Developing Research

& Communication
Skills
Guidelines for
Information Literacy
in the Curriculum

Middle States Commission on Higher Education

Published by the
Middle States Commission on Higher Education
3624 Market Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104
Telephone: 215-662-5606
Fax: 215-662-5501
www.msache.org

2003, Copyright by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education

All rights reserved.
Permission is granted to colleges and universities within the jurisdiction of the Middle States
Commission on Higher Education to photocopy these guidelines for the purposes of program
enhancement and institutional self-study. Bound copies may be purchased through the
publications order form available on the Commissions website.
Printed in the United States of America

ii

Contents
Page
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Why Focus on Information Literacy?

Planning for Information Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Institutional Goals, Curricular Design, and the Campus Context

Learning Goals and Teaching Strategies for Information Literacy . . . . . .

26

Phase 1: Preparing Students for an Information Literacy Experience

Phase 2: Teaching Students to Find and Evaluate Sources
Phase 3: Teaching Students to Evaluate and Understand Content
Phase 4: Producing New Information

Information Literacy Assessment: A Reflective, Integrative,

and Iterative Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

Why Assess Information Literacy? Taking Inventory; Institutional Constraints;

Developing or Refining a Plan for Information Literacy Assessment; and
Measuring Assessment Effectiveness

Improving Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

Analyzing the Information, Improving the Curriculum, and

Communicating Assessment Information

Sustaining the Momentum of Information Literacy: An Overview . . . . .

61

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

Appendices:
1. Criteria for Information Literacy Competency
(New Jersey City University: Masters I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

2. An Entry-level Course on the Research Aspects of

Information Literacy (Marist College: Masters I) . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

3. A Distributed Approach to Information Literacy at a

Two-year Institution (Nassau Community College: Associates) . . . . .

80

4. A Distributed Approach to Information Literacy in a

Lower-level Economics Course
(Mercy College: Baccalaureate-Liberal Arts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

iii

5. A Distributed Approach to Information Literacy in an Upper-level

Course on Information Science and Policy (University at Albany,
State University of New York: Doctoral/Research-Extensive) . . . . . .

95

6. A Distributed Approach to Information Literacy in an Upper-level

Biology Course
(University of the Sciences in Philadelphia: Specialized) . . . . . . . . 107
List of Figures
1. Profile of an Information Literate Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Learning Goals across Academic Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3. Characteristics of Information Literacy Instruction as a Separate Course . .

16

4. Shared Responsibilities for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

5. Phases in the Process of Teaching Information Literacy. . . . . . . . . . .

27

6. Skill Areas for a Preliminary Survey of Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

7. Sample Learning Goals for Accessing and Evaluating Information Sources .

32

8. Kings College Information Literacy Initiative Planning Process . . . . . . .

46

9. The University of Maryland University College Assessment Process. . . . .

46

10. Selecting Appropriate Assessment Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

11. From Assessment Data to Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

iv

Acknowledgments
The Middle States Commission on Higher Education is grateful for the assistance of its
Advisory Panel on Information Literacy for developing the text of this publication.
The final document also reflects a number of changes subsequently recommended by several
readers who are teaching faculty in various disciplines and by the Commission and its staff.

The Advisory Panel on Information Literacy

[Positions as of Date Appointed: June 2002]
Dr. Kimberly B. Kelley, Associate Provost, University of Maryland University College
[Masters I. Public]
Dr. Thomas P. Mackey, Assistant Professor, School of Information Science & Policy, University
at Albany, State University of New York [Doctoral/Research Extensive. Public]
Ms. Nancy Madacsi, Director, Taylor Memorial Learning Resource Center, Centenary College,
NJ [Baccalaureate-General. Private (Non-Profit)]
Dr. Terrence F. Mech, Director, D. Leonard Corgan Library, Kings College, PA
[Masters II. Private (Non-Profit)]
Ms. Marilyn Rosenthal, Associate Professor, Nassau Community College Library, NY
[Associates. Public]
Dr. Marjorie Warmkessel, Humanities Librarian and Library Instruction Coordinator,
Millersville University of Pennsylvania [Masters I. Public]
Mr. Oswald M. T. Ratteray, Panel Facilitator and Editor-in-Chief, Assistant Director for
Constituent Services and Special Programs, Middle States Commission on Higher Education
(MSCHE)

Significant editing assistance also provided by:

Ms. Jean Avnet Morse, MSCHE Executive Director; Dr. John H. Erickson, MSCHE Deputy
Executive Director; and Dr. MaryAnn Baenninger, MSCHE Executive Associate Director

Special thanks to:

Dr. Louis S. Albert, Vice Chancellor for Educational Services, San Jose/Evergreen Community
College District, San Jose, California, for providing the text on service learning.

Faculty Readers
Various faculty members and administrators provided examples shown in the figures and
appendices, as well as guidance in the preparation of these guidelines. Other faculty members
read the document critically as it applied to their work, including:
Mr. B. David McDowell, Professor of English, Anne Arundel Community College, MD;
Dr. Mary Stewart, Chair, English Department, Shippensburg University, PA.

Focus Groups
Several focus groups of faculty, administrators, and librarians were held in the Middle States
region, and they provided material for this publication or their ideas otherwise influenced the
writing of this publication. Two focus groups contributing specific material were held at:

University at Albany, The State University of New York

Thomas P. Mackey, Ph.D. (Facilitator), Assistant Professor, School of Information
Science & Policy; Stephen E. Delong, Ph.D., Director of Project Renaissance and
Professor of Geology and Information Science; Susanna Fessler, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Department of East Asian Studies; Carol Anne Germain, Networked
Resources Education Librarian, University Libraries; Belle Gironda, Ph.D., Assistant
Director, Center for Excellence in Teaching & Learning; Trudi Jacobson, Coordinator
of User Education Programs, University Libraries; Christopher Smith, Ph.D., Professor,
Department of Geography and Planning; Bonnie Spanier, Ph.D., Associate Professor,
Department of Womens Studies; Silke Van Ness, Ph.D., University Developmental
and High Intensity Course Lecturer Educational Opportunities Program (EOP); Lijuan
Xu, User Education/Reference Librarian, University Libraries; Viviel E. Zazzau, User
Education/Reference Librarian. Research assistance by Aimee Morgan, Graduate
Student, M.S.I.S. Program, School of Information Science & Policy.

