance by separate

electrical operating rooms for safety-related systems and
installations in buildings stipulated by building regulations.
12

13 a) b) c)

14
MDNP MDNP MDNP

15
TIP04_13_193_EN

MDSP MDSP MDSP

16

17 Fig. 16/20:  Functional endurance for the distributors of a safety lighting system (MDSP = main distribution board for  back to page 337
safety power supply; MDNP = main distribution board for normal power supply)

336 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

Con­
tents
Category Type of lamp Luminous efficacy 5) Luminous flux Control gear Average service life 6)
Intro­ packages
duction Thermal radiator Incandescent lamps (230 V) 1) 10 – 14  lm / W 100 – 8,400  lm No 1,000 h

Tungsten halogen lamps 2) 10 – 23  lm / W 260 – 44,000  lm No 2,000 h

1 (230  V – high-voltage)
Tungsten halogen lamps 12 – 28  lm / W 55 – 2,300  lm Transformer 2,000 – 5,000  h
(12 / 24  V – low voltage) (230  V – 12  V / 24  V)

2 Electric discharge
(low-pressure)
Fluorescent lamp (with
external control gear) T8:
33 – 90  lm / W
(with EB up to
500 – 6,200  lm EB, LLB 16,000 – 20,000  h
(XXT up to 75,000 h)
Ø 26 mm 100  lm / W)
Fluorescent lamp (with 58 – 114  lm / W 140 – 7,000  lm EB, LLB 10,000 – 24,000  h
3 external control gear) T5:
Ø 16 mm
(XT up to 35,000 h)

4 Compact fluorescent lamp

(with internal control gear)
38 – 75  lm / W 230 – 1,940  lm EB already integrated 8,000 – 20,000  h

Compact fluorescent lamp 48 – 100  lm / W 200 – 6,500  lm EB 10,000 – 20,000  h

5 (with external control gear) (XT up to 36,000 h)

Compact fluorescent lamp 80  lm / W 6,500 – 12,000  lm EB 60,000 h

6
Light tube (e.g. “neon tube”) < 30  lm / W Irrelevant, depending Depending on colour 15,000 h
7 on gas filling and
length
and tube length
(high‑voltage)
Low-pressure sodium lamp 100 – 174  lm / W 1,800 – 32,000  lm Leak transformer 30,000 h

8
Electric discharge High-pressure sodium lamp 3) 72 – 150  lm / W 3,600 – 130,000  lm Reactor, CB, EB with 12,000 – 30,000  h
(high-pressure) appropriate overload
9 protection and usually an
additional ignitor

10 High-pressure mercury lamp 4) 36 – 60  lm / W 1,800 – 57,000  lm Reactor, CB 5,000 – 15,000  h

11
Metal halide lamp (quartz and 71 – 120  lm / W 1,700 – 240,000  lm Reactor, CB, EB with 6,000 – 15,000  h (up
12 ceramic technology) appropriate overload
protection
to 30,000 h in
exceptional cases)

13
Semiconductor High-power LED 60 – 130  lm / W (in the 75 – 300  lm Special electronic ballasts Up to 50,000 h and
14 technology 9) Mid-power LED future: Ø approx.
100  lm / W)
Approx. 10 – 60  lm and dimmers (depending
on the LED type via
more
(among other things
constant current: dependent on thermal
e.g.  350 / 500 / 700  mA, management and area

15 Multi-chip LED
(e.g. COB: chip on board)
Variable, depending on or constant voltage:
the type, circuit board e.g.  10 / 12 / 24  V)
of application)

size and number of

LEDs (e.g. COB with

16 OLED 25 – 40  lm / W (in the

10,000 lm) 10)
15 – 70  lm Special electronic ballasts 5,000 h (Gen 1)
future: 75  lm / W, (as at 04 / 13, size- and dimmers (constant 10,000 h (Gen 2),
135  lm / W max.) dependent, i.e., luminous flux) increasing tendency

17 increasing)

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 338

Colour rendering index (CRI) Light colours 7) Dimming behaviour Advantages

100 2,700 K (ww) 11) Continuously dimmable (100 – 0 %) • Low acquisition costs (except for, e.g., special lamps)
Dimming-dependent perceived colour • Perfect colour rendering
100 2,700 – 3,000  K (ww) 11) shift: the stronger the dimming, the • Uncomplicated dimming
warmer the light colour • Brilliance through point-type light source
100 2,700 – 3,100  K (ww) 11) • Perfect colour rendering
(exception: cold reflector • Uncomplicated dimming
lamps also up to 4,500 K) • Brilliance through point-type light source
79 – 98 (the higher the CRI, the 2,700 – 8,000  K Continuously dimmable with EB • High luminous efficacy
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw, dw) 11) (100 – 1 %); below 30 %, possibly • Long service life
increased perceived colour shift • Different light colours
60 greater than 90 (the higher 2,700 – 8,000  K Continuously dimmable with EB • Different lengths
the CRI, the lower the luminous (ww, nw, dw) 11) (100 – 1 %); below 30 %, possibly • Uniform light distribution
efficacy) increased perceived colour shift

80 – 89 (the higher the CRI, the 2,500 – 4,000  K Rarely dimmable • High luminous efficacy
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw) 11) • Long service life
• Different light colours
80 – 99 (the higher the CRI, the 2,700 – 8,000  K Dimmable with EB (100 – 1 %); below • Great variety of sizes and forms
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw, dw) 11) 30 %, possibly increased perceived colour • Special variants with partially extremely high switching
shift capacities

80 3,000 – 4,000  K Not dimmable • Very long service life; high luminous efficacy
• Flicker-free instant start
• High luminous flux over a wide range of temperatures due
to amalgam technology; low luminous flux decline
– Colour depending on gas Not dimmable • Long service life
filling • Free forming possible
• Colourfulness
– Yellow (monochrome) Not dimmable • Extremely high luminous efficacy

< 25 2,000 K (yellow) Efficiency reduction down to 50 % of the • Very high luminous efficacy
rated power possible by changing the
impedance if start-up was at rated power

< 60 3,200 – 4,200  K Efficiency reduction down to 50 % of the • Good luminous efficacy
(ww, nw) 11) rated power possible by changing the
impedance if start-up was at rated power

65 – 96 3,000 – 7,250  K Only ceramic technology dimmable (with • High luminous efficacy
(ww, nw, dw) 11) reservations) via special electronic ballast • V
 ery good colour rendering
(possibly involving colour point change, • Brilliance through point-type light source
shortened service life, reduced luminous
efficacy)

70 – 95, depending on the 2,700 – 6,500 K (ww, nw, Continuously dimmable with a dimmer • Small design allows for free forming
luminescent substance (the dw) 11) (depending on the that is either integrated into the • Long service life and high switching capability
higher the CRI, the lower the luminescent substance also electronic ballast or external (100 – 0 %) • High efficiency
luminous efficacy) colder possible; observe fine via pulse width modulation or • Immediate light upon switch-on
subdivision) controlled constant current; below 30 % • Wide range of operating temperatures
Up to 99 (depending on the Continuous colour control in possibly increased colour shift • High shock and vibration resistance
composition and selection of the available spectral range 12) • No UV and IR radiation (except for UV LED)
single LEDs; with conventional • High colour saturation
RGB mixture possibly lower CRI) • Multi-LEDs allow for colour control and high CRI

80 (95 and more technically 2,700 – 6,500  K Continuously dimmable with a dimmer • Extremely thin and light
possible) (ww, nw, dw) 11) that is either integrated into the • Production variant options: flexible, transparent or
(depending on the electronic ballast or external (100 – 1 %) reflective
luminescent substance also via pulse width modulation or • Immediate light upon switch-on
colder possible; typical value controlled constant current • No UV and IR radiation and high CRI
currently 3,500 K) • Homogeneously radiating, anti-glare area light source

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 339

Disadvantages Suitable for

• Poor luminous efficacy: less than 5 % of the electrical energy is transformed into light • Domestic sector, hotel sector, gastronomy, museums, sales areas etc.
• Maintenance-intensive due to short service life – only one light colour (ww) 11) • Areas in which very good colour rendering is a priority and
• Poor luminous efficacy: less than 10 % of the electrical energy is transformed into dimmability is desired
light (approx. 20 – 30 % more efficient than general service lamps)
• • Maintenance-intensive due to short service life
• Only one light colour (ww) 11)

• Temperature-dependent brightness • Uniform light distribution, for example, for general lighting in public
buildings, offices, corridors, shops, industrial facilities, tunnels

• Temperature-dependent brightness • Interior lighting – preferably in private areas, as energy-efficient

• Usually not dimmable replacement illuminant (retrofit)
• Switch-on delay
• Temperature-dependent brightness • Various, mostly public areas, indoor and outdoor

• Few sizes available • Outdoor installations, roads, tunnels, sports venues, ships (in
particular if diffused general lighting is requested and lamp
replacement is difficult)

• Low luminous efficacy • Deco, art, advertising (increasingly replaced by LEDs)

• No white light • Integration into technical devices (e.g. scanner)
• Limited range of colours
• Extremely low colour rendering • Outdoor installations without any colour rendering demand: roads,
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 12 – 15 min; at lower tunnels, waterways etc.
ambient temperatures correspondingly longer)

• Extremely low colour rendering • Outdoor installations without any colour rendering demand: roads,
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 6 – 10 min) tunnels, waterways etc.
• Usually no hot restrike ignition (only after a cooling time of 0.25 – 15 min)

• Low colour rendering • Outdoor installations with low colour rendering demand: e.g. roads,
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 5 min) industry, squares, parks, pedestrian zones, halls
• Usually no hot restrike ignition (only after a cooling time of 0.25 – 15 min)

• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 1 – 5 min); usually no hot • High colour rendering demand and long burning times – in particular
restrike ignition (cooling time 0.25 – 15 min); not dimmable or only to a limited with ceramic technology: e.g. sale, halls, architectural lighting
extent; filling-dependent colour difference, in particular with quartz technology
(green / red cast)

• Temperature management urgently required • Suitable for all applications

• Operating temperature determines service life, efficiency, light colour etc. • By selecting and combining suitable LEDs, specific requirements can
• Colour drift in the border area of the light cone be met
• Possibly multiple shadows due to addition of the small LEDs (depending on the
luminaire design and optics)
• Relatively high acquisition costs
• Electromagnetic susceptibility
• Manufacturer-specific circuit boards and connectors: lack of standards

• Manufacturer-specific and limited sizes (currently 110 × 110 mm max.) • Decorative lighting (light sculptures, design luminaires) and
• Limited availability of forms and connectors: no standards integrated into technical devices (e.g. mobile phone)
• Diffuse radiation, therefore no light deflexion possible • Medium-term: automobile integration
• High acquisition costs, high “lm / W” price • General lighting: office, sale, hospitality

