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Properties of Real Numbers (Axioms) : Chapter 0. Appendix 1

The document discusses properties of real numbers, the mean value theorem, and Taylor's theorem. 1) It outlines five properties - algebraic, order, and completeness - that define the real number system R. This includes properties like closure under addition and existence of inverses. 2) It presents Cauchy's generalized mean value theorem, which relates the derivative of two functions at a point between two bounds. 3) It states Taylor's theorem, which expresses a function as a polynomial plus a remainder term involving high-order derivatives, allowing approximations of functions.

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23 views4 pages

Properties of Real Numbers (Axioms) : Chapter 0. Appendix 1

The document discusses properties of real numbers, the mean value theorem, and Taylor's theorem. 1) It outlines five properties - algebraic, order, and completeness - that define the real number system R. This includes properties like closure under addition and existence of inverses. 2) It presents Cauchy's generalized mean value theorem, which relates the derivative of two functions at a point between two bounds. 3) It states Taylor's theorem, which expresses a function as a polynomial plus a remainder term involving high-order derivatives, allowing approximations of functions.

Uploaded by

yoonjr90
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 0.

Appendix 1

§0.1 Properties of Real Numbers (Axioms)

• Three types of properties (algebraic, order, completeness) make the real numbers R what
hey are.

Algebraic (R, +, ·)

A1. ∀ a, b ∈ R, a + b ∈ R. (Closure under addition)

A2. ∀ a, b, c ∈ R, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. (Associativity)

A3. ∀ a, b ∈ R, a + b = b + a. (Commutativity)

A4. ∃0 ∈ R s.t. ∀ a ∈ R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a. (Identity)

A5. ∀ a ∈ R, ∃ − a ∈ R s.t. a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0. (Inverse)

M1. ∀ a, b ∈ R, a · b ∈ R. (Closure under multiplication)

M2. ∀ a, b, c ∈ R, a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c. (Associativity)

M3. ∀ a, b ∈ R, a · b = b · a. (Commutativity)

M4. ∃1 ∈ R s.t. ∀ a ∈ R, a · 1 = 1 · a = a. (Identity)

M5. ∀ a ∈ R\{0}, ∃b := a−1 ∈ R s.t. a · b = b · a = 1. (Inverse)

D. ∀ a, b, c ∈ R, a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c. (Distributivity)

Order

O1. ∀ a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b or b ≤ a.

O2. If a ≤ b and b ≤ a then a = b.

O3. If a ≤ b and b ≤ c then a ≤ c.

O4. If a ≤ b then a + c ≤ b + c.

O5. If a ≤ b and 0 ≤ c then ac ≤ bc.

Note.

P1. ∃P ⊂ R s.t. ∀ a, b ∈ P, a + b ∈ P and ab ∈ P. P is called the set of positive numbers.

P2. ∀ a ∈ R, a ∈ P or a = 0 or −a ∈ P.
2
Chapter 0. Appendix

Completeness

• Definitions

1. α is an upper bound of A ⊂ R iff ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ α.

2. β is a lower bound of A ⊂ R iff ∀x ∈ A, β ≤ x.

3. α is the least upper bound (supremum) of A ⊂ R iff α is an upper bound of A and α < α0
for any other upper bound α0 of A. (supA = α)

4. β is the greatest lower bound (infimum) of A ⊂ R iff β is a lower bound of A and β > β 0
for any other lower bound β 0 of A. (inf A = β)

5. A is bounded above iff A has an upper bound.

6. A is bounded below iff A has a lower bound.

• Completeness Axiom for R


If A is a nonempty set of real numbers that has an upper bound, then A has a least upper bound.

Ex.1 A = {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, · · · , 1/n, · · · }. Find supA and inf A.

Ex.2 B = {x| − 1 < x ≤ 2, x ∈ R}. Find supA and inf A.

Notations The set Nδ (a) = (a − δ, a + δ) is called δ-neighborhood of a.


The set Nδ∗ (a) = (a − δ, a) ∪ (a, a + δ) is called δ-neighborhood of a deleted a.

Exercise

1. ∀ a, b ∈ R, prove that there exists unique x ∈ R such that a + x = b.

2. Find supA and inf A for the following sets.


1
(a) A = {x|x = 2n
, n ∈ N} (b) A = {x|x = 1 − n1 , n ∈ N}

3. ∀ a, b ∈ R, prove that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.

4. ∀ a, b ∈ R, prove that if a < b, then there exists at least one x ∈ R such that a < x < b.

5. Prove that N = {1, 2, 3, · · · , n, · · · } is not bounded above.


Chapter 0. Appendix 3

§0.2 Mean Value Theorem (§4.2)

Cauchy’s generalized M.V.T


If f (x) and g(x) are continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then
∃ ξ ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a) f 0 (ξ)
= 0
g(b) − g(a) g (ξ)
where g(a) 6= g(b) and f 0 (x)2 + g 0 (x)2 6= 0.

(proof) Let H(x) = f (x) − f (a) − α(g(x) − g(a)). Then,

f (b) − f (a)
H(a) = H(b) = 0 ⇒ α =
g(b) − g(a)

By Rolle’s Theorem, ∃ ξ ∈ (a, b) such that H 0 (ξ) = 0, i.e.

f 0 (ξ) f (b) − f (a)


f 0 (ξ) − αg 0 (ξ) = 0 ⇒ =
g 0 (ξ) g(b) − g(a)
4
Chapter 0. Appendix

§0.3 Taylor’s Theorem (§11.10 )

Taylor’s Theorem
If f (n) (x), n = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n, · · · , are continuous on [a, b] and f (n) (x) is differentiable on (a, b), then
∃ ξ ∈ (a, b) such that

f 00 (a) f (n) (a)


f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(b − a) + (b − a)2 + · · · + (b − a)n + Rn
2! n!
f n+1 (ξ)(b − a)n+1
where Rn =
(n + 1)!

(proof) We assume a < b. Let

f 00 (a) f (n) (a)


Pn (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n .
2! n!
Then
Pn(k) (a) = f (k) (a), for k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n.

Let φn (x) = Pn (x) + K(x − a)n+1 . Then for any constant K,

φ(k)
n (a) = f
(k)
(a), for k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n.

If we take
f (b) − Pn (b)
K= ,
(b − a)n+1
then f (b) = φn (b).
For the function F (x) = f (x) − φn (x), we use Rolle’s Theorem.

∃ c1 ∈ (a, b) such that F 0 (c1 ) = 0,


∃ c2 ∈ (a, c1 ) such that F 00 (c2 ) = 0,
..
.
∃ cn ∈ (a, cn−1 ) such that F (n) (cn ) = 0,
∃ cn+1 ∈ (a, cn ) such that F (n+1) (cn+1 ) = 0.

If we differentiate F (x) = f (x) − Pn (x) − K(x − a)n+1 a total of n + 1 times, we get

f (n+1) (ξ)
K= for some number ξ = cn+1 ∈ (a, b).
(n + 1)!
Hence
f (n+1) (ξ)
f (b) = Pn (b) + (b − a)n+1 .
(n + 1)!

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