Particle

Particle Settling
Settling Velocities
Velocities

FD = 0.5CD A p w v 2s

Wastewater and Bioremediation

FG

FD

FD

FB

Drag force

FG = s gV

Gravity force

FB = w gV

Buoyancy force

CHNG 3804

FG FB = FD

Fariba Dehghani
1

Particle
Particle Settling
Settling Velocities
Velocities

Stokes
Stokes
Stokes Law
Law

4 / 3(d / 2)3 2
V / Ap =
= d
( d / 2)2
3
FD

FG

FD

4g(s w )d
vs =

3CD w

FG FB = FD

If R < 0.5
1/ 2

R=

FB

Reynolds No.

Re = R =

dv s

CD = 24 / R

vs
If R < 0.5

CD = 24 / R

If 0.5 <R < 104

CD = 24 / R + 3 / R 0.5 + 0.34

If R > 104

C D = 0. 4

dv s

For Spherical Particles

vs =

g(s w )d2
18

Settling
Velocity

Example
Example

Solution
Solution

Will a grit particle with a diameter of 0.2 mm and

specific gravity of 2.65 be collected in a horizontal
grit chamber?
The chamber length = 13.5 m

vs =

g(s w )d2
18

vs =

9.8(2650 1000)0.0002 2
= 0.0361 m / s
18(0.000995 )

R=

The chamber flow = 0.15 m3/s

Width of the chamber = 0.56 m

dv s
= 7.45

Cross sectional area:

Iterative
solution

Ac =

The horizontal velocity = 0.25 m/s

Temperature = 22C (
= 9.95
10-4 Pa.s)

Depth of flow
5

h=

v s = 0.028 m / s

Q 0.15
=
= 0.60 m2
v h 0.25

A c 0.60
=
= 1.07 m
w 0.56
6

Solution
Solution

BIOREMIDITION
BIOREMIDITION

It will take h/vs seconds to reach bottom

t=

h
1.07
=
= 38 .2 s
v s 0.028

1. Using Bacteria To Clean Up Contaminated Soils

Since the chamber is 13.5 m in length and the horizontal

velocity is 0.25 m/s the liquid remains in the chamber

2. Using Bacteria To Clean Up Contaminated

Groundwater

13.5
t=
= 54 s
0.25

3. Using Plants To Clean Up Contaminated Sites

Thus the particle will be captured in the grit chamber.

7

CO2 and H2O

Bioremediation
Bioremediation

Bioremediation is the use of

microorganisms to destroy or im-mobilise
waste materials.

Microorganisms include:
Degradation of
contaminant by microbes

Bacteria (aerobic and anaerobic)

Fungi

(From USEPA 1991)

Yeast

Algae

10

Presence
Presence of
of Air
Air

Bioremediation
Bioremediation Depends
Depends on:
on:

Under Aerobic Bioremediation

1. The presence of the appropriate micro-

Contaminants are converted to:

organisms in the correct amounts and

Carbon dioxide and water

combinations

Under Anaerobic Bioremediation

Contaminants are converted to:

2. The appropriate environmental conditions.

Methane, limited amounts of CO2 and traces of

hydrogen
11

12

Types
Types of
of Contamination
Contamination

Bioremediation is commonly used for the treatment of
soils contaminated with Organic compounds e.g.
petroleum hydrocarbons (NAPLS) especially monoaromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX)

Types of
Contamination

But poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and

poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are resistant to
degradation.

13

Dealing
Dealing with
with aa Contaminated
Contaminated Site
Site

Bioremediation cannot degrade inorganic contaminants

such as heavy metals but it can be used to change the
valence states of these metals thus converting them into
immobile form.

14

Non-aqueous
Non-aqueous Phase
Phase Liquids
Liquids (NAPL)
(NAPL)
in
in Soils
Soils

A site can be contaminated as a result of:

Disposal of waste materials

Spilling toxic materials during transportation

NAPL is a term used to denote any liquid which is

immiscible with water.

Leakage from waste disposal or storage sites

Leakage from industrial facilities, and so on

Site
Site
Characterisation
Characterisation

In site remediation NAPL is usually associated with

petroleum hydrocarbons such as those leaking from oil
storage tanks or accidental spills of organic chemicals.
Impact
Impact(or
(orRisk)
Risk)
Assessment
Assessment

Selection
Selectionof
ofan
an
Effective
EffectiveRemedial
Remedial
Action
Action

In spite of their immiscible nature, NAPLs dissolve in water.

Even slight amounts of dissolved NAPLs in potable water
supplies may result in detrimental health effects.