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 340

Not suitable for To be observed for initial commissioning, operation and disposal 8) 1) Prohibited by the EU since 09 / 2011
and 09 / 2012 respectively (with
a few exceptions for special lamps)
• Areas in which energy efficiency • Immediately usable with full luminous flux
and operating costs are important • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion 2) Partially prohibited by the EU since
and maintenance (lamp • Immediately usable with full luminous flux 09 / 2011 and as of 09 / 2015
replacement) is difficult • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of respectively; not affected: energy
the glass) efficiency class C, halogen eco clear
• Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion and special lamps

3) Partially prohibited by the EU since

• Cold (e.g. basement) or overheated • Recommended warm-up time for initial commissioning, not dimmed: 100 h 04 / 2011 and 04 / 2014 respectively
environment (e.g. due to too small • Optimal operating temperature (for maximum luminous flux) for T5 (products with increased efficiency
luminaire housings) because of about 35 °C, for T8 about 25 °C (exception: e.g. amalgam filling) and service life still available)
luminous flux decline • Vertical mounting with ColdSpot downward, horizontal mounting for
• Accentuation through size of the multi-flame luminaires with ColdSpot on the right 4) Prohibited by the EU as of 09 / 2014
light-emitting area (length) • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion 5) Luminous efficacy refers to the
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things
lamp power, not to the system
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de)
power; for the system power,
• Cold (e.g., basement) or • Recommended warm-up time for initial commissioning, not dimmed: further losses are to be expected
overheated environment (e.g., due 100 h due to the housing and technology.
to too small luminaire housings) • Optimal operating temperature (for max. luminous flux) depending on In exceptional cases (for example,
because of luminous flux decline design and filling (observe manufacturer's instructions) at optimal operating temperature),
• Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion the luminous efficacy may
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things increase.
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de)
6) For thermal radiators and electric
• Due to diffused light distribution, • Recommended warm-up time for initial commissioning, not dimmed:
discharge, the average service life
no powerful, brilliant light for 100 h
corresponds to 50 % failure in
accentuation • Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things
a defined batch; for LEDs, the value
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de)
has not been finally defined yet: for
• General lighting • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion example, in the case of a luminous
• The manufacturer's disposal instructions are to be observed flux decline to 70 %

• Frequent or short switch-on and • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion 7) By stating defined areas, strongly
-off • Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things differing colour impressions may
• Required light immediately after because of the sodium content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de) be effected with identical colour
switch-on specifications – in particular when
mixing different illuminant types!
• Frequent or short switch-on and • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of
-off the glass) 8) Operating and disposal instructions
• Required light immediately after • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion are selected to exemplify the
switch-on • Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life subject matter for those interested
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things in planning: they make no claim to
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de) be complete and serve for
• Colour rendering demands • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of orientation only; the
• Frequent or short switch-on and the glass) manufacturer's product-specific
-off • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion instructions have to be observed.
• Required light immediately after • Due to overpressure in operation to be operated in closed luminaires only
switch-on (with only a few exceptions) 9) Due to the rapid development of
• Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life the semiconductor technology, the
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things data may change within brief
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de) intervals; in particular with regard
to luminous efficacy and luminous
• Frequent or short switch-on and • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of
flux
-off (e.g., in corridors) the glass)
• Required light immediately after • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion 10) Consider thermal management!
switch-on • Due to overpressure in operation to be operated in closed luminaires only
(with only a few exceptions) 11) ww = warm white,
• Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life nw = neutral white,
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things dw = daylight white
because of the mercury content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de)
12) Colour range depending on the
• High ambient temperatures and if • Protection against electrostatic discharge composition of the LED; for colour
aggressive gases arise (shortening • Do not touch LED to avoid damage stabilisation, a colour sensor is
of the service life) • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion
required; a conventional RGB
• Focus on low acquisition costs • General rule: the lower the temperature at the LED, the higher the
mixture might lead to an
luminous efficacy / system output and the longer the service life
undesired colour cast
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things
because of the arsenic content (Internet: www.lightcycle.de) 13) The WEEE Directive 2002 / 96 / EC
of the European Parliament of
2003 on waste of electrical and
electronic equipment is to
• Powerful, brilliant light for • To be handled with gloves to prevent damaging and pollution of the glass contribute to the avoidance and
accentuation because of diffused, • P  rotection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion of the environmentally sound disposal of
wide-area light distribution contacts electronic scrap and was
• Not suitable yet for general lighting • The manufacturer's disposal instructions are to be observed transposed into national laws
with the required high (e.g. ElektroG of 2005 in
illuminances Germany)

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 341

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

342 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

343 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings
Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

344 Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

In accordance with MLAR, the distribution boards in 1

a safety lighting system with fire-retardant components
made of non-combustible materials must be separated
from corridors and emergency staircases and rooms be-
Fire section III
2
tween emergency staircases and exits to the outside.
Fire-retardant covers with circumferential seals must close
openings. The following alternatives are possible with
regard to the compliance with the functional endurance:
3
• Placement in separate rooms that are fire-retardant in
acc. with E30 (DIN 4102-12; outer walls need not be
fire-retardant); except for the doors, non-combustible 4
materials are to be used (Fig. 16/20 a)
• Installation in fire-retardant housings in acc. with E30
(Fig. 16/20 b) 5
• Use of fire-retardant components (non-combustible mate- E30
Fire section II
rials) and covers for the enclosures of the distribution
boards (Fig. 16/20 c)
a) Fire-retardant room (except for outer walls)
6
b) Fire-retardant housing
c) Fire-retardant enclosure
7
The floor space of each fire section is to be limited to F30
1,600 m2 at most. The functional endurance requirement
also applies to lines from the main distribution board and Door
T30 SDSP
8
for sub-distribution boards in a safety lighting system that
supply fire sections larger than 1,600 m2, as pointed out in
Fig. 16/21. In modern systems, a rising main with func-
tional endurance E30 is sufficient, as E30 distribution
9
boards allow for a distributed system of sub-distribution
Fire section I E30
boards (SDSP). To comply with the functional endurance,
the lines must either satisfy the requirements of 10
DIN 4102‑12 or they must be laid on raw ceilings under
floor screed of at least 30 mm thickness or in the ground –
which is not very likely for a building. 11
F30

Door
T30
12
MDSP
TIP04_13_194_EN

13
Fig. 16/21:  Functional endurance for the safety lighting in
individual fire sections
14

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Lighting Inside Buildings 337

Chapter 17
Appendix
17.1 Characteristics of Grid Supply Types 346
17.2 List of Standards 347
17.3 List of Abbreviations 357
17.4 Bibliography 361
17.5 Conversion Factors and Tables 362
 Con­
tents

Intro­ 17 Appendix
duction

1 17.1 Characteristics of Grid Supply Types

2 Power sources Transformer Generator UPS

Selection Number of power sources and power Number of power sources and power Number of power sources, power
output corresponding to the power output corresponding to the total output and energy dependent on the
3 required for normal power supply load which must be supplied if the
transformers do not supply power
time for provision of independent
power supply and the total load
supplied by the UPS
Requirements • High reliability of supply • covering the energy demand for • Stable output voltage
4 • Overload capability standby power supply • Availability of sufficient continuous
• Low power loss • For turbocharger motors: load short-circuit power to ensure
• Low noise transfer in steps disconnect conditions
• No restrictions as to installation • Availability of sufficient continuous • Low-maintenance buffer batteries
5 • Compliance with the environment,
climate and fire safety categories
short-circuit power to ensure
disconnect conditions
for power supply, compliance with
noise level limits
• Low harmonic load for the upstream
network
6 Nominal current
SN SN SN
IN = IN = IN =
3 · UN 3 · UN 3 · UN
7
Short-circuit currents • Sustained short-circuit current • Sustained short-circuit current • Sustained short-circuit current
3-phase: 3-phase: 3-phase:
8 IK3 =
IN · 100 % IK3 ≈ 2.1 · IN (for 0.02 s)
IK3, D ≈ 3 · IN
UK IK3 ≈ 1.5 · IN (for 0.02 – 5 s)
9 • Sustained short-circuit current
2-phase:

3
10 IK2 ≈ IK3 ·
2

11 • Sustained short-circuit current

1-phase:
• Sustained short-circuit current
1-phase:
• Sustained short-circuit current
1-phase:
IK1 ≈ 3 · IN (for 0.02 s)
IK1 ≈ IK3 IK1, D ≈ 5 · IN
12 IK1 ≈ 1.5 · IN (for 0.02 – 5 s)
• Initial short-circuit alternating

13 current:

IN · 100 %
IK“ =
χd“
14
Advantages • High transmission capacities • Distributed availability • Low losses
• Stable short-circuit currents • Self-contained power supply • Voltage stability

15 Disadvantages
• Electrical isolation
• High inrush currents • Grid instability in case of power
• Electrical isolation
• Very low short-circuit currents
• Dependency on the public grid fluctuations
• Low short-circuit currents
16 IN  Nominal current,  UN  Nominal voltage,  UK  Rated short-circuit voltage,  SN  Nominal apparent power

17

346 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

17.2 List of Standards 1

International Germany German title English title

2
1194/2012/EU Verordnung der Europäischen Kommission zur Commission regulation (EU) implementing
Durchführung der Richtlinie 2009/125/EG
hinsichtlich Lampen mit gebündeltem Licht, LED-
Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council with regard to ecodesign
3
Lampen und zugehörigen Geräten requirements for directional lamps, light emitting
diode lamps and related equipment
1228/2003/EG EG-Verordnung über die Netzzugangsbedingungen
für den grenzüberschreitenden Stromhandel
EC-regulation on conditions for access to the
network for cross-border exchanges in electricity
4
2002/91/EG EG-Richtlinie über die Gesamtenergieeffizienz von EC-directive on measuring instruments

2003/54/EG
Gebäuden
EG-Richtlinie über gemeinsame Vorschriften für den EC Directive concerning common rules for the
5
Elektrizitätsbinnenmarkt und zur Aufhebung der internal market in electricity and repealing Directive
Richtlinie 96/92/EG 96/92/EC
2004/22/EG EG-Richtlinie über Messgeräte EC Directive on Measuring Instruments (MID) 6
2006/32/EG EG-Richtlinie über Endenergieeffizienz und EC Directive on energy end-use efficiency and
Energiedienstleistungen und zur Aufhebung der energy services and repealing Council Directive
Richtlinie 93/76/EWG 93/76/EEC
7
2006/42/EG EG-Richtlinie über Maschinen und zur Änderung der EC-directive on machinery, and amending Directive
Richtlinie 95/16/EG 95/16/EC
2014/35/EU EU-Richtlinie zur Harmonisierung der
Rechtsvorschriften der Mitgliedstaaten über die
EU-directive on the harmonisation of the laws of
the Member States relating to the making available
8
Bereitstellung elektrischer Betriebsmittel zur on the market of electrical equipment designed for
Verwendung innerhalb bestimmter Spannungen use within certain voltage limits