Millersville University of Pennsylvania

Marjorie M. Warmkessel, Ph.D. (Facilitator), Professor, Library Department and
Humanities Librarian; Joyce B. Anderson, Instructor, Department of English; William
C. Archibald, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of English; Sandra A. Deemer,
Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Foundations; James W.
Fenwick, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics; Elizabeth M.
Gardner, Instructor, Department of English; Jessica George, Assistant Professor,
Library Department and Education Librarian; Laurie B. Hanich, Ph.D., Assistant
Professor, Department of Educational Foundations; Carol A. Heintzelman, D.S.W.,
Professor, Department of Social Work; Patricia S. Hill, Ph.D., Professor, Department
of Chemistry and Director of the Center for Academic Excellence; Joseph M.
McCade, Ed.D., Professor, Department of Industry and Technology; Suzanne S.
McCotter, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Foundations;
Elizabeth A. Masciale-Walmer, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of English;
Larry N. Reinking, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Biology; Beverly E. Schneller,
Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of English; Barbara S. Stengel, Ph.D.,
Professor, Department of Educational Foundations; Tracey M. Weis, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Department of History; Teresa A. Weisser, Instructor, Library Department
and Electronic Resources Cataloger; Marjorie V. White, Assistant Professor, Library
Department and Social Sciences Librarian; Darla S. Williams, Ph.D., Assistant
Professor, Department of Communication and Theatre and Director of Womens
Studies; Ying Wushanley, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Wellness and
Sport Sciences.

vi

Developing Research &

Communication Skills
Guidelines for Information Literacy
In the Curriculum

he Middle States Commission on Higher Education, in the 2002 edition of

Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education: Eligibility Requirements and
Standards for Accreditation, defines information literacy as:
an intellectual framework for identifying, finding, understanding, evaluating and
using information. It includes determining the nature and extent of needed
information; accessing information effectively and efficiently; evaluating critically
information and its sources; incorporating selected information in the learners
knowledge base and value system; using information effectively to accomplish a
specific purpose; understanding the economic, legal and social issues surrounding the
use of information and information technology; and observing laws, regulations, and
institutional policies related to the access and use of information (p. 32).

The guidelines in this publication, Developing Research & Communication Skills,

do not expand the requirements for accreditation that are outlined in the
Commissions standards. Nor does the Commission require that information literacy
be defined and assessed separately from other student learning goals, because it may
well be reflected in the achievement of other goals. Rather, these guidelines offer
specific suggestions for integrating information literacy throughout the curriculum.
The principles underlying information literacy are as old as higher education itself.
Faculty and administrators have expectations for how students will acquire, analyze,
and use information related to courses that the institution offers. However, the usage
of the term in contemporary educational practice has brought these various elements
together into a single concept that has increasing value as a way to cope with the
challenges of the Information Age.

Why Focus on Information Literacy?

These guidelines demonstrate how the concept of information literacy has relevance
for faculty members, librarians, students, administrators, and the institution as a
whole. For the faculty, Chapter 1 demonstrates that information literacy can serve as
a framework for linking together and enhancing the various expectations for student
learning at the institution, program, and classroom levels. Chapter 2 offers suggestions
for incorporating information literacy, explicitly or seamlessly, into the curriculum at
lower, upper, and graduate levels. Chapters 3 and 4 address assessment and the use
of assessment findings for improving teaching and learning. Throughout, the text and
the appendices illustrate how faculty and librarians can help students to understand
the benefits that come from being information literate.

Information literacy frequently is introduced to students when they are expected to

access and evaluate sources available in or through a library. However, it also extends
to the essential tasks of analyzing the content of the material, creating new
knowledge, and using that knowledge to produce a product, performance, or other
activity. For these reasons, information literacy applies to anyone learning anything,
anywhere, and at any time. In other words, in any learning endeavor, the student
invokes some aspect(s) of the information literacy process, although the particular
skills involved may not be well-honed or even recognized as part of a larger,
coherent, and iterative process. In this sense, information literacy could be
considered as a metaphor for the entire learning experience.
As noted by the Association of College and Research Libraries (2000), one of the
highest and best uses for information literacy is as a metacognitive device for students
to manage better the learning process, because they will be able to determine more
clearly where their search for information and understanding fit within the paradigm
at any given momentwhether they are accessing, evaluating, or using a particular
piece of information. They can decide whether they need to return to some prior
point, even to reframing the research question, and then retrace their steps with a
different breadth or depth.
The National Research Council (2001, pp. 78-79) recommends the use of a
metacognitive approach to learning, because it enables students to step back from
problem solving activities and to reexamine their progress. Drawing on research, the
Council also discusses some of the merits of metacognition and its strong links to
domain-specific knowledge and expertise.
Furthermore, as students adapt to emerging technologies, they begin to appreciate
the array of digital media and the tools that deliver and process information.
Information literacy initiatives also emphasize the importance of lifelong learning,
because learning occurs inside and outside the classroom, as students encounter
information in all phases of life, in multiple forms, and at varied locations.
At the more advanced levels of higher education, information literacy strategies
become increasingly sophisticated, and they differ according to the disciplines
involved. For example, scientific and historical researchers each will gather and
analyze data differently. For this reason, collaboration among faculty and librarians
with administrative support is essential for managing the use of expanding
information resources, changing investigative methods, and emerging technological
tools.
The options presented here represent only a few of the resources from which
institutions may select as they seek to fulfill their mission and their goals for student
learning. These guidelines also offer suggestions for documentation that will be useful
during the decennial self-study process and team visit.

General Education and Information Literacy

Standard 12, General Education, in Characteristics of Excellence (p. 37) specifies some
of the skills that typically are included in general education programs, including oral
and written communication, scientific and quantitative reasoning, critical analysis and
reason, technological competence, and information literacy. Many aspects of
information literacy are essential components of general education, and many
institutions incorporate some information literacy skills in the requirements for their
general education curriculum. However, the content and structure of both general
education goals and information literacy goals will vary among institutions according
to their mission, goals, and objectives.
Information literacy training can deepen and improve basic general education skills.
However, some general education programs are provided during the first two years at
a university. In those circumstances, general education programs cannot offer a
sufficient opportunity for students to achieve fully the higher-order information
literacy skills, such as thinking more critically
about content, pursuing even deeper lines of
inquiry with more sophisticated methods, and
Many aspects of
becoming facile with the tools that enable
students to grapple philosophically with the
information literacy
nature of inquiry itself.
are essential components

of general education,
and many institutions
incorporate some
information literacy skills
in the requirements for
their general education
curriculum.

In addition, weaving information literacy

instruction explicitly into specific disciplines
enables students to place the essential skills in the
context of their majors, because each discipline
has its unique approach to information, critical
thinking, and evaluation. This may be done
seamlessly throughout a course or as an explicit
and minor component of a course.
As students deepen their understanding of their
disciplines, they also should be challenged to
deepen their understanding of information and to
achieve the higher-order information literacy
goals that the institution has established.

Information Literacy as an Evolving Concept

The term information literacy has evolved over the past two decades in response to
the changing requirements of higher education. From its beginnings as a form of
library instruction, the concept now has been extended to describe a more
comprehensive vision of teaching and learning in academe.
Marcum (2002) credits Patricia Breivik with presenting a comprehensive model, and
program of information literacy in the late 1980s that marked the serious beginnings
of the initiative in academe. He further points out that Breivik first identified
information literacy as an essential in lifelong learning rather than a matter of library
instruction. This definition extends beyond the classroom and enhances the
traditional understanding of critical thinking.