15

Light
Light and
and Dense
Dense NAPLs
NAPLs
LNAPL
LNAPL

Mono-aromatic
Mono-aromatic hydrocarbons:
hydrocarbons: BTEX
BTEX

DNAPL
DNAPL

Benzene ( Gs = 0.88)

Chloroform (Gs = 1.48)

Toluene (0.0.86)

Carbon tetrachloride (1.56)

16

(g/cm3)

Max Conc. Level

Allowed (mg/L)

Benzene (78) C6H6

0.874

0.005

Toluene (92)

0.866

Ethyl benzene (106)

0.867

0.7

Xylene (106)

0.870

10

Compound (MW)

Diesel fuels (0.83)

Phenol (1.07)

Gasoline (0.73)

Naphthalene (1.03)

m-Xylene (0.86)

Trichloroethylene, TCE (1.46)

o-Xylene (0.88)

Coal tar (1.08)

Vinyl chloride (0.91)

Bromobenzene (1.49)

Petroleum distillates (0.73)

Methylene chloride (1.33)

Kerosene (0.82)

Ethylene choloride (1.24)

CH3
CH2CH3

CH3

CH3*

17

NOTE: Contamination of potential drinking water sources

by BTEX represent a serious threat to public health.

18

Poly
Poly Aromatic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
(PAHs)

*Xylenes
*Xylenes
CH3

CH3

CH3

Examples:

CH3

Naphthalene

CH3
CH3

m-Xylene

O-Xylene
ortho-Xylene

meta-Xylene

p-Xylene

para-Xylene

Potential Sources
Oil production and storage
Landfills

Pyrene

Gas work sites

Antracene

Power stations

Fluorene

Coke plants

Benzo(a)pyrene

Engine works
Tar production and storage
Boiler ash dump sites

19

20

Advantages
Advantages of
of Bioremediation
Bioremediation

Poly
Poly Chlorinated
Chlorinated Biphenyls
Biphenyls (PCBs)
(PCBs)

Minimum mechanical equipment are required

Examples:

Potential Sources

4-Chloro-biphenyl

Electrical manufacturing

4,4-Dichloro-biphenyl

Power station

Does not require excavation of contaminated

soils and does not disturb the natural
surrounding of the site (in-situ bioremediation)

Railway yards

Cost is low compared to other remediation

techniques

It may result in complete degradation of organic
compounds to nontoxic by-products
21

Environmental
Environmental Conditions
Conditions for
for
Microorganisms
Microorganisms to
to Survive
Survive and
and Grow
Grow

Disadvantages
Disadvantages of
of Bioremediation
Bioremediation

The process is highly sensitive to toxins and
environmental conditions.

1. pH (near 7 is very efficient but pH values between 5.5 and

8.5 are still OK)
2. Temperature (15 to 45)*

Extensive monitoring is required to determine

biodegradation rates.

3. Oxygen (concentration > 2 mg/L for aerobic

microorganisms)

It generally requires a longer treatment time than of other

remediation technologies.

4. Nutrients (C, N & P plus H & O are required, depends on

BOD; Ratio: C:N:P by weight should be 120:10:1)

There is a potential for degradation to equally toxic, more

highly mobile products.

It may be difficult to control volatile organic compounds
during an ex-situ process.

22

5. Toxicity (high concentration of contaminant can be toxic

to microbes)
6. Saturation (between 40% and 80% of field capacity)
23

7. Clay content: Low clay and silt

24

Practical
Practical Ways
Ways to
to Improve
Improve the
the
Environmental
Environmental Conditions
Conditions

Requirements
Requirements for
for Soil
Soil Bioremediation
Bioremediation

If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse

the pH by adding lime (CaO).
Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar
warming in late spring, summer, and autumn.
Available water is essential for all the living
organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve
the optimal moisture level.
Source: USAEC, 2000. Biopiles of POL Contaminated Soils. U.S. Army Engineer
Environmental Center.

25

Example design calculations

Example
Example Design
Design Calculations
Calculations

The required water:

A site has been contaminated with 158 kg spill of

gasoline. The volume of the contaminated soil is 375
yd3 (286.33 m3)
NOTE: 1 yard = 3 ft = 24 in = 0.914 m
Assume soil porosity, n = 30%

n = Vv/Vt

The initial degree of saturation, S = 20%

S = Vw/Vv

26

porosity, n = 30%
initial saturation, S = 20%
Desired degree of saturation = 25% to 85%,
use 60%
S = Vw / Vv

water,

Water needed = (375) (0.30) (0.6 0.2) = 45

yd3 = 34 m3 water

nutrients, and
air.