2009/125/EG
(„Niederspannungsrichtlinie“)
EG-Richtlinie zur Schaffung eines Rahmens für die EC-directive establishing a framework for the
9
Festlegung von Anforderungen an die setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-
umweltgerechte Gestaltung related products
energieverbrauchsrelevanter Produkte 10
2010/30/EU EU-Richtlinie über die Angabe des Verbrauchs an EU-directive on the indication by labelling and
Energie und anderen Ressourcen durch standard product information of the consumption
energieverbrauchsrelevante Produkte mittels
einheitlicher Etiketten und Produktinformationen
of energy and other resources by energy-related
products 11
2010/31/EU EU-Richtlinie über die Gesamteffizienz von EU-directive on the energy performance of
Gebäuden buildings
2012/27/EU EU-Richtlinie zur Energieeffizienz, zur Änderung der EU-directive on energy efficiency, amending 12
Richtlinien 2009/125/EG und 2010/30/EU und zur Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and
Aufhebung der Richtlinien 2004/8/EG und 2006/32/ repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC
EG
244/2009 + EG-Verordnung zur Durchführung der Richtlinie EC-regulation implementing Directive 2005/32/EC
13
859/2009 2005/32/EG für die Anforderungen an die with regard to ecodesign requirements for non-
umweltgerechte Gestaltung von Haushalts­lampen directional household lamps – ecodesign
mit ungebündeltem Licht + Anforderungen an die
Ultraviolettstrahlung von Haushaltslampen mit
requirements on ultraviolet radiation of non-
directional household lamps 14
ungebündeltem Licht
245/2009 + EG-Verordnung zur Durchführung der Richtlinie „EC-regulation implementing Directive 2005/32/EC
347/2010 2005/32/EG für die Anforderungen an die
umweltgerechte Gestaltung von Leuchtstoff­lampen
with regard to ecodesign requirements for
fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast, for
15
ohne eingebautes Vorschaltgerät, high intensity discharge lamps, and for ballasts and
Hochdruckentladungslampen sowie Vorschalt­geräte luminaires able to operate such lamps“
und Leuchten zu ihrem Betrieb
16
89/391/EWG EWG-Richtlinie über die Durchführung von EEC-directive on the introduction of measures to
Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit und encourage improvements in the safety and health
des Gesundheitsschutzes der Arbeitnehmer bei der of workers at work
Arbeit 17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 347

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
duction 2009/104/EG "EG-Richtlinie über Mindestvorschriften für EC-directive concerning the minimum safety and
Sicherheit und Gesundheitsschutz bei Benutzung health requirements for the use of work equipment
von Arbeitsmitteln durch Arbeitnehmer bei der by workers at work

1 Artikel 153
Arbeit“
Titel X – Sozialpolitik (zum Arbeitsschutz) Title X – Social Policy (relating to occupational
EU‑Vertrag safety and health)
(2009)
2 Artikel 114 Titel VII – Gemeinsame Regeln betreffend Title VII – Common Rules on Competition, Taxation
EU‑Vertrag Wettbewerb, Steuerfragen und Angleichung der and Approximation of Laws (relating to the free
(2009) Rechtsvorschriften (zum freien Warenverkehr) movement of goods)

3 CIE 97:2005 Leitfaden zur Wartung von elektrischen

Beleuchtungsanlagen im Innenraum
Guide on the Maintenance of Indoor Electric
Lighting Systems
CLC/TR VDE 0636‑5 Niederspannungssicherungen – Teil 5: Leitfaden für Low-voltage fuses – Part 5: Guidance for the

4 60269‑5
D‑A‑CH‑CZ-
die Anwendung von Niederspannungssicherungen
Technische Regeln zur Beurteilung von
application of low-voltage fuses
Technical rules for the assessment of network
Richtlinie Netzrückwirkungen disturbances

5 EN 12193
EN 12464‑1
Licht und Beleuchtung – Sportstättenbeleuchtung
Licht und Beleuchtung – Beleuchtung von
Light and lighting – Sports lighting
Light and lighting – Lighting of work places –
Arbeitsstätten – Teil 1: Arbeitsstätten in Part 1: Indoor work places
Innenräumen
6 EN 12464‑2 Licht und Beleuchtung – Beleuchtung von Light and lighting – Lighting of work places –
Arbeitsstätten – Teil 2: Arbeitsplätze im Freien Part 2: Outdoor work places
EN 12665 Licht und beleuchtung – Grundlegende Begriffe und Light and lighting – Basic terms and criteria for
7 Kriterien für die Festlegung von Anforderungen an
die Beleuchtung
specifying lighting requirements

EN 13201 Strassenbeleuchtung (Teile 1 – 4; Entwurf Teil 5: Road lighting (Parts 1 – 4; draft part 5: energy

8 EN 15193
Energieeffizienzindikatoren))
Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden –
performance indicators)
Energy performance of buildings – Energy
Energetische Anforderungen an die Beleuchtung requirements for lighting

9 EN 15232 Energieeffizienz von Gebäuden – Einfluss von

Gebäudeautomation und Gebäudemanagement
Energy performance of buildings – Impact of
Building Automation, Controls and Building
Management
EN 1838 Angewandte Lichttechnik – Notbeleuchtung Lighting applications – Emergency lighting
10 EN 50160 Merkmale der Spannung in öffentlichen Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by
Elektrizitätsversorgungsnetzen public electricity networks
EN 50171 VDE 0558‑508 Zentrale Stromversorgungssysteme Central power supply systems
11 EN 50172 VDE Sicherheitsbeleuchtungsanlagen Emergency escape lighting systems
0108‑100:2005
EN 50174‑2 VDE 0800‑174‑2 Informationstechnik – Installation von Information technology – Cabling installation –
12 Kommunikationsverkabelung – Teil 2:
Installationsplanung und Installationspraktiken in
Part 2: Installation planning and practices inside
buildings
Gebäuden

13 EN 50272 ‑1 VDE 0510‑1 Sicherheitsanforderungen an Batterien und

Batterieanlagen – Teil 1: Allgemeine
Safety requirements for secondary batteries and
battery installations – Part 1: General safety
Sicherheitsinformationen information
EN 50272‑2 VDE 0510‑2 Sicherheitsanforderungen an Batterien und Safety requirements for secondary batteries and
14 Batterieanlagen – Teil 2: Stationäre Batterien battery installations – Part 2: Stationary batteries
EN 50464‑1 VDE 0532‑221 Ölgefüllte Drehstrom-Verteilungs­transformatoren 50 Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers
Hz, 50 kVA bis 2500 kVA mit einer höchsten 50 Hz, from 50 kVA to 2500 kVA with highest
Spannung für Betriebsmittel bis 36 kV – Teil 1: voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV –
15 Allgemeine Anforderungen Part 1: General requirements
EN 50541‑1 VDE 0532‑241 Drehstrom-Trocken-Verteilungstransformatoren, 50 Three-phase dry-type distribution transformers 50
Hz, 100 bis 3150 kVA, mit einer höchsten Spannung Hz, from 100 to 3150 kVA, with highest voltage for
16 für Betriebsmittel kleiner oder gleich 36 kV – Teil 1:
Allgemeine Anforderungen
equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 1: General
requirements
EN 55015 VDE 0875‑15‑1 Grenzwerte und Messverfahren für Funkstör­ Limits and methods of measurement of radio
eigenschaften von elektrischen Beleuchtungs­ disturbance characteristics of electrical lighting and
17 einrichtungen und ähnlichen Elektrogeräten similar equipment

348 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
EN 61100 VDE 0389‑2 Klassifikation von Isolierflüssigkeiten nach dem Classification of insulating liquids according to fire duction
Brandverhalten und unteren Heizwert point and net calorific value
HD 639 S1/A2 VDE 0661‑10/A2 Elektrisches Installationsmaterial – Electrical accessories – Portable residual current
Ortsveränderliche Fehlerstrom-Schutzeinrichtungen
ohne eingebauten Überstromschutz für
devices without integral overcurrent protection for
household and similar use (PRCDs)
1
Hausinstallationen und ähnliche Anwendungen
(PRCDs)
IEC 60034‑1 VDE 0530‑1 Drehende elektrische Maschinen – Teil 1: Rotating electrical machines – Part 1: Rating and 2
Bemessung und Betriebsverhalten performance
IEC 60038 VDE 0175‑1 IEC Normspannungen IEC standard voltages
IEC Internationales Elektrotechnisches Wörterbuch; International electrotechnical vocabulary; chapter 3
60050‑191 Kapitel 191: Zuverlässigkeit und Dienstgüte 191: dependability and quality of service
IEC Internationales Elektrotechnisches Wörterbuch; International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Part 601:
60050‑601 Erzeugung, Übertragung und Verteilung elektrischer
Energie – Allgemeines
Chapter 601 : Generation, transmission and
distribution of electricity – General 4
IEC Umgebungseinflüsse – Teil 2-30: Prüfverfahren – Environmental testing – Part 2-30: Tests – Test Db:
60068‑2‑30 Prüfung Db: Feuchte Wärme, zyklisch (12 + 12 Damp heat, cyclic (12 h + 12 h cycle)
Stunden) 5
IEC 60071‑1 VDE 0111‑1 Isolationskoordination – Teil 1: Begriffe, Grundsätze Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions,
und Anforderungen principles and rules
IEC 60076‑1 VDE 0532‑76‑1 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 1: Allgemeines Power transformers – Part 1: General 6
IEC 60076‑11 VDE 0532‑76‑11 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 11: Power transformers – Part 11: Dry-type
Trockentransformatoren transformers
IEC 60076‑12 VDE 0532‑76‑12 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 12: Leitfaden für die
Belastung von Trocken-Leistungstransformatoren
Power transformers – Part 12: Loading guide for
dry-type power transformers
7
IEC 60076‑2 VDE 0532‑76‑2 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 2: Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise for
Übertemperaturen für flüssigkeitsgefüllte liquid-immersed transformers
Transformatoren 8
IEC 60076‑5 VDE 0532‑76‑5 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 5: Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand
Kurzschlussfestigkeit short circuit
IEC 60076‑6 VDE 0532‑76‑6 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 6: Drosselspulen Power transformers – Part 6: Reactors 9
IEC 60076‑7 VDE 0532‑76‑7 Leistungstransformatoren – Teil 7: Power transformers – Part 7: Loading guide for oil-
Belastungsrichtlinie für ölgefüllte immersed power transformers