In 1989, the Presidential Committee on Information Literacy of the American Library

Association (ALA) released a report addressing the rapid changes in American society
as a result of the emergence of the Information Age. The Committee proposed a
restructuring of the learning process to enhance the critical thinking skills of
students and to empower them for lifelong learning and the effective performance
of professional and civic responsibility. This restructuring takes into account the
realities of an expansive information age and extends far beyond developing
technology skills to offering a deeper and more meaningful definition of learning that
includes the ongoing pursuit of knowledge outside the classroom. Consequently,
information literacy challenges educators to provide students with a more complex
set of skills that they can use when they enter the real world. According to the
Committee, this restructuring of the learning process will actively involve students
in a process of knowing, identifying, finding, evaluating, organizing and
using information effectively to address the problem or issue at hand.
The Middle States Commission on Higher Education has emphasized the importance
of libraries in colleges and universities since its first standards for accreditation were
published in 1919. Simmons (1992) further traced the evolution of the Commissions
growing interest in and specificity about libraries and resource-based learning. The
term, information literacy, however, first appeared in the Commissions standards
in 1994, accompanied by a very basic definition consistent with what had been
introduced by the ALAs Presidential Committee in 1989.
The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) extended the concept in
2000 when it published Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher
Education, the product of a multi-institutional task force. These standards outlined
what it means for a college or university student to be information literate. This
document was distributed broadly in the higher education community, and it
significantly influenced the task forces that developed Characteristics of Excellence in
Higher Education, the 2002 standards for accreditation of the Middle States
Commission on Higher Education. While the revised standards still include the notion
of resource-based learning, they emphasize more clearly the need for information
literacy learning experiences in all educational offerings and in general education
in particular.

Information Literacy and Technological Competence

Information literacy is much more than technological competence or on-line
research. It encourages critical thinking and reflection in the context of the
increasingly extensive amounts of information now available through a wide range of
technologies. Students today need the skills that will enable them to access and
navigate the growing universe of information, to select appropriately the credible and
reliable information they need, to read critically and think independently as they
produce their own ideas, and then to use that refined information for their academic
careers.
With the continuing growth of distance or distributed learning, technologies continue
to extend the places where learning occursbeyond the walls of classrooms and
libraries to the home, the cyber-caf, or wireless locations liberated from traditional
concepts of place. As Adler (1999, p. 4) points out, the effect of the Internet and its
interactive, dynamic, and decentralized nature creates an additional dilemma

because the Internet environment makes less distinction than older media between
consumers and producers of content. Therefore, the evaluative skills of information
literate consumers become much more important as they participate more effectively
and actively in society.
As technologies continue to transform learning, it is important to separate the
technological tools used to access information from the skills of understanding and
using the content of that information. Technology is a part of the overall process but
not an endpoint. In other words, information literacy requires an understanding of
technology, but it focuses on content and the
delivery of that content through such educational
institutions as libraries, classrooms, and
distributed learning environments.

As technologies continue
to transform learning,
it is important to separate
the technological tools
used to access information
from the skills of
understanding and using
the content of that
information.

disseminating information.

The Commissions standards in Characteristics of

Excellence recognize this distinction between
content and tools, particularly in the discussion of
the fundamental elements of general education:
Relative to this standard, an accredited institution is
characterized by:general education requirements
assuring that...students are proficient intechnological
capabilities appropriate to the discipline, and
information literacy(p. 38).

It is almost impossible to avoid technology in

contemporary education. Instead, educators
engage students in a process of discovery that
demands knowledge of the intersections between
information, technology, and the systems that
have been developed for managing and

The Faculty and the Institution

The broad scope of the concept of information literacy emphasizes critical reading,
evaluation, and the use of information to produce understanding and new
knowledge. As institutions respond to the challenges of developing or enhancing their
information literacy initiatives, they undoubtedly will recognize that faculty, librarians,
and other administrative staff already are addressing many aspects of information
literacy as they promote teaching and learning at the institution, even if they do not
currently apply this label to their activities.
Information literacy supports pedagogy focused on the development of effective
research, critical thinking, and writing or other communication skills. Most faculty can
identify these key characteristics in courses they currently are teaching. Instead of
creating new courses based on an entirely new concept, the current classes faculty
teach can become starting points for creating a more structured information literacy
initiative, one in which information literacy strategies are incorporated within courses
in the major fields of study.
To facilitate faculty ownership of their central role in information literacy instruction,
institutions should provide structured professional development opportunities or

recognize and encourage informal efforts by their own faculty and staff as part of a
larger curricular strategy. These would provide the tools and information about
pedagogical strategies necessary to support its instructional and administrative staff.
The institution first should agree on a working definition of information literacy.
The second step should be to build upon that general definition by identifying the
learning goals and objectives within the various disciplines represented in the
curriculumin order to clarify the knowledge and skills that graduating majors should
possess. Finally, the institution should decide which types of support could be
provided to achieve these objectives.
Ultimately, the campus community should come to understand that providing tools is
not the same as providing content. The fact that students have access to computers,
computer application instruction, and library resources such as books, periodicals,
and databases does not necessarily translate into information literate students.
Students still need specific skills in order to become information literate. Therefore,
by defining the term, an institution can help to reshape conversations in the academy
about the role of information and technology in the construction of knowledge and
the subsequent use of that knowledge in society.

Planning for Information Literacy

Institutional Goals, Curricular Design,
And the Campus Context

he first step toward planning for information literacy is to gain an initial

understanding of the status of information literacy on campus. An institution
can achieve this objective by reviewing its structures and processes in order to
support the learning goals that it has identified. Standards 11, 12, and 14 of
Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education presuppose that this planning will
occur, and it is the same process that is recommended for approaching all of an
institutions student learning goals (see the Middle States publication of Student
Learning Assessment: Options and Resources, 2003).
For example, Standard 11 speaks to all of the institutions educational offerings:
The institution identifies students learning goals and objectives, including knowledge
and skills, for its educational offerings.

Standard 12 refers specifically to general education offerings:

The institutions curricula are designed so that students acquire and demonstrate
college-level proficiency in general education and essential skills, including oral and
written communication, scientific and quantitative reasoning, critical analysis and
reasoning, technological competency, and information literacy.

Standard 14 discusses outcomes in the context of planning for assessment so that an

institutions goals can be achieved:
Assessment of student learning demonstrates that the institutions students have
knowledge, skills, and competencies consistent with institutional goals and that
students at graduation have achieved appropriate higher education goals.

Therefore, an institution first should conduct a review of its institutional goals,

its curricular design, and the campus context that will ensure that the institutions
outcomes can be realized.