&

n = Vv / Vt

Find the required amount of:

Vw = Vt. n . S

= 1215 ft3 = 9,090 gallons

27

28

Example design calculations

Example design calculations

Molar ratio C:N:P = 120:10:1

Nutrient requirement:

Moles of N needed = 10/120 x 1.1 x 104 = 920 mol

158 kg spill of gasoline ( C7H16)

Moles of (NH4)2SO4 needed = 920 / 2 = 460 mol

Nutrient sources:

MW of (NH4)2SO4 = (14 + 4) x 2 + 32 + 4 x 16 = 132

Ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4)

Mass of (NH4)2SO4 needed = 132 g/mol x 460 mol

Tri-sodium phosphate (Na3PO412H2O)

= 6.1 x 104 g = 61 kg

MW of gasoline = 7 x 12 + 1 x 16 = 100 g/mol

Moles of gasoline = 158 x 1000 / 100 = 1580 mol

By similar calculation:

Moles of C = 7 x 1580 mol = 1.1 x 104 mol

Mass of (Na3PO4.12H2O) needed = 35 kg

29

30

Example design calculations

Example design calculations

Oxygen needed for 158 kg spill of gasoline ( C7H16)

Oxygen requirement:

100 g gasoline needs ~700 g oxygen (the ratio is 1:7)

C7H16 + 22O2 7CO2 + 8H2O

158 kg gasoline x 7 = 1106 kg O2 = 1.1 x 106 g O2

1 mole (100 g) gasoline requires 22 moles (704 g) O2

Water in soil pile = (286.3) (0.30) (0.6) = 52 m3

Oxygen content of air = 21% by volume

= 52,000 L

= 210,000 ppm (vol.)

At saturation at 20C and 1 atm, DO = 9.2 mg/L

Mass of oxygen in soil moisture =
= 52,000 L x 9.2 mg/L x 0.001 g/mg
31

= 480 g O2

32

General
General Approach
Approach to
to Bioremediation
Bioremediation

Example design calculations

480 g O2 in soil moisture is much less than 1.1 x 106 g
O2 required.

Contaminated
Contaminatedsoil
soil

At 0.28 g/L air, air requirement is:

Addition
Additionof
ofnutrients,
nutrients,
Moisture,
Moisture,oxygen
oxygenand
andbacteria
bacteria

1.1 x 106 g / 0.28 g/L = 3.95 x 106 L air

Measure
MeasurepH,
pH,temperature
temperatureand
andRedox
Redox
potential
potential

= 3,950 m3 air
Air void volume in pile = (286.3) (0.30) (0.4) = 34 m3

Monitor
Monitorthe
theconcentrations
concentrationsof
of
the
thecontaminants
contaminantsand
andbiological
biologicalgrowth
growth

Need to exchange 3950 / 34 = 116 void volumes to

Is
Isthe
the
remediation
remediation
complete?
complete?

Abandon
Abandon
remediation
remediation

fulfill oxygen requirement

No

Yes
33

BIOREMEDIATION
BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES
STRATEGIES
In-situ Bioremediation

Contaminant
Contaminant Biodegradability
Biodegradability

Ex-situ Bioremediation

Bio-venting

Land-farming

In situ biodegradation

Composting

Bio-sparging

Biopiles

Bio-augmentation

Bioreactors

34

BOD 5
0.01
COD

Biodegradable

BOD 5
< 0.01
COD

Nonbiodegradable

BOD5 = 5-day biochemical oxygen demand

COD = chemical oxygen demand
35

36

BOD
BOD55/COD
/COD Ratios
Ratios for
for various
various organic
organic
compound
compound

BOD
BOD55and
and BOD
BODUU
The most widely used parameter of organic pollution is 5day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5).

Compound

Ratio

Compound

Ratio

Butane

Toluene

0.12

Propane

Soybean oil

0.2

TCE

0.01

Acetic acid

0.31

O-Xylene

0.01

Benzene

0.38

Gasoline

0.02

Acetone

0.55

At 20C after 5 days:

Ultimate BOD = BODU

DO1 DO 2
P

BOD t = BOD U (1 e kt )

DO1 = dissolved oxygen of diluted sample at t = 0

DO2 = dissolved oxygen of diluted sample at t = 5 days
37

Example:
Example: Calculation
Calculation of
of BOD
BOD

P = decimal volumetric fraction of sample used

38

Chemical
Chemical Oxygen
Oxygen Demand
Demand (COD)
(COD)

Determine the ultimate BOD for a wastewater whose 5day, 20C BOD is 200 mg/L. (the reaction constant, k =
0.23 d-1)

The oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be

oxidize is measured by using a strong chemical oxidizing
agent (e.g. potassium dichromate) in an acidic medium.

BOD t = BOD U (1 e kt )

The associated unbalanced equation is as follows:

BOD 5 = BODU (1 e 50.23 ) = 200

C aHbO c + CrO 7

BOD U = 200 /(1 0.316 )

BOD U = 293

BOD 5 =

Organic matter

+ H+ + (catalist ) + (heat ) Cr 3 + + CO 2 + H2O

Silver sulphate

mg / L
Usually COD can be determined in 3 hours.
39

40

Contaminant
Contaminant Biodegradability:
Biodegradability:
Refractory
Refractory Index
Index (RI)
(RI)
If Refractory Index (RI) is greater than 0.5 the
contaminated soil is generally biodegradable.

RI =

BODu
> 0. 5
UOD

BODu = ultimate biochemical oxygen demand

UOD = ultimate oxygen demand.

UOD = (1.5 BOD 5 ) + ( 4.6 NH4N)

41