IEC 60204‑1 VDE 0113‑1

Leistungstransformatoren
Sicherheit von Maschinen – Elektrische Ausrüstung Safety of machinery – Electrical equipment of
10
von Maschinen – Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen machines – Part 1: General requirements
IEC 60204‑11 VDE 0113‑11 Sicherheit von Maschinen – Elektrische Aus­rüstung
von Maschinen – Teil 11: Anforderungen an
Safety of machinery – Electrical equipment of
machines – Part 11: Requirements for HV 11
Hochspannungsausrüstung für Spannungen über equipment for voltages above 1000 V a.c. or 1500
1000 V Wechselspannung oder 1500 V V d.c. and not exceeding 36 kV
Gleichspannung aber nicht über 36 kV
IEC VDE 0435‑3151 Messrelais und Schutzeinrichtungen – Teil 151: Measuring relays and protection equipment –
12
60255‑151 Funktionsanforderungen für Über-/Unterstromschutz Part 151: Functional requirements for over/under
current protection
IEC 60269‑1 VDE 0636‑1 Niederspannungssicherungen – Teil 1: Allgemeine
Anforderungen
Low-voltage fuses – Part 1: General requirements 13
IEC 60269‑2 VDE 0636‑2 Niederspannungssicherungen – Teil 2: Zusätzliche Low-voltage fuses – Part 2: Supplementary
Anforderungen an Sicherungen zum Gebrauch
durch Elektrofachkräfte bzw. elektrotechnisch
requirements for fuses for use by authorized
persons (fuses mainly for industrial application) – 14
unterwiesene Personen (Sicherungen überwiegend Examples of standardized systems of fuses A to K
für den industriellen Gebrauch) – Beispiele für

IEC 60269‑6 VDE 0636‑6

genormte Sicherungssysteme A bis K
Niederspannungssicherungen – Teil 6: Zusätz­liche Low-voltage fuses – Part 6: Supplementary
15
Anforderungen an Sicherungseinsätze für den requirements for fuse-links for the protection of
Schutz von solaren photovoltaischen solar photovoltaic energy systems
Energieerzeugungssystemen
16
IEC 60282‑1 VDE 0670‑4 Hochspannungssicherungen – Teil 1: High-voltage fuses – Part 1: Current-limiting fuses
Strombegrenzende Sicherungen

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 349

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
duction IEC 60296 VDE 0370‑1 Flüssigkeiten für elektrotechnische Anwendungen – Fluids for electrotechnical applications – Unused
Neue Isolieröle auf Mineralöl­basis für mineral insulating oils for transformers and
Transformatoren und Schaltgeräte switchgear

1 IEC 60364‑1 VDE 0100‑100 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 1:

Allgemeine Grundsätze, Bestimmungen allgemeiner
Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 1:
Fundamental principles, assessment of general
Merkmale, Begriffe characteristics, definitions
IEC VDE 0100‑410 Elektrische Anlagen von Gebäuden – Teil 4-41: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 4-41:
2 60364‑4‑41 Schutzmassnahmen – Schutz gegen elektrischen
Schlag
Protection for safety – Protection against electric
shock
IEC VDE 0100‑430 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 4-43: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 4-43:

3 60364‑4‑43 Schutzmaßnahmen – Schutz bei Überstrom Protection for safety – Protection against
overcurrent
IEC VDE 0100‑520 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 5-52: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-52:
60364‑5‑52 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel – Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
4 Kabel- und Leitungsanlagen Wiring systems
IEC VDE 0100‑530 Elektrische Anlagen von Gebäuden – Teil 5-53: Electrical installations of buildings – Part 5-53:
60364‑5‑53 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel; Selection and erection of electrical equipment;
Trennen, Schalten und Steuern Isolation, switching and control
5 IEC VDE 0100‑540 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 5-54: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-54:
60364‑5‑54 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel – Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
Erdungsanlagen, Schutzleiter und Earthing arrangements and protective conductors
Schutzpotentialausgleichsleiter
6 IEC VDE 0100‑560 Errichten von Niederspannungseinrichtungen – Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-56:
60364‑5‑56 Teil 5-56: Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
Betriebsmittel – Einrichtungen für Sicherheitszwecke Safety services

7 IEC 60364‑6 VDE 0100‑600 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 6:

Prüfungen
Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 6:
Verification
IEC VDE 0100‑710 Elektrische Anlagen von Gebäuden – Teil 7-710: Electrical installations of buildings – Part 7-710:

8 60364‑7‑710 Anforderungen für Betriebsstätten, Räume und

Anlagen besonderer Art; Medizinisch genutzte
Requirements for special installations or locations;
Medical locations
Bereiche
IEC VDE 0100‑718 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 7-718: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 7-718:
9 60364‑7‑718 Anforderungen für Betriebsstätten, Räume und
Anlagen besonderer Art – Öffentliche Einrichtungen
Requirements for special installations or locations –
Communal facilities and workplaces
und Arbeitsstätten
IEC VDE 0100‑729 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 7-729:
10 60364‑7‑729 Anforderungen für Betriebsstätten, Räume und
Anlagen besonderer Art – Teil 7-729:
Requirements for special installations or locations –
Operating or maintenance gangways
Bedienungsgänge und Wartungsgänge
IEC 60529 VDE 0470‑1 Schutzarten durch Gehäuse (IP-Code) Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP
11 Code)
IEC 60570 VDE 0711‑300 Elektrische Stromschienensysteme für Leuchten Electrical supply track systems for luminaires
IEC 60598‑1 VDE 0711‑1 Leuchten – Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen und Luminaires – Part 1: General requirements and tests
12 Prüfungen
IEC VDE 0711‑2‑22 Leuchten – Teil 2-22: Besondere Anforderungen – Luminaires – Part 2-22: Particular requirements –
60598‑2‑22 Leuchten für Notbeleuchtung Luminaires for emergency lighting

13 IEC 60617‑DB Graphische Symbole für Schaltpläne (Schaltzeichen)

/ Online-Datenbank – Die Datenbank ersetzt IEC
Graphical symbols for diagrams / Online-Database –
The database replaces part 2 to 13 of IEC 60617
60617-2 bis -13
IEC 60664‑1 VDE 0110‑1 Isolationskoordination für elektrische Betriebsmittel Insulation coordination for equipment within low-
14 in Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 1: Grundsätze,
Anforderungen und Prüfungen
voltage systems – Part 1: Principles, requirements
and tests
IEC 60831‑1 VDE 0560‑46 Selbstheilende Leistungs-Parallelkondensatoren für Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type for

15 Wechselstromanlagen mit einer Nennspannung bis

1 kV – Teil 1: Allgemeines; Leistungsanforderun­gen,
a.c. systems having a rated voltage up to and
including 1 kV – Part 1: General; Performance,
Prüfung und Bemessung; Sicherheitsanforde­ testing and rating; Safety requirements; Guide for
rungen; Anleitung für Errichtung und Betrieb installation and operation

16 IEC
60870‑5‑101
Fernwirkeinrichtungen und -systeme – Teil 5:
Übertragungsprotokolle; Hauptabschnitt 1:
Telecontrol equipment and systems – Part 5-101:
Transmission protocols; Companion standard for
TelegrammformateFernwirkeinrichtungen und basic telecontrol tasks
-systeme – Teil 5-101: Übertragungsprotokolle;
Anwendungsbezogene Norm für grundlegende
17 Fernwirkaufgaben

350 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
IEC Fernwirkeinrichtungen und -systeme – Teil 5-104: Telecontrol equipment and systems – Part 5-104: duction
60870‑5‑104 Übertragungsprotokolle – Zugriff für IEC 60870-5- Transmission protocols – Network access for IEC
101 auf Netze mit genormten Transportprofilen 60870-5-101 using standard transport profiles
IEC 60896‑21 Ortsfeste Blei-Akkumulatoren – Teil 21:
Verschlossene Bauarten – Prüfverfahren
Stationary lead-acid batteries – Part 21: Valve
regulated types – Methods of test
1
IEC 60898‑1 VDE 0641‑11 Elektrisches Installationsmaterial – Leitungsschalter Electrical accessories – Circuit-breakers for
für Hausinstallationen und ähnliche Zwecke – Teil 1:
Leitungsschutzschalter für Wechselstrom (AC)
overcurrent protection for household and similar
installations – Part 1: Circuit-breakers for a.c. 2
operation
IEC 60898‑2 VDE 0641‑12 Leitungsschutzschalter für Hausinstallationen und Circuit-breakers for overcurrent protection for
ähnliche Zwecke – Teil 2: Leitungsschutzschalter für
Wechsel- und Gleichstrom
household an similar installations – Part 2: Circuit-
breakers for a.c. and d.c. operation
3
IEC 60947‑1 VDE 0660‑100 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 1: Allgemeine Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 1:
Festlegungen General rules
IEC 60947‑2 VDE 0660‑101 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 2: Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 2:
4
Leistungsschalter Circuit-breakers
IEC 60947‑3 VDE 0660‑107 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 3: Lastschalter, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 3:
Trennschalter, Lasttrennschalter und Schalter-
Sicherungs-Einheiten
Switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and
fuse-combination units
5
IEC 60947‑4‑1 VDE 0660‑102 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 4-1: Schütze Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 4-1:
und Motorstarter – Elektromechanische Schütze und
Motorstarter
Contactors and motor-starters – Electromechanical
contactors and motor-starters 6
IEC 60947‑4‑2 VDE 0660‑117 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 4-2: Schütze Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 4-2:
und Motorstarter – Halbleiter-Motor-Steuergeräte Contactors and motor-starters – AC semiconductor
und -Starter für Wechselspannungen motor controllers and starters 7
IEC 60947‑8 VDE 0660‑302 Niederspannungsschaltgeräte – Teil 8: Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 8:
Auslösegeräte für den eingebauten thermischen Control units for built-in thermal protection (PTC)
Schutz (PTC) von rotierenden elektrischen
Maschinen
for rotating electrical machines
8
IEC VDE 0839‑2‑12 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2-12:
61000‑2‑12 Teil 2-12: Umgebungsbedingungen; Environment; Compatibility levels for low-
Verträglichkeitspegel für niederfrequente
leitungsgeführte Störgrößen und Signalübertragung
frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in
public medium-voltage power supply systems;
9
in öffentlichen Mittelspannungsnetzen; EMV- Basic EMC Publication
Grundnorm
IEC 61000‑2‑2 VDE 0839‑2‑2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 2-2:
Umgebungsbedingungen; Verträglichkeitspegel für
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2-2:
Environment; Compatibility levels for low-
10
niederfrequente leitungsgeführte Störgrössen und frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in
Signalübertragung in öffentlichen public low-voltage power supply systems
Niederspannungsnetzen 11
IEC 61000‑2‑4 VDE 0839‑2‑4 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 2-4: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2-4:
Umgebungsbedingungen; Verträglichkeitspegel für Environment; Compatibility levels in industrial
niederfrequente leitungsgeführte Störgrössen in
Industrieanlagen
plants for low-frequency conducted disturbances
12
IEC VDE 0838‑11 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 3-11:
61000‑3‑11 Teil 3-11: Grenzwerte; Begrenzung von Spannungs­ Limits – Limitation of voltage changes,
änderungen, Spannungsschwankungen und Flicker
in öffentlichen Niederspannungs-
voltage fluctuations and flicker in public
low-voltage supply systems – Equipment with rated
13
Versorgungsnetzen; Geräte und Einrichtungen mit current ≤ 75 A and subject to
einem Bemessungsstrom ≤ 75 A, die einer conditional connection