Figure 1

Profile of an Information Literate Student

An information literate student:
v Thinks about framing the research question so that it is appropriate for the
breadth and depth required for the research project, in the context of available
resources and time for research;
v Asks questions for clarification after receiving an assignment;
v Knows where to start looking for information, is aware of a broad range of
information sources (e.g., electronic and print periodicals, chapters in books,
government documents, archival material, and microfilm), and can distinguish
among the various types of resources (e.g., scholarly work, informed opinions of
practitioners, and trade literature);
v Is familiar with major reference collections in his or her discipline and selects
from among them appropriately;
v Conducts electronic database searches effectively (e.g., knows how to use
quotation marks, Boolean operators such as or/and/not, and other technical
strategies);
v Knows how to use discipline-specific strategies for field searches, such as
archaeological recovery techniques, patient interviewing, or laboratory
experimentation;
v Knows how to evaluate information sources;
v Is able to select key points from retrieved information and summarize them,
rather than simply repeating material from research;
v Evaluates and explains or resolves contradictory information;
v Understands what plagiarism is and some of the complexities of copyright law,
the ethical use of information, intellectual property, etc.;
v Has learned how to cite material appropriately and develop a bibliography;
v Confidently explores the recursive nature of the information literacy process
to conduct research;
v Uses high-quality content and reflects evaluative thinking in the context of the
students academic level and discipline, as evidenced during classroom
discussions, when writing papers, creating displays, or when speaking or
performing publicly;
v Is able to develop new insights or theories, or discover previously unknown facts,
based on material he or she already knew and the new information;
v Knows how to seek help from faculty members, reference librarians, and others
outside the institution; and
v Recognizes that a set of specific information literacy skills is transferrable and can
be applied throughout life, for both professional and personal learning objectives.
This list was compiled as a result of two focus groups, one held at the University at Albany, State
University of New York, and the other at Millersville University of Pennsylvania.

Institutional Goals
The wide range of institutional missions and goals accounts for an equally wide range
of student learning outcomes at the institutional level, various curricular designs and
outcomes at the program level, and focused course outlines and specialized
outcomes at the classroom level. However, even within a single institution, different
learning goals may require students to have
similar information literacy skills, because
information literacy has a role in enhancing the
acquisition of other learning outcomes.

In defining information
literacy goals,
an institution should
distinguish between
lower-level, rudimentary
information literacy skills
and higher-level,
more sophisticated skills.

When surveying the status of information literacy

at an institution, it is necessary to determine, in
general terms, what students across the institution
should be able to accomplish to be information
literate. Figure 1 describes the skills of an
information literate student. Faculty members can
use this example of broadly-stated skills in order
to understand the specific components of
information literacy explored in greater depth
throughout this book.

It should be noted, however, that a students

level of maturity and number of years at an
institution are important considerations in
evaluating a students mastery of these skills. In
other words, the skills listed in Figure 1 are more
likely to be found among students who are at least at the sophomore level, when they
are likely to have a more focused interest in the subject matter of the discipline
through which information literacy is being taught.
Faculty also can identify how the broadly stated learning goals in Figure 1 can be
adapted for specific disciplines or groups of disciplines. Additional goals may be
outlined in the instructional programs of the library. Having identified all of the
profiles that apply to a particular institution, the faculty, librarians, and other staff at
that institution then can identify the steps needed at the program and course levels to
produce the desired skills.
A further discussion of learning goals at these levels may be found in Chapter 2.
A more thorough discussion of the relationship among learning goals at the
institutional, program, and course levels, as well as between learning goals and
assessment methods, also may be found in Chapter 2 of the Commissions Student
Learning Assessment: Options and Resources (2003).

Curricular Design
Information literacy might be taught through the general education program,
reinforced in specific courses designated as information literacy courses (which may
or may not be discipline-specific), or embedded either seamlessly or explicitly within
all courses in the major fields of study.1 Therefore, to understand an institutions
curricular design for information literacy, it is important to identify the institutions
standards for defining quality in student learning, where information literacy
instruction currently exists across the institution, the advantages and disadvantages of
particular models from which faculty may choose, and the incentives that will support
faculty implementation.

Defining Quality in Student Learning

The Middle States Commission on Higher Education expects each institution to
define student learning at the course, program, and institutional levels. The institution
also should evaluate student learning, but it may select the levels at which this will
occur for each learning goal. Information literacy is one of several student learning
outcomes specifically mentioned in Characteristics of Excellence. Thus, in the
descriptions of learning outcomes at each institution, one should be able to identify,
either explicitly or implicitly, the components of information literacy. It follows that
the placement of and emphasis given to these components should be part of a
coherent plan to improve student learning.
An institution that is committed to developing information skills ensures that its
curriculum and its faculty work toward teaching students to be self-directed learners
and problem-solvers. A process that requires extensive student use of technology,
library, and other information resources also helps to justify the investment in those
resources.
In defining information literacy goals, an institution should distinguish between
lower-level, rudimentary information literacy skills and higher-level, more
sophisticated skills. There are also highly specialized information literacy skills that are
discipline-specific. Two-year institutions will define information literacy skills that are
appropriate to two-year degrees. The skills acceptable for a senior in a baccalaureate
program are likely to be less sophisticated than the skills required of a student in a
highly specialized graduate program.
Figure 2 illustrates these concepts across academic levels. Appendix 1 is a more
detailed explanation of the differences in expectations for quality among novices,
those who have begun to develop information literacy skills, and those who are
proficient and accomplished. These examples can be adapted for use in any course.

10

To explore this subject further, consider the work of Oberman (1998) for a
discussion of an information literacy IQ test that may be used to determine
where an institution is in the information literacy process.

Figure 2

Learning Goals across Academic Levels

Information
Literacy
Components

First-year
Student

Framing the
Research
Question

Recognizes the need

to find information to
fill the gaps in his/her
knowledge; begins to
understand the value
of finding information
to support own ideas
and opinions

Recognizes the value

of using information
to strengthen his/her
own arguments;
articulates focused
research questions

Articulates a focused
research question;
reevaluates it for
clarity or precision;
refines the question;
considers the costs
and benefits of
completing a
particular research
project in light of
available financial
resources

Understands that
there are differences
among information
sources; can search
several kinds of
sources to retrieve
information

Identifies the most

appropriate sources
to answer the
question; develops
effective search
strategies that may be
unique to each
source

Understands how
information is
produced and
disseminated;
develops and
implements a search
strategy appropriate
to the discipline

Reviews information
retrieved to assess the
reliability of each
source; considers
whether or not
the amount of
information is
sufficient to address
the issue

Reviews information
retrieved to assess the
reliability of each
source; determines
ways of modifying
search strategies to
ensure that
information is
sufficient to address
the issue at a level
appropriate for a
senior