IEC VDE 0838‑12

Sonderanschlussbedingung unterliegen
Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 3-12:
14
61000‑3‑12 Teil 3-12: Grenzwerte für Oberschwingungsströme, Limits – Limits for harmonic currents produced by
verursacht von Geräten und Einrichtungen mit equipment connected to public low-voltage
einem Eingangsstrom > 16 A und ≤ 75 A je Leiter,
die zum Anschluss an öffentliche
systems with input current > 16 A und ≤ 75 A per
phase
15
Niederspannungsnetze vorgesehen sind

16
IEC 61000‑3‑2 VDE 0838‑2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 3-2: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 3-2:
Grenzwerte – Grenzwerte für Limits – Limits for harmonic current emissions
Oberschwingungsströme (Geräte-Eingangsstrom (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)
≤ 16 A je Leiter)

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 351

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
duction IEC 61000‑3‑3 VDE 0838‑3 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 3-3: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 3:
Grenzwerte – Begrenzung von Limits – Section 8: Signalling on low-voltage
Spannungsänderungen, Spannungsschwankungen electrical installations – Emission levels, frequency

1 und Flicker in öffentlichen Niederspannungs-

Versorgungsnetzen für Geräte mit einem
bands and electromagnetic disturbance levels

Bemessungsstrom = 16 A je Leiter, die keiner

Sonderanschlussbedingung unterliegen

2 IEC
61000‑4‑15
VDE 0847‑4‑15 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) –
Teil 4-15: Prüf- und Messverfahren – Flickermeter –
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 4-15:
Testing and measurement techniques –
Funktionsbeschreibung und Auslegungsspezifikation Flickermeter – Functional and design specifications
IEC VDE 0847‑4‑30 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Testing and
3 61000‑4‑30 Teil 4-30: Prüf- und Messverfahren – Verfahren zur
Messung der Spannungsqualität
measurement techniques – Power quality
measurement methods
IEC 61000‑4‑7 VDE 0847‑4‑7 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 4-7: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 4-7:

4 Prüf- und Messverfahren; Allgemeiner Leitfaden für

Verfahren und Geräte zur Messung von
Testing and measurement techniques; General
guide on harmonics and interharmonics
Oberschwingungen und Zwischenharmonischen in measurements and instrumentation, for power
Stromversorgungsnetzen und supply systems and equipment connected thereto

5 IEC 61009‑1 VDE 0664‑20

angeschlossenen Geräten
Fehlerstrom-/Differenzstrom-Schutzschalter mit Residual current operated circuit-breakers with
eingebautem Überstromschutz (RCBOs) für integral overcurrent protection for household and
Hausinstallationen und für ähnliche Anwendungen similar uses (RCBOs) – Part 1: General rules
6 – Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen
IEC 61131‑3 Speicherprogrammierbare Steuerungen – Teil 3: Programmable controllers – Part 3: Programming
Programmiersprachen languages

7 IEC 61140 VDE 0140‑1 Schutz gegen elektrischen Schlag – Gemeinsame

Anforderungen für Anlagen und Betriebsmittel
Protection against electric shock – Common aspects
for installation and equipment
IEC 61347‑1 VDE 0712‑30 Geräte für Lampen: Allgemeine und Lamp controlgear – Part 1: General and safety
Sicherheitsanforderungen requirements
8 IEC VDE 0712‑… Geräte für Lampen – Teil 2- … : Besondere Lamp controlgear – Part 2- … : Particular
61347‑2‑… Anforderungen an … requirements for …
IEC 61400‑1 Windenergieanlagen – Teil 1: Wind turbines – Part 1: Design requirements
9 Auslegungsanforderungen
IEC 61439‑1 VDE 0660‑600‑1 Niederspannungs-Schaltgerätekombinationen – Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
Teil 1: Allgemeine Festlegungen – Part 1: General rules

10 IEC 61439‑2 VDE 0660‑600‑2 Niederspannungs-Schaltgerätekombinationen –

Teil 2: Energie-Schaltgerätekombinationen
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
– Part 2: Power switchgear and controlgear
assemblies
IEC 61439‑3 VDE 0660‑600‑3 Niederspannungs-Schaltgerätekombinationen – Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
11 Teil 3: Installationsverteiler für die Bedienung durch – Part 3: Distribution boards intended to be
Laien (DBO) operated by ordinary persons (DBO)
IEC 61439‑6 VDE 0660‑600‑6 Niederspannungs-Schaltgerätekombinationen – Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
12 Teil 6: Schienenverteilersysteme (busways) – Part 6: Busbar trunking systems (busways)
IEC 61547 VDE 0875‑15‑2 Einrichtungen für allgemeine Beleuchtungszwecke – Equipment for general lighting purposes – EMC
EMV-Störfestigkeitsanforderungen immunity requirements

13 IEC 61800‑3 VDE 0160‑103 Drehzahlveränderbare elektrische Antriebe – Teil 3:

Anforderungen einschließlich spezieller
Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems –
Part 3: EMC requirements and specific test methods
Prüfverfahren
IEC 61869‑1 VDE 0414‑9‑1 Messwandler – Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen Instrument transformers – Part 1: General
14 requirements
IEC 61869‑2 VDE 0414‑9‑2 Messwandler – Teil 2: Zusätzliche Anforderungen für Instrument transformers – Part 2: Additional
Stromwandler requirements for current transformers

15 IEC 61869‑3 VDE 0414‑9‑3 Messwandler – Teil 3: Zusätzliche Anforderungen für

induktive Spannungswandler
Instrument transformers – Part 3: Additional
requirements for inductive voltage transformers
IEC 61869‑4 VDE 0414‑9‑4 Messwandler – Teil 4: Zusätzliche Anforderungen für Instrument transformers – Part 4: Additional

16
kombinierte Wandler requirements for combined transformers
IEC 61936‑1 VDE 0101‑1 Starkstromanlagen mit Nennwechselspannungen Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1:
über 1 kV – Teil 1: Allgemeine Bestimmungen Common rules
IEC 62034 VDI 0711‑400 Automatische Prüfsysteme für batteriebetriebene Automatic test systems for battery powered
17 Sicherheitsbeleuchtung für Rettungswege emergency escape lighting

352 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
IEC 62040‑1 VDE 0558‑510 Unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgungssysteme Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) – Part 1: duction
(USV) – Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen und General and safety requirements for UPS
Sicherheitsanforderungen
IEC 62040‑2 VDE 0558‑520 Unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgungssysteme
(USV) – Teil 2: Anforderungen an die
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) – Part 2:
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements
1
elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV)
IEC 62040‑3 VDE 0558‑530 Unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgungssysteme
(USV) – Teil 3: Methoden zum Festlegen der
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) – Part 3:
Method of specifying the performance and test 2
Leistungs- und Prüfungsanforderungen requirements
IEC 62061 VDE 0113‑50 Sicherheit von Maschinen – Funktionale Sicherheit Safety of machinery – Functional safety of safety-
sicherheitsbezogener elektrischer, elektronischer
und programmierbarer elektronischer
related electrical, electronic and programmable
electronic control systems
3
Steuerungssysteme
IEC VDE 0671‑100 Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
62271‑100 Teil 100: Wechselstrom-Leistungsschalter Part 100: Alternating-current circuit-breakers 4
IEC VDE 0671‑102 Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
62271‑102 Teil 102: Wechselstrom-Trennschalter und Part 102: Alternating current disconnectors and

IEC VDE 0671‑103

-Erdungsschalter
Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen –
earthing switches
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
5
62271‑103 Teil 103: Lastschalter für Bemessungsspannungen Part 103: Switches for rated voltages above 1 kV up
über 1 kV bis einschliesslich 52 kV to and including 52 kV
IEC VDE 0671‑105 Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – 6
62271‑105 Teil 105: Wechselstrom-Lastschalter-Sicherungs- Part 105: Alternating current switch-fuse
Kombinationen für Bemessungsspannungen über 1 combinations for rated voltages above 1 kV up to

IEC VDE 0671‑106

kV bis einschliesslich 52 kV
Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen –
and including 52 kV
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
7
62271‑106 Teil 106: Wechselstrom-Schütze, Part 106: Alternating current contactors, contactor-
Kombinationsstarter und Motorstarter mit Schützen based controllers and motor-starters
IEC VDE 0671‑200 Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – 8
62271‑200 Teil 200: Metallgekapselte Wechselstrom- Part 200: AC metal-enclosed switchgear and
Schaltanlagen für Bemessungsspannungen über 1 controlgear for rated voltages above 1 kV and up to
kV bis einschliesslich 52 kV and including 52 kV
IEC VDE 0671‑201 Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
9
62271‑201 Teil 201: Isolierstoffgekapselte Wechselstrom- Part 201: AC insulation-enclosed switchgear and
Schaltanlagen für Bemessungsspannungen über 1 controlgear for rated voltages above 1 kV and up to

IEC VDE 0671‑202

kV bis einschliesslich 52 kV
Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen –
and including 52 kV
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
10
62271‑202 Teil 202: Fabrikfertige Stationen für Hochspannung/ Part 202: High voltage/low voltage prefabricated
Niederspannung substation
IEC 62305‑2 VDE 0185‑305‑2 Blitzschutz – Teil 2: Risiko-Management Protection against lightning – Part 2: Risk 11
management
IEC 62305‑3 VDE 0185‑305‑3 Blitzschutz – Teil 3: Schutz von baulichen Anlagen Protection against lightning – Part 3: Physical
und Personen damage to structures and life hazard 12
IEC 62305‑4 VDE 0185‑305‑4 Blitzschutz – Teil 4: Elektrische und elektronische Protection against lightning – Part 4: Electrical and
Systeme in baulichen Anlagen electronic systems within structures
IEC 62471 VDE 0837‑471 Photobiologische Sicherheit von Lampen und
Lampensystemen
Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems 13
IEC 62493 VDE 0848‑493 Beurteilung von Beleuchtungseinrichtungen Assessment of lighting equipment related to
bezüglich der Exposition von Personen gegenüber human exposure to electromagnetic fields
elektromagnetischen Feldern 14
IEC 62606 Entwurf VDE Allgemeine Anforderungen an Fehlerlichtbogen- General requirements for arc fault detection devices
0665‑10 Schutzeinrichtungen (AFDD) (AFDD)
IEC/PAS 62717 LED-Module für die Allgemeinbeleuchtung – LED modules for general lighting – Performance 15
Anforderungen an die Arbeitsweise requirements

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 353

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
duction IEC/TR 61641 VDE 0660‑500 Niederspannungs-Schaltgerätekombinationen in Enclosed low-voltage switchgear and controlgear
Beiblatt 2 geschlossener Bauform – Leitfaden für die Prüfung assemblies – Guide for testing under conditions of
unter Störlichtbogenbedingungen durch einen arcing due to internal fault

1 IEC/TR 62655 VDE 0670-402

inneren Fehler
Wechselstromschaltgeräte für Spannungen über 1 Tutorial and application guide for high-voltage
kV – Auswahl von strombegrenzenden fuses
Sicherungseinsätzen für Transformatorstromkreise
2 IEC/TS VDE V Wirkungen des elektrischen Stromes auf Menschen Effects of current on human beings and livestock –
60479‑1 0140‑479‑1 und Nutztiere – Teil 1: Allgemeine Aspekte Part 1: General aspects
IEC/TS Energiemanagementsysteme und zugehöriger Power systems management and associated
3 62351‑1 Datenaustausch – IT Sicherheit für Daten und
Kommunikation – Teil1: Einführung in die
information exchange – Data and communications
security – Part 1: Communication network and
Sicherheitsthematik system security – Introduction to security issues

4 IEEE 446 Empfohlene Praxis für Not- und Reservestromnetze

für industrielle und gewerbliche Zwecke
Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial
Applications (Orange book)
ISO 12100 Sicherheit von Maschinen – Allgemeine Safety of machinery – General principles for design
5 Gestaltungsleitsätze – Risikobeurteilung und
Risikominderung
– Risk assessment and risk reduction

ISO 13849‑1 Sicherheit von Maschinen – Sicherheitsbezogene Safety of machinery – Safety-related parts of

6 Teile von Steuerungen – Teil 1: Allgemeine

Gestaltungsleitsätze
control systems – Part 1: General principles for
design
ISO 14001 Umweltmanagementsysteme. Anforderungen mit Environmental Management Systems –
Anleitung zur Anwendung Specification with Guidance for Use
7 ISO 23570‑2 Industrielle Automatisierungsssysteme und deren Industrial automation systems and integration –
Anwendung: Teil 2: Hybrider Kommunikationsbus Distributed installation in industrial applications –
Part 2: Hybrid communication bus

8 ISO 23570‑3 Industrielle Automatisierungsssysteme und deren

Anwendung: Teil 2: Bussystem fürStromverteilung
Industrial automation systems and integration –
Distributed installation in industrial applications –
Part 3: Power distribution bus

9 ISO 23601 Sicherheitskennzeichnung – Fluchtwegpläne Safety identification – Escape and evacuation plan
signs
ISO 3864 Normenreihe graphische Symbole – Group of standards for graphical symbols – Safety
Sicherheitsfarben und Sicherheitszeichen colours and safety signs
10 ISO 50001 Energiemanagementsysteme – Anforderungen mit Energy management systems – Requirements with
Anleitung zur Anwendung guidance for use
ISO 9001 Qualitätsmanagementsysteme – Anforderungen Quality management systems – Requirements
11 VDE 0710‑13 Leuchten mit Betriebsspannungen unter 1000 V; Luminaires with operating voltages below 1000 V;
Ballwurfsichere Leuchten VDE-Bestimmung luminaires safety to ball throwing VDE Specification
DIN 4102‑2 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen; Fire Behaviour of Building Materials and Building
12 Bauteile, Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen Components; Building Components; Definitions,
Requirements and Tests
DIN 4102‑9 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen; Fire behaviour of building materials and elements;
13 Kabelabschottungen; Begriffe, Anforderungen und
Prüfungen
seals for cable penetrations; concepts,
requirements and testing
EltBauVO Verordnung über den Bau von Betriebsräumen für Regulation for the construction of operation rooms
elektrische Anlagen for electrical equipment
14 HOAI 2013 Deutsche Honorarordnung für Architekten und German fee structure imposed on architects and
Ingenieure engineers

15 DIN 276

DIN 6280‑12
Normenreihe – Kosten im Bauwesen

Stromerzeugungsaggregate – Unterbrechungsfreie
Series of standards – Building costs

Generating sets – Uninterruptible power supply –

Stromversorgung – Teil 12: Dynamische USV- Part 12: Dynamic UPS systems with and without
Anlagen mit und ohne Hubkolben- reciprocating internal combustion engines
16 Verbrennungsmotor
DIN VDE V Selbsttätige Schaltstelle zwischen einer Automatic disconnection device between a
0126‑1‑1 netzparallelen Eigenerzeugungsanlage und dem generator and the public low-voltage grid

17
öffentlichen Niederspannungsnetz

354 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

International Germany German title English title

Intro­
VDEW‑Richtlinie Notstromaggregate – Richtlinie für Planung, duction
2004 Erichtung, Betrieb von Anlagen mit
Notstromaggregaten

DIN 43880 Installationseinbaugeräte; Hüllmasse und Built-in equipment for electrical installations; 1
zugehörige Einbaumasse overall dimensions and related mounting
dimensions

DIN 40041 Zuverlässigkeit; Begriffe Dependability; concepts 2

BSI‑Standard Risikoanalyse auf Basis von IT-Grundschutz Risk Analysis on the Basis of IT-Grundschutz
100‑3

VDE 0670‑402 Wechselstromschaltgeräte für Spannungen über 1 A.C. switchgear and controlgear for voltages above 3
kV; Auswahl von strombegrenzenden 1 kV; application guide for the selection of fuse-
Sicherungseinsätzen für Transformatorstromkreise links for transformer circuits

Entwurf VDE
0662
Ortsfeste Schutzeinrichtungen in
Steckdosenausführung zur Schutzpegelerhöhung
Fixed socket-outlets with residual current devices
intended for an increase in the protection level
4
EMVG Gesetz über die elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit Law on the Electromagnetic Compatibility of
von Betriebsmitteln (2008; basierend auf der EMV-
Richtlinie 2004/108/EG)
Equipment (2008; based on EC-directive 2004/108/
EC) 5
VDI 4602‑1 Energiemanagement – Begriffe, Definitionen Energy management – Terms, definitions

VDI 4602‑2 Energiemanagement – Beispiele Energy management – Examples 6

EnEV Energieeinsparverordnung Energy saving directive

VDI 3807‑4 Energie- und Wasserverbrauchskennwerte für

Gebäude – Teilkennwerte elektrische Energie
Characteristic values of energy and water
consumption of buildings – Characteristic values 7
for electrical energy

DIN 5035‑7 Beleuchtung mit künstlichem Licht – Teil 7: Artificial Lighting – Part 7: Lighting of interiors with
Beleuchtung von Räumen mit
Bildschirmarbeitsplätzen
visual displays work stations 8
DIN 5035‑8 Beleuchtung mit künstlichem Licht – Teil 8: Artificial lighting – Part 8: Workplace luminaries –
Arbeitsplatzleuchten – Anforderungen,
Empfehlungen und Prüfung
Requirements, recommendations and proofing
9
DIN V 18599‑1 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung,
net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and 10
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – Teil 1: lighting – Part 1: General balancing procedures,
Allgemeine Bilanzierungsverfahren, Begriffe, terms and definitions, zoning and evaluation of
Zonierung und Bewertung der Energieträger energy sources

DIN V 18599‑4 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
11
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – Teil 4:
Nutz- und Endenergiebedarf für Beleuchtung
lighting – Part 4: Net and final energy demand for
lighting
12
DIN V 18599‑10 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung,
net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and 13
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – lighting – Part 10: Boundary conditions of use,
Teil 10: Nutzungsrandbedingungen, Klimadaten climatic data

DIN Spec 67600 Biologisch wirksame Beleuchtung –

Planungsempfehlungen
Biologically effective illumination – Design
guidelines
14
ASR A3.4 Technische Regeln für Arbeitsstätten in Bezug auf Technical workplace regulation on lighting systems
Beleuchtung
15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 355

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 International Germany German title English title

BGI 650 Berufsgenossenschaftliche Information für Berufsgenossenschaftliche information about

2 Bildschirm- und Büroarbeitsplätze monitor and office workplaces

VDI 6011‑1 Richtlinie zur Optimierung von Tageslichtnutzung Optimisation of daylighting and artificial lighting –
und künstlicher Beleuchtung Fundamentals

3 DIN V 5031‑100 Strahlungsphysik im optischen Bereich und

Lichttechnik – Teil 100: Über das Auge vermittelte,
Optical radiation physics and illuminating
engineering – Part 100: Non-visual effects of ocular
nichtvisuelle Wirkung des Lichts auf den Menschen light on human beings – Quantities, symbols and
– Grössen, Formelzeichen und Wirkungsspektren action spectra
4 BGR/GUV‑R Berufsgenossenschaftliche Regeln für Sicherheit und
Gesundheit bei der Arbeit
MBO Musterbauordnung Standard building code
5 LBO Landesbauordnung Building regulation of the state ("Land")
ArbstättV Arbeitsstättenverordnung Ordinance on health and safety at work

6 MPrüfVo
BetrSichV
Musterprüfverordnung
Betriebssicherheitsverordnung Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health
BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschriften Employers' Liability Association regulations BGV

7 MLAR Muster-Leitungsanlagen-Richtlinie Regulation on fire security of conduit installations

ASchG ArbeitnehmerInnenschutzgesetz Occupational Safety and Health at Work for
Employees

8 ASR Technische Regeln für Arbeitsstätten Technical workplace regulation

VDE V 0108‑100 Sicherheitsbeleuchtungsanlagen Emergency escape lighting systems
DIN 4844‑1 Graphische Symbole – Sicherheitsfarben und Graphical symbols – Safety colours and safety signs
9 Sicherheitszeichen – Teil 1: Erkennungsweiten und
farb- und photometrische Anforderungen
– Part 1: Observation distances and colorimetric
and photometric requirements
DIN 4844‑2 Graphische Symbole – Sicherheitsfarben und Graphical symbols – Safety colours and safety signs
Sicherheitszeichen – Teil 2: Registrierte – Part 2: Registered safety signs
10 Sicherheitszeichen
ÖVE/ÖNORM Normenreihe zu Starkstromanlagen und Series of standards about power installation and
E8002 Sicherheitsstromversorgung in baulichen Anlagen safety power supply in communal facilities
11 für Menschenansammlungen
DIN 4102‑12 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen – Fire behaviour of building materials and building
Teil 12: Funktionserhalt von elektrischen components – Part 12: Circuit integrity
Kabelanlagen; Anforderungen und Prüfungen maintenance of electric cable systems;
12 requirements and testing
VDE‑AR‑N 4105 Erzeugungsanlagen am Niederspannungsnetz – Generators connected to the low-voltage
Technische Mindestanforderungen für Anschluss distribution network – Technical requirements for

13 und Parallelbetrieb von Erzeugungsanlagen am

Niederspannungsnetz
the connection to and parallel operation with low-
voltage distribution networks
GL 2010 Guideline for the Certification of Wind Turbines
Edition 2010
14 GL 2012 Guideline for the Certification of Offshore Wind
Turbines Edition 2012

15

16

17

356 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

17.3 List of Abbreviations 1

A C
2
A/D Analog/digital CAES Compressed air energy storage
AC Alternating current CB Conventional ballast 3
ACB Air circuit-breaker CBEMA Computer and Business Equipment
AEC Availability Environment Classification Manufacturing Association

AEP Average electricity price CBR Circuit-breaker incorporating residual current 4

protection
AF Audio frequency
CCA CENELEC Certification Agreement
AFDD Arc fault detection device
CEN Comité européen de normalisation;
5
AFE Active front end European Committee for Standardization
AIS Air-insulated switchgear
ANSI American National Standards Institute
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization
6
ASR Technical workplace regulation CEP Central earthing point
AVC Availability class CFHC Chlorofluorohydrocarbon 7
CHP Combined heat and power station
B CO Carbon monoxide
BA/TBM Building automation/Technical building CPS Central power supply system
8
management
BCL Busbar coupler longitudinal D 9
BCT Busbar coupler transversal DaC Data centre
BDEW Bundesverband der Energie- und Wasser­ DALI Digital adressable lighting interface
wirtschaft e.V. (Registered Federal
Association of the Energy and Water
DBO Distribution boards intended to be operated 10
by ordinary persons
Industry, Germany)
DC Direct current
BGI Information of the German Employer's
Liability Insurance Association DI Residual current protective device
11
(deprecated abbreviation), in conjunction
BGR/GUV Rule of the German Employer's Liability
with a fault interrupter (FI) now RCD
Insurance Association / Statutory Accident
Insurance DIAZED Diametrical two-part Edison screw-thread
12
fuse
BGV Provision of the German Employer's Liability
Insurance Association DIN VDE Deutsche Industrie Norm Verband deutscher
Elektrotechniker (German Industry Standard, 13
BSI German Federal Office for Information
Association of German Electrical Engineers)
Security
DMT Definite-time overcurrent-time protection
BT Battery test, continuous
DMX Digital multiplex, digital communication
14
BTS Busbar trunking system
protocol for lighting control
DSO Distribution system operator
15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 357

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 E I
EB Electronic ballast I&C Instrumentation and control
EC Electronically commutated, e.g. for EC motor ICT Information and communication technology
2 ECG Electrocardiogram IDMTL Inverse definite minimum time leakage
EEA European Economic Area IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
3 EEG Electroencephalogram IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics
EEPROM Electrically erasable, programmable read- Engineers
only-memory IGBT Insulated gate bipolar transistor
4 EEX European Energy Exchange IR Infrared
EMG Electromyogram ISO International Organization for
Standardization
5 EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
IT Information technology
EN European standard
ENEC European norms electrical certification, a ITIC Information Technology Industry Council
6 symbol indicating conformity with European
safety standards L
EnEV Energy Saving Ordinance (Germany) LDC Light distribution curve
7 EnMS Energy management system LED Light emitting diode
EPROM Erasable, programmable read-only-memory LEMP Lightning electro-magnetic pulse

8 ESD Electrostatic discharge LiTG Lichttechnische Gesellschaft e. V.

(German Light Engineering Society)
ESPS Emergency standby power system
ETU Electronic trip unit LLB Low-loss ballast
9 LLMF Lamp lumen maintenance factor
F LMF Luminaire maintenance factor
FGW Fördergesellschaft Windenergie e. V. LMS Light management systems
10 (German registered association promoting LPS Low power system
the utilisation of wind energy)
LPZ Lightning protection zone
FI Fault interrupter
11 FOC Fibre-optic cable
LSC Loss of service continuity
LSF Lamp survival factor
FT Functional test
LT-Si Switch disconnector with fuse
12 LV Low voltage
G
LV HRC Low-voltage high-rupturing-capacity fuse
GIS Gas-insulated switchgear
13 LVMD Low-Voltage Main Distribution

14 HVDC High-voltage direct current transmission

HV HRC fuse High-voltage high-rupturing-capacity fuse
HVAC Heating, ventilation, air conditioning
15 HMI Human machine interface
HOAI Honorarordnung für Architekten und
Ingenieure (German regulation of architects'
16 and engineers' fees)
HRG Harvard Research Group

17 HV High voltage

358 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

M P 1
MCB Miniature circuit-breaker PAS Publicly available specification in connection
MCC Motor control centre with international standards

MCCB Moulded-case circuit-breaker PDS Power drive system 2

MDNP Main distribution board for normal power PFC Power factor correction
supply PG Power generating unit 3
MDSP Main distribution board for safety power PL Performance level
supply PoS Point-of-sale
MF Maintenance factor PRCD Portable residual current protective device 4
MID Directive on M
 easurement Instruments PV Photovoltaics
2004/22/EC
MLAR Sample Directive on Fireproofing
PWM Pulse width modulation
5
Requirements for Conduits and Line Systems
MRCD Modular residual current device without R
integral current breaking device RAM Random access memory 6
MSP Motor start protection RCBO Residual current operated circuit-breaker
with overcurrent protector
MTBF Mean time between failure
MTTR Mean time to repair RCCB Residual current operated circuit-breaker 7
(without integral overcurrent protection)
MV Medium voltage
RCD Residual current device (previously FI)
MVMD Medium-voltage main distribution
RCU Residual current unit, a variant of RCBO
8
RDF Rated diversity factor
N
NaS Sodium-sulphur-battery (based on sodium
RESPE Resonant neutral earthing (earth-fault 9
compensation)
sulphide: Na2S)
RSMF Room surface maintenance factor
NE Neutral earthing
r.m.s. Root mean square value 10
NOSPE Low-impedance neutral earthing
NPS Normal power supply
S
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition for
11
O technical processes, computer-based
OLED Organic light emitting diode SCPD Short circuit protective device 12
SEMP Switching electromagnetic pulse
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
SIL Safety integrity level 13
Si-LT Fuse-switch-disconnector
SL Standby light 14
SPD Surge protective device
SPOF Single point of failure
SPS Safety power supply 15
SRCD Socket-outlet residual current protective
device
16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 359

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 T X
TAB Technical supply conditions (Germany) XDMT General for either DMT or IDTML protection
THDi Total harmonic distortion of load current
2 TIP Totally Integrated Power Z
TMTU Thermal magnetic trip unit ZSI Zone-selective interlocking
3 TU Transportation unit

U
4 UCTE Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission
of Electricity

5 UGR Unified glare rating

UL Underwriters Laboratories
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
6 UV Ultraviolet

V
7 VDN Verband der Netzbetreiber e. V. (Registered
Association of Network Operators, Germany)

8 VFD Voltage and frequency dependent, off-line

UPS
VFI Voltage and frequency dependent, on-line
9 UPS
VI Voltage-independent, line-interactive UPS

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

360 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

17.4 Bibliography 1

No. Year Published by Authors / Series Title

2
1 2013 German Federal Ministry of Economics Verordnung über die Honorare für Architekten und Ingenieurleistungen
and Technology (HOAI)
3
2 2011 Kiank / Fruth Planning Guide for Power Distribution Plants
3 2009 Uptime Institute Data Center Site Infrastructure Tier Standard: Topology
4 2000 Information Technology Industry Council ITIC (CBEMA) Curve Application Note 4
TC3
5 2007 VEÖ, VSE, CSRES, VDN, VWEW D-A-CH-CZ – Technische Regeln zur Beurteilung von Netzrückwirkungen
6 2004 Official Journal of the European Union "L390/24 Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
5
to electromagnetic compatibility and repealing Directive 89/336/EEC"
7
8
2005
2011
A. Held
German Federal Office for Information
Oracle 10g Hochverfügbarkeit
HV-Kompendium V 1.2 Vol. 1: Einführung und methodische Grundlagen
6
Security
9
10
2005
1976
H. Schau
F. Pigler
Schutz vor Störlichtbögen – II. Workshop Elektrische Sicherungen, Ilmenau
Druckbeanspruchung der Schaltanlagenräume durch Störlichtbögen,
7
Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen Vol. 26, No. 3
11 2008 BDEW Whitepaper „Anforderungen an sichere Steuerungs- und
Telekommunikationssysteme“ 8
12 2003 ZVEI Unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgung, 2nd edition
13 2011 VDE-FNN VDE-AR-N 4105: Erzeugungsanlagen am Niederspannungsnetz –
Technische Mindestanforderungen für Anschluss und Parallelbetrieb von 9
Erzeugungsanlagen am Niederspannungsnetz
14 2007 BDEW Technische Anschlussbedingungen TAB 2007 für den Anschluss an das
Niederspannungsnetz 10
15 2008 BDEW Technischen Richtlinien Erzeugungsanlagen am Mittelspannungsnetz (and
Supplements 1 to 4)
16 2008 BDEW Technischen Anschlussbedingungen Mittelspannung 11
17 2013 Fördergesellschaft Windenergie Technische Richtlinien Teil 3: Bestimmung der Elektrischen Eigenschaften
von Erzeugungseinheiten am Mittel-, Hoch- und Höchstspannungsnetz
18 2010 Germanischer Lloyd Guideline for the Certification of Wind Turbines, Edition 2010 (GL 2010) 12
19 2012 Germanischer Lloyd Guideline for the Certification of Wind Turbines, Edition 2012 (GL 2012)
20 2010 M. Weiß Datenauswertung von Energiemanagementsystemen
21 2009 ZVEI Guide for DIN 12464-1 (German) 13
22 2013 ZVEI Guide – Reliable Planning with LED Lighting
23 2009 Federal Law Gazette (Germany) 2009
Part I No. 23 (BGBl I 2009 Nr. 23)
Ordinance on the Amendment of the Energy Saving Ordinance
(EnEV 2009) 14
24 2013 Federal Law Gazette (Germany) 2013 Second Ordinance on the Amendment of the Energy Saving Ordinance
Part I No. 67 (BGBl I 2013 Nr. 67) (EnEV 2014)
25 2012 ZVEI Photobiological Safety of Lighting Products 15
26 2008 licht.de licht.wissen (the licht.de series of publications) No. 1 – Lighting with
Artificial Light
27 1988 LiTG Publication No. 3.5 Projektierung von Beleuchtungsanlagen nach dem Wirkungsgradverfahren 16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 361

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 17.5 Conversion Factors and Tables

2
Conductor cross sections in the Metric and US System Temperature
3
Metric cross American Wire Gauge °C °F
4 sections acc.
to IEC
(AWG)

8m
Conductor Equivalent AWG or 160 320
5 cross metric CSA MCM

15 m
3m
section 305
150
[mm2] [mm2] 290

7m
6 140
275

13 m
130
0.653 19 AWG 260
0.75
7 0.832 18
120
245

6m
1.040 17
1.310 16
1.50 110 230
8

11 m
1.650 15
2.080 14 100 212
2.50 2.620 13 200

2m

5m
9 3.310 12 90
4.00 185
4.170 11

9m
80
5.260 10 170
6.00
10 6.630 9 70 155

4m
8.370 8
10.00 10.550 7 60 140

11
7m
13.300 6
125
16.00 16.770 5 50
110
3m

21.150 4
40
12 25.00 26.670
33.630
3
2
95
5m
1m

35.00 30
42.410 1 80

13 50.00 53.480 1/0 20 65

2m

70.00 67.430 2/0

85.030 3/0 10 50
95.00
3m

14 120.00
107.200
126.640
4/0
250 MCM 0 32
150.00 152.000 300
1m

20
185.00 –10
15 240.00
202.710
253.350
400
500
5
1m

–20
M 1 : 100
M 1 : 20

M 1 : 50

300.00 304.000 600 –10

354.710 700

16 400.00
500.00
405.350
506.710
800
1000
–30 –25

625.00 –40 –40

17

362 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

2
Linear measure Volume
3
SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit

1 cm3 0.061 in3 = 0.034 fl. oz

1 mm
1 cm
39.37 mil
0.394 in 1 dm3 61.024 in3 =
4
1m 3.281 ft = 39.370 in =1l 0.035 ft3 = 1.057 quart =
= 1.094 yd 2.114 pint = 0.264 gallon
5
15 m

1 km 0.621 mile = 1.094 yd 1 m3 6.29 barrel

Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit

1 mil 0.0254 mm 1 in3 16.387 cm3 6

1 in 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm 1 ft3 28.317 dm3 = 0.028 m3
13 m

1 ft 30.48 cm = 0.305 m 1 yd3 0.765 m3

1 yd 0.914 m 1 fl. oz. 29.574 cm3 7
1 mile 1.609 km = 1,609 m 1 quart 0.946 dm3 = 0.946 l
1 pint 0.473 dm3 = 0.473 l
8
11 m

1 gallon 3.785 dm3 = 3.785 l

1 barrel 159 dm3 = 0.159 m3 = 159 l

9
9m

Square measure Volume flow rate

SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit

10
1 mm2 0.00155 in2 1 l/s 0.264 gallon/s

11
7m

1 cm2 0.155 in2 1 l/h 0.0044 gallon/min

1 m2 10.76 ft2 = 1,550 in2 1 m3/h 4.405 gallon/min =
= 1.196 yd2 0.589 ft3/min = 0.0098 ft3/s
1 km2 0.366 mile2 Non-metric unit SI unit 12
5m

Non-metric unit SI unit

1 gallon/s 3.785 l/s
1 in2 6.452 cm2 = 645.16 mm2 1 gallon/min 0.227 m3/h = 227 l/h
1 ft2 0.093 m2 = 929 cm2 1 ft3/s 101.941 m3/h 13
1 yd2 0.836 m2 1 ft3/min 1.699 m3/h
3m

1 acre 4,046.9 m2
1 mile2 2.59 km2 14

15
1m

Btu = British thermal unit

Btu/h
kgf
=
=
British thermal unit / hour
kilogram force 16
lbf = pound force
tonf = ton force
17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 363

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

1 Force Pressure Energy, work, h

SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit

2 1N 0.225 lbf = 0.102 kgf
SI unit

1 bar 29.53 in Hg = 1 kWh 1.

1 kN 0.100 tonf = 105 Pa 14.504 psi = 1J =
= 102 kPa 2,088.54 lbf/ft2 =
3 Non-metric unit SI unit
14.504 lbf/in2 =
3.
0.
1 lbf 4.448 N 0.932 tonf/ft2 1 kgf m 9.
6.457 × 10–3 tonf/in2 (=
1 kgf 9.807 N
4 1 tonf 9.807 kN
(= 1.02 kgf/cm2)
3.
7.
Non-metric unit SI unit

Non-metric unit
5 Torque, moment of force
1 in HG
1 psi
0.034 bar
0.069 bar 1 hp h 0.
SI unit Non-metric unit 1 lbf/ft2 4.788 × 10–4 bar =
1 ft lbf =
1 lbf/in2 4.882 × 10–4 kgf/cm2
6 1 Nm 8.851 lbf in = 0.738 lbf ft
(= 0.102 kgf m)
1 tonf/ft2 0.069 bar = 0.070 kgf/cm2 1 Btu 0.
1.
1 tonf/in2 1.072 bar = 1.093 kgf/cm2 (=
Non-metric unit SI unit 154.443 bar =
7 1 lbf in 0.113 Nm = 0.012 kgf m
157.488 kgf/cm2

1 lbf ft 1.356 Nm = 0.138 kgf m Electrical power

8 Mass, weight SI unit

Moment of inertia
1 kW 1.
GD2 = Wr2 SI unit Non-metric unit 10
9 Numerical value equation J = ––––
4
1g 0.035 oz
(=

SI unit Non-metric unit 1W 0.

1 kg 2.205 lb = 35.27 oz 3.
10 1 kg m2 23.73 lb ft2 1t 1.102 sh ton = 2,205 lb (=

Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit

ft2 m2 1 oz 28.35 g
11
1 lbf 0.04214 kg 1 hp 0.
1 lb 0.454 kg = 453.6 g 76
1 sh ton 0.907 t = 907.2 kg 1 ft lbf/s (=
1 kcal/h 1.
12 Velocity
1 Btu/h 1.
SI unit Non-metric unit 0.
Specific steam consumption

13 1 m/s
1 km/h
3.281 ft/s = 2.237 mile/h
0.911 ft/s = 0.621 mile/h SI unit Non-metric unit

Non-metric unit SI unit 1 kg/kWh 1.644 lb/hp h

14 1 ft/s 0.305 m/s = 1.097 km/h Non-metric unit SI unit

1 mile/h 0.447 m/s = 1.609 km/h 1 lb/hp h 0.608 kg/kWh

15

16

17

364 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

 Con­
tents

Intro­
duction

Energy, work, heat content Temperature

1
ric unit SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit

9
Non-metric unit
2
= 1 kWh 1.341 hp h = 2.655 kgf m °C °F – · ∂ + 32 = ∂F
5 C
1J = 3.6 × 105 J
/ft2 = 9
n2 =
3.725 × 10–7 hp h =
0.738 ft lbf =
K °F – · T – 459,67 = ∂F
5 3
t2 1 kgf m 9.478 × 10–4 Btu Non-metric unit SI unit
3 tonf/in2
(= 2.388 × 10–4 kcal
5 (∂ – 32) = ∂
m2)
3.653 × 10–6 hp h =
7.233 ft lbf
°F °C –
9 F
5
C
4
SI unit °F K – (∂F + 459.67) = T
9
Non-metric unit SI unit Note:

1 hp h 0.746 kWh = 2.684 × 106 J

Quantity Symbol Unit 5
Temperature
4 bar = ∂F °F
4 1 ft lbf = 2.737 × 105 kgf m in degrees Fahrenheit
kgf/cm2
0.070 kgf/cm2 1 Btu 0.138 kgf m
1.055 kJ = 1,055.06 J
Temperature
in degrees Celsius
∂C °C 6
1.093 kgf/cm2 (= 0.252 kcal) Thermodynamic
T K
= temperature in Kelvin
/cm2
7
Examples of decimal multiples
Electrical power
and fractions of metric units

SI unit Non-metric unit 1 km = 1,000 m;

1 m = 100 cm = 1,000 mm
8
1 kW 1.341 hp = 1 km2 = 1,000,000 m2;
ric unit 101.972 kgf m/s
(= 1.36 PS)
1 m2 = 10,000 cm2;
1 cm2 = 100 mm2 9
1W 0.738 ft lbf/s = 0.86 kcal/h = 1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3;
5.27 oz 3.412 Btu 1 cm3 = 1,000 mm3
= 2,205 lb (= 0.102 kgf m/s)
1 t = 1,000 kg; 1 kg = 1,000 g 10
SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit 1 kW = 1,000 W

53.6 g
1 hp 0.746 kW = 745.70 W =
76.040 kgf m/s 11
7.2 kg 1 ft lbf/s (= 1.014 PS) Btu = British thermal unit
1 kcal/h 1.356 W (= 0.138 kgf in/s) Btu/h = British thermal unit/hour

1 Btu/h 1.163 W
kgf
lbf
= kilogram force
= pound force
12
0.293 W
on tonf = ton force

ric unit
13
ph

SI unit 14
Wh

15

16

17

Totally Integrated Power – Appendix 365

 Con­
tents
Our thanks go to Siteco Beleuchtungstechnik GmbH
Intro­ (lighting systems) and CEAG Notlichtsysteme GmbH
duction (safety lighting) for their expert support in compiling
this manual.

4
Imprint
5 Totally Integrated Power – Consultant Support
Planning of Electric Power Distribution
Technical Principles
6 Published by
Siemens AG
7 Energy Management
Medium Voltage & Systems
Editor
8 Siemens AG
Dr. Siegbert Hopf
E-Mail: [email protected]
9 Technical Support
Ulrike Fleischmann, Wolfgang Fruth, Ralf Gluth,
10 Birgitta Grandjean, Jasmin Gruner, Thomas Klimiont,
Wolfgang Peter, Frank Scheunert, Manfred Weiß

Translation
11
Albani translations
Äußere Brucker Str. 51
12 D-91052 Erlangen

Publishing House

13 Publicis Pixelpark
Nägelsbachstr. 33
D-91052 Erlangen

14 Image Rights
All images and graphics © Siemens AG.

15 © 2015 Siemens AG
Berlin and Munich
All rights reserved.
16 All data and circuit examples without engagement.
Subject to change without prior notice.

17 The omission of any specific reference with regard to trademarks, brand

names, technical solutions, etc. does not imply that they are not
protected by patent.

366 Totally Integrated Power – Appendix

Siemens AG
Energy Management
Medium Voltage & Systems
Mozartstr. 31c
91052 Erlangen
Germany
E-mail: [email protected]

© 2015 Siemens AG
Berlin and Munich

All rights reserved.

All data and circuit examples without engagement.
Subject to change without prior notice.
The omission of any specific reference with regard to trademarks,
brand names, technical solutions, etc., does not imply that they are
not protected by patent.

The information in this manual only includes general All product names may be trademarks or product names
descriptions and/or performance characteristics, which of Siemens AG or supplier companies; use by third
do not always apply in the form described in a specific parties for their own purposes could constitute a
application, or which may change as products are violation of the owner‘s rights.
developed. The required performance characteristics are
only binding if they are expressly agreed at the point of
conclusion of the contract.