Reviews information
retrieved to assess the
reliability of each
source; modifies
search strategies to
ensure that the
information retrieved
is as comprehensive
as possible

Accessing
Sources

Evaluating
Sources

Learning Goals (Quality Criteria)

Senior

Graduate
Student

11

Examines and
compares
information from
various sources;
determines the
Evaluating
probable accuracy
Content
and reliability of the
(Including: the learner
content; identifies an
achieves understanding,
authors thesis and
then incorporates
the basic structure of
selected information in the information;
his/her knowledge base avoids immediate
agreement or
and value system)
disagreement with
the information

Analyzes information
and evaluates point
of view; considers
contradictory
information;
recognizes prejudice,
deception, or
manipulation;
compares new
information with
prior knowledge;
draws conclusions
based on the
information
retrieved; develops a
critical response to
the information

Understands the
value of the
information within a
discipline or
profession, its
contradictions, the
authors research
methodology, and
other unique
characteristics; selects
information that
provides the
evidence needed at a
professional level;
skillfully integrates
new information with
prior knowledge

Organizes content to
support the purposes
of the students
product; develops
topic in essay or
other format;
communicates
cogently; can prepare
an annotated
bibliography; and
uses the designated
editorial style
appropriately

Effectively organizes
content in support
of the purposes of
a product, using
multiple sources;
chooses a
communication
medium that best
supports the purposes
of the assignment;
and uses an editorial
style appropriate to
the specific discipline
involved

Expertly organizes
content in support of
the students product
or performance;
produces new
knowledge in the
discipline or develops
new strategies as a
practitioner; and
considers the value of
further research using
alternative methods
or strategies

Understands what
plagiarism is and does
not plagiarize; uses
appropriate
documentation style
for citing sources

Observes copyright
laws; understands
issues of privacy,
information security,
censorship, and
freedom of speech

Understands issues of
intellectual property,
copyright, the fair use
of copyrighted
material, human
subject research, and
other emerging or
reemerging ethical
issues.

Using
Information
for a Specific
Purpose

Understanding
Issues Affecting
the Use of
Information;
Observing Laws,
Regulations, and
Institutional
Policies

12

The Middle States standards permit institutions to choose the level at which they
assess student learning. However, if an institution chooses to assess at all or at
multiple academic levels, the evidence that students have mastered the institutions
defined information literacy skills should be identified. In addition, the measurement
of students learning should reflect the progressive development of their information
literacy skills throughout their college experience.

Strategically Locating Information Literacy Instruction

After an institution defines its quality criteria for information literacy, the next step is
to decide the extent to which its basic learning goals will be emphasized at each
level. Students at all levels should have some exposure to all six of the information
literacy components shown in the first column of Figure 2, whether information
literacy is taught as a separate course or course supplements or whether it is
distributed across the curriculum, as discussed in the next section. For most students,
the specific information resources, search strategies, evaluative techniques, and uses
for information will increase in sophistication over time, although some advanced
students may function early at higher levels for some of the components.
The learning goals that faculty and librarians select become what the National
Research Council (2001, pp. 44-47) calls targets of inference. In other words, these
desired learning goals will become the foundation, during subsequent assessment, for
inferences that will be made about student learning. Furthermore, these targets of
inference should be part of a larger cognitive model of how students develop mastery
of a particular subject matter, whether it is a concept in a discipline or a specific set
of information literacy skills.
The initial planning task facing faculty and librarians is to examine the entire
institution to identify where the appropriate instruction currently exists and whether
additional instructional content is necessary. Evidence of the extent to which
information literacy is incorporated within the institutions mission, goals, and
curricula may be found at the institutional, program, and course levels, as well as
within the librarys instructional programs and in formally structured extra-curricular
activities.
Answers to the following questions may suggest how information literacy might best
be strategically and coherently located within the institutions larger plans for defining
and for assessing student learning.
At the Institutional Level. Is information literacy part of the general education
requirements? Does information literacy instruction occur in an integrated and
coherent approach throughout the curriculum so that student experience increasingly
sophisticated concepts as they progress through the institution?
At the Program Level. Do individual programs recognize and address
program-specific information literacy needs? Do the disciplines recognize the need
for general information literacy skills to supplement their own more specialized
needs? Are the skills that students are expected to acquire taught in a progressively
sophisticated, integrated, and organized manner? Are faculty within departments
encouraged to tailor courses to include information literacy skills?
At the Course Level. Many existing courses require students to develop research
skills. In those courses, is it possible to identify the characteristics of information
literacy that are being taught? Have courses been re-engineered to meet the current

13

definitions of information literacy? Do the faculty have the entire responsibility for
information literacy instruction, or do they receive appropriate support from
librarians? Is there too much repetition among courses, so that only lower-level skills
are developed, or are there more effective strategies for ensuring that the higher-level
skills are being learned?
At the Library. Do faculty and librarians work together to redesign courses to
incorporate information literacy instruction? Are students made aware of the
information literacy components in library programs and academic courses?
Are information literacy skills being addressed in only rudimentary ways (such as tours
of the library)? If the instruction is formatted as traditional bibliographic instruction,
are information literacy learning outcomes addressed, and is the effectiveness of the
instruction measured and evaluated? Is there a formal program of instruction with
goals, objectives, and assessment? Is the instruction integrated into the disciplines?

Curriculum Models
As with all goals for student learning, each institution determines the best strategies
for meeting its information literacy goals, based on its mission, goals, and overall
curricular design. These strategies involve selecting the most effective curriculum
model and then providing support for that model, such as professional development
opportunities and incentives.
Breivik (1992, p. 7) notes that students whose education largely consists of lecture,
textbooks, and reading lists are not well prepared for problem solving in the complex
world in which they must work. This view is shared by Whitmire (1998), who calls
for a focused use of the academic library and its resources, as opposed to a
lecture-only format. Her research indicates that this is one of the key factors in
increasing students critical thinking skills. Consequently, institutions should shape
students learning experiences across the curriculum by encouraging the use of
assignments that are designed to make effective use of information resources. In fact,
one of the fundamental elements in the Middle States standards is that an
accredited institution is characterized by programs that promote student use of
information and learning resources (Standard 11, Characteristics, p. 34). Through
this process, students can better understand the relationships between what they
learn in their general education courses and what they learn in their major field
of study.
As information literacy instruction has evolved over time, two major models for
developing those programs have emerged: the separate or compartmentalized
curriculum and the integrated or distributed curriculum. It also is possible to combine
these two strategies to achieve the institutions desired learning outcomes. In addition
to its place in the curriculum, information literacy also may have an important role in
the formal extra-curricular programs at the institution.
The Separate or Compartmentalized Curriculum Model. In the separate or
compartmentalized curriculum, information literacy is taught as a stand-alone course.
It can appear in the curriculum at the lower or upper academic levels. Since
information literacy first became a requirement in the 1994 Middle States standards
for accreditation, many different options for separate or compartmentalized courses
have emerged.

14

For example, some institutions currently provide the majority of their information
literacy instruction in general education programs that focus on the first two years of
college, either in a separate course or repeated throughout the general education
curriculum. However, as noted previously, this type of instruction provides only a
baseline of skills. Students need more specialized instruction as they continue in their
major fields of study. On the other hand, a general education program that is
developed as an institution-wide umbrella for instruction at all academic levels
could be an effective vehicle for incorporating higher-order information literacy skills.
Figure 3 describes the characteristics of information literacy instruction when it occurs
in a separate module. Appendix 2 is one example of a new course designed for
entry-level information literacy skills. It is a stand-alone course that emphasizes
problem-solving to build information-gathering skills.
Some instructors encourage students to use a basic interactive on-line tutorial that
provides entry-level instruction in selecting, searching, and evaluating sources.2 With
this type of general instruction available on-line to students, instructors are able to
concentrate on more specific, course-related or problem-solving strategies for
advancing information literacy skills.
Some institutions provide separate bibliographic instruction courses which help
students understand the library structure, resources, and services; how to gain access
to materials; and how to evaluate the sources of information. These programs also
can provide guidance to discipline-specific resources. This type of course generally is
limited to bibliographic sources. However, the concept of information literacy in the
Middle States standards extends beyond materials available in or through a library.3
It touches on the fundamental processes of learning itself: the evaluation of
information content and its use, including the process of generating new information,
such as in a laboratory or field investigation. When bibliographic instruction is offered
as a stand-alone course, an institutions plan should place it in the context of its larger
set of student learning outcomes for information literacy.
Other institutions have developed separate information literacy courses and resources
to supplement the instruction of students in graduate programs. One university
developed a Digital Dissertation service [t]o provide well-rounded support to
graduate students conducting advanced research and to provide support for
graduate students as teachers. It includes technology classes and library resource
sessions as well as a Digital Dissertation Virtual Companion (Nichols, 2002).
Another college offers an instruction and orientation program for graduate students
which includes: Presentations and tours during orientation, open workshops, course
related lectures at faculty request, niche marketed workshops organized on request
by groups of students, and individual and group consultations. In addition, Library
subject specialists teach introductory and intermediate workshops in Subotonick
Financial Resources Center (simulated trading floor) (Bornstein, 2002).

2
3

One of the most widely used nationally is the tutorial available from the University
of Texas System Digital Library at http://tilt.lib.utsystem.edu/.
The Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, published by
the Association of College and Research Libraries (2000) also supports this
perspective on information literacy.

15

Figure 3

Characteristics of Information Literacy Instruction

As a Separate Course
When information literacy is taught in one or more separate courses at lower levels,
the instruction should be:
v Conducted with small class sizes and
v Started within a students first two years on campus and reinforced throughout
the students academic career
When it is taught at the upper levels, instruction should be:
v Discipline-specific, if possible, to ensure its relevance to students academic
interests and to benefit from their maturity in evaluating sources and content
The curriculum should include:
v Practical, hands-on work, as well as theoretical presentations
v A lab or practicum with sufficient class time for the students to present their
concepts
v Writing assignments that relate to issues that are, when possible, both germane
to curriculum content and relevant to student interests
v Field trips to the library
v On-line exercises under supervision
v Connections to other classes and to how the student can use information literacy
skills in their future careers and to meet personal needs
The curriculum also may include:
v Submission of an annotated bibliography
This list was compiled by a focus group held at the University at Albany, State University of New
York. Reproduced with permission of Thomas P. Mackey, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, School of
Information Science & Policy

Courses in the separate curriculum model usually emphasize the first stages of the
information literacy paradigm: identifying the information needed, finding that
information, and evaluating the sources. The remaining aspectsevaluating and
understanding the content and using it ethically and legally for a specific
purposeusually are the responsibility of faculty in the disciplines.
Regardless of the model selected, information literacy offerings should be sufficient to
meet the goals for student learning at the levels and in the disciplines for which it is
offered. However, it is unlikely that a single course can satisfy all of an institutions
information literacy goals, because the skills should be addressed and reinforced at
various levels of sophistication throughout a students academic career. If students
take multiple information literacy courses, the overall curriculum should consist of
complementary and progressively advanced components.

16

The Integrated or Distributed Curriculum Model. In a distributed model, various

disciplines and co-curricular activities address a core set of information literacy skills,
which may be blended seamlessly into upper-level courses. Following are some
examples of how information literacy instruction has been presented in the integrated
or distributed curriculum model:
Appendix 3 provides an example of teaching basic information literacy skills
in a literature course at a two-year institution. The faculty member provides
specific library assignments and evaluates the students information literacy
and content learning simultaneously during structured discussion periods and
through report writing assignments. The role sheets are unique in that they
not only provide a basis for evaluating a students use of sources but also the
students understanding as it is discussed in Teaching Students to Evaluate
and Understand Content (Chapter 2). The Library Research and Literature
Circles Project, therefore, becomes both a teaching tool and a vehicle for
formative assessment by enabling the professor to improve both teaching and
learning as the class progresses.
Appendix 4 describes an economics course that introduces students to some
of the basics of information literacy as part of the course. The faculty member
focuses students on important research skills and simultaneously introduces
students to economic concepts underlying public issues. Information literacy
is prominent, but it is woven into the instruction on economic concepts.
Appendix 5 illustrates an upper-level course on information science and
policy that explicitly incorporates information literacy components. It is an
interdisciplinary approach in which the research, analysis, and production of
information, together with their related technology components, are an
integral part of the course itself.
Appendix 6 presents an upper-level biology curriculum. In this instance, the
professor integrates information literacy criteria seamlessly throughout the
course. He includes framing the research question, analyzing the sources,
analyzing the content, and using the material effectively, ethically, and legally.
The professor judges many of the information literacy skills of his students in
the classroom, but he also requires a written certification from the librarian
that the student has completed other information literacy activities outside of
the classroom.
One advantage of the distributed approach is that it places information literacy
education in the context of the discipline, thereby deepening students understanding
of the importance of information literacy within their chosen fields. Another
advantage of using upper-level and graduate courses is that students are more mature
and bring a wider range of experiences to the process of framing the research
question, identifying more obscure sources to explore, devising complex search
strategies, engaging in deeper analysis of the content, and presenting new insights or
even new knowledge to their chosen audiences. The distributed approach also
engages faculty members by making them partners in information literacy instruction
and enabling them to blend information literacy with the discussion of other
curriculum content.

17

All institutions may not have evolved the level of course integration required for a
fully distributed model. Some may make the transition from the compartmentalized
model by having separate courses on information literacy that are discipline-specific.
However, this should be regarded as only a transition and not as a final goal. Faculty
in these courses can collaborate with subject-specialist librarians to engage students in
the discussion of advanced issues, refine their baseline search strategies, explore
advanced source and content evaluation, and shape the students use of information
in the context of a course that is meaningful to them.
One difficulty with the distributed model may be
unplanned redundancies within the institutions
overall curriculum. However, when conceived
appropriately, distributed information literacy
offerings are developed as part of a coherent
institution-wide plan, in collaboration not only
with other faculty but with librarians as well. Nerz
and Weiner (2001), describing their experiences
at North Carolina State University, refer to this
process as curricular integration, which requires
a strategic or system-wide approach.

One advantage of the

distributed approach is
that it places information
literacy education in the
context of the discipline,
thereby deepening
students understanding
of the importance of
information literacy
within their chosen fields.

In either the compartmentalized or distributed

models, information literacy should be integrated
into the general education core and students
major fields of study, and its relationships across
the curriculum should be transparent to the
student, whether they are explicitly or implicitly
reinforced during instruction. These reinforcing
elements should be developed in preferably all
disciplinary areas and be part of a coherent plan which ensures that students are
information literate for the goals established at each academic level. The plan also
should indicate that the terminal qualifications for undergraduates, preparing them
for lifelong learning after graduation, are quite different from the terminal
qualifications for a graduate preparing to be a professional in a specialized field such
as medicine, law, or engineering.
In Extra-curricular Programs. Most institutions offer extra-curricular programs that
are consistent with the institutions mission and the interests of its students. They
usually promote skills that enhance the social development of the individual.
Participant interest is often extremely high, and these programs provide an
opportunity for students to learn informally. Characteristics of Excellence requires
coherence among curricular offerings and activities such as:

out-of-class lectures and exhibitions, study abroad, civic involvement, independent

learning and research, opportunities for informal student-faculty contact and other
student activities (p. 32).

Other examples include community service opportunities and sports programs.

For example, information literacy skills would be useful to research the performance
histories of players, teams, or leagues; to learn about new playing strategies; and to
identify preventive and rehabilitative measures for sports injuries. Therefore, any
extra-curricular activity can promote information literacy and reinforce principles
learned in classroom activities.

18

The Campus Context

Institutions that support information literacy recognize that information literacy
instruction does not occur in a vacuum. The resources needed to support an
information literacy initiative may include personnel, fiscal responsibility, technology,
and services. Faculty and librarians need support to provide information literacy
instruction and to develop a curriculum in an atmosphere of collaboration, including
professional development opportunities and incentives. In addition, it is helpful if
there is also a culture of information literacy evident in other aspects of campus life.
All of these contextual characteristics of the institutions information literacy program
should be considered in the institutions strategic, operational, and assessment plans.
Characteristics of Excellence (2002)especially Standards 2, 7, 11, and 14requires
that each institution have a plan for student learning that should be part of larger
plans for the allocation of resources and for outcomes assessment. The assessment
plan for information literacy in particular is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3 of
this book. In addition, general guidance on developing assessment plans at the
institutional and program levels may be found in Chapter 4 of the Commissions
Student Learning Assessment: Options and Resources (2003).
Information literacy should be part of the institutions continuing process of planning
for all student learning, because strategies for information literacy instruction and
assessment are continually evolving. Therefore, in considering the role of information
literacy within the overall institutional plan for student learning, it is appropriate to
ask questions relevant to each institution. These could include:

What are the goals of the plan, and to what extent is information literacy part
of this plan?

If a formal plan for student learning has not been finalized, how is the

institutions educational mission being implemented, and how are outcomes

measured?

How is the information literacy component of the plan being implemented,

and is it consistent with its stated goals?

Does the strategy for information literacy instruction address multiple learning
styles?

Are adequate staff and other resources available to meet the information
literacy goals and objectives?

Do faculty and staff have the updated skills needed to develop and
implement information literacy instruction?

Does planning include a commitment to support emerging information

literacy programs and pedagogical strategies or a willingness to promote the

development of new ones?

Is information literacy supported by adequate technological tools and other

services dedicated to the delivery of information literacy?

Are actual or potential inter-institutional resources, such as consortia, being

utilized fully?

19

 If the institution has not made an adequate and evident commitment to

information literacy, how should the institutions plan and culture be
modified?

Benchmarking
Although not required by the Middle States standards, institutions frequently identify
peer institutions that are engaged in what are commonly recognized as best
practices for the purpose of comparing the framework each uses for its own
information literacy curricula, its pedagogies, its assessment criteria and practices, and
its resources. If the institution falls short of its benchmark(s), it might consider
adopting some of the best practices of the other institutions.4
For benchmarking to be a realistic process, the institution should be able to gather
and evaluate information about the institution against which it is benchmarking itself.
Does the benchmark group reflect an accurate
profile of the institution as a whole? Is it what the
institution or the units delivering information
literacy aspire to become?
Some faculty may be
In addition, it is important for the units or groups
of individuals responsible for delivering
information literacy instruction to be certain that
they are benchmarking against the same peer
group used for other institutional benchmarking.
Unfortunately, an institutions official peer group
may not be very far advanced in this particular
area, because it is still a relatively new focus for
many institutions. If so, institutions outside the
peer group might have better practices that could
be adapted to meet an institutions mission and
goals. On the other hand, benchmarking may not
be useful at all.

interested in
re-engineering their
existing courses by
choosing to define what
they are already doing as
an explicit reference to
information literacy or by
incorporating new
information literacy
components seamlessly
into their instruction.

Faculty and Librarians

Institutions may need to enhance the information
literacy skills of faculty and librarians to ensure
that they collaborate in developing a coherent
institution-wide program for teaching the information literacy skills that the institution
has identified as learning goals.
Technology has changed the quantity and the structure of available information.
Synchronous and asynchronous information structures exist side by side, enabling
students to learn the same information in the classroom and with distributed learning

20

For a further discussion of benchmarking, see Student Learning Assessment:

Options and Resources (2003), Chapter 3.

technologiesin real time or with a time delay. Methods for delivering instruction,
and related pedagogical strategies have evolved or changed completely. This process
of change probably will continue, and the skills needed today or tomorrow may be
quite different from skills needed in previous years.
As Characteristics of Excellence explains:
How to develop and utilize knowledge and skills and discipline-specific investigative
methods to identify, access, retrieve, and apply relevant content is a challenge for the
future of learning and teaching in our universities, colleges and schools. Because the
rate of technological change is rapid, affecting the ability to access and to utilize
information and knowledge, periodic updating or retraining is necessary (pp. 32-33).

Faculty members have information literacy skills which have been developed over
many years, but these need upgrading as technologies and resources evolve, both to
enhance teaching and learning and to refine their skills in order to conduct research
and publish in their disciplines, often with the help of librarians. Some faculty may be
interested in re-engineering their existing courses by choosing to define what they are
already doing as an explicit reference to information literacy or by incorporating new
information literacy components seamlessly into their instruction. If so, they may
require opportunities to learn how others in the field have accomplished similar
pedagogical objectives.
Some librarians also need to refine their information literacy skills. For example, they
may have had prior specialized assignments, such as managing the inventory,
processes, and structures of the library itself. These assignments may have limited
their opportunities to become familiar with new instructional technologies and
pedagogical strategies. Others may be experienced with a particular curriculum
model but need to learn about different strategies at other institutions. Training for
librarians is readily available at numerous professional conferences and by networking
with colleagues at other institutions.

Collaboration
The institutions plans for student learning should encourage faculty members to take
advantage of opportunities to collaborate with each other and with librarians to
prevent curricular references to concepts or instructional redundancy within and
across academic levels. In addition, collaboration provides faculty with new ideas for
improving curricula.
An institution that relies entirely on a single session of traditional library instruction to
fulfill its information literacy requirements is placing itself at the lower end of
information literacy delivery. It is also likely that in this situation there is little
demonstrable collaboration. In fact, the relationship is likely to have the appearance
of a hands off approach, relegating to the librarian what the faculty member
perceives as information literacy.
Institutions that provide higher levels of information literacy instruction benefit from
the collaboration of faculty and librarians in jointly developing curricula.
Collaboration also extends to their engagement with students and other campus
leaders, who are also partners in the learning process. (See Chapter 1 of Student
Learning Assessment: Options and Resources.)

21

Figure 4 illustrates how the elements of information literacy may be shared among
faculty and librarians when the search for information involves the use of the library.
When the search for information involves a field trip or a laboratory experience, the
faculty member may be responsible for the entire information literacy learning
process.
Some institutions may have a formal committee dedicated to collaborative efforts to
improve the curriculum and administrative or operational procedures. One would
expect faculty, librarians, and other administrative staff to be included in these
committees.

Professional Development Opportunities

Each institution should examine its mission and goals periodically to ensure that they
are consistent with the changing environment of higher education, reconsider how
information literacy should be taught, and update its information literacy programs.
As part of this process, it will recognize the difference between fads and constructive
trends, as well as the changing legal environment of the world of information.
To maintain a dynamic information literacy program, institutions should provide
adequate professional development programs and related tools. This can be done
through formal structures or informal practices. For example, training could be
sponsored by a center for teaching through a series of workshops and tutorials led by
experts, or an institution could facilitate the efforts of faculty and administrators who
can assemble support teams and arrange workshops.
If the institution has a teaching center, it may be useful to consider the following:

How is the teaching center used to develop information literacy skills?

Are the tools and materials at the teaching center adequate for mastering
information literacy skills?

Do the curriculum content and reinforcing activities clearly distinguish

between strategies for developing the skills of evaluating and using

information as opposed to using technological tools and various types of
resource materials?

To what extent do faculty and librarians collaborate in the design and

delivery of the curriculum at the teaching center?

Professional development also may occur informally. Institutions may permit and/or
financially support faculty and administrative staff attendance at conferences
sponsored by external organizations, without having institutional oversight of the
content. Some institutions encourage faculty and staff to sponsor informal roundtables
and information sharing sessions. The institutions own information literacy experts or
external consultants may lead the professional development activities, engage in
collaborative instruction and mentoring, or develop tutorials. In these instances, the
following questions may be useful:

How are the support teams organized, what are the criteria for selection, and
are librarians an integral part of the support teams?

Do the teams utilize the expertise of their own members to enhance the

teaching skills of others on those teams? If so, do those team instructors have
adequate information literacy skills?

22

Figure 4

Shared Responsibilities for Learning

Each institution determines which personnel conduct information literacy instructional
activities. The following allocations of responsibility are most common when the search
involves a library.

Information Literacy Skills

Responsibility

Know

Determines the nature and extent

of information needed

Starts with the faculty member;

Reinforced by librarians

Access

Efficiently and effectively accesses

information sources

The librarian usually leads, with

faculty support

Evaluate
Sources

Critically evaluates information

sources

The librarian may lead initially;

Faculty make the ultimate
determination from students work
product or performance

Evaluate
Content

Critically evaluates information

content; Considers impact on
student prior knowledge, value
system, and future direction in life

Faculty leads in classroom or other

course context; Student also may
consult librarians, external subject
experts, or peers

Uses information found to

accomplish a specific purpose

Faculty leads; Can be reinforced

by librarians

Understands the economic, legal,

Faculty and librarians jointly

and continuously

Use

Ethically/Legally and social issues surrounding the

acquisition and use of information

Source: Ratteray (2000-2002). The responsibility for evaluation was expanded in this publication.

Is the institution providing adequate financial support to faculty and librarians

to participate in opportunities to enhance their own information literacy
skills, such as attending professional conferences? Do those conferences
adequately address the skills needed to provide instruction?

Does the institution provide the information resources and tools necessary to
facilitate the support that faculty and staff are expected to provide?

How is skill development evaluated?

Are the new skills actually incorporated into the instructional activities of
faculty and staff?

Does the institution recognize and reward the efforts of faculty and staff who
effectively incorporate information literacy skills into the curriculum?

23

Incentives
The changing content of disciplines, strategies for evaluation and instruction,
technological environments, and types of resources available to faculty and staff
require significant continuing effort by faculty and staff to keep abreast of new
developments. Faculty, administrators, and librarians are, of course, lifelong learners
who consider it their professional responsibility to model certain behaviors for their
students. However, acquiring information literacy skills is a time-consuming process.
Institutions may find it necessary to supplement individual self-direction with
incentives to update those skills or to learn new ones.
Incentives can take several forms, including grants for collaborative ventures by
faculty, librarians, and other administrative staff to develop information literacy
models. Other incentives might include awards for achievement, increases in base
compensation, or release time for an individual to develop information literacy skills
more fully.
Some non-financial incentives include special awards to recognize an individuals
achievement of a particular information literacy strategic objective. These incentives
reinforce formally the institutions position that information literacy skills enhance
teaching skills and may result in greater student success. The institution also could
adopt the policy that incorporating information literacy explicitly into the curriculum
is sufficiently important to be considered as an indication of good teaching, which is a
criterion for promotion or tenure.
Some specific behaviors, policies, and institutional structures can be forceful
disincentives. These could include:

Insufficient officially-supported opportunities for faculty to learn new

strategies for teaching information literacy

An instructional tradition which reinforces the notion that the primary role of
faculty is to purvey specialized content (i.e., the sage on the stage), instead
of being educators who use content as a context for teaching (i.e., as in
problem-based learning), or which encourages faculty to limit instruction to
teaching from assigned materials, instead of requiring students to discover
other information resources

Recognizing that some students have inadequate information skills for success
in a course but not developing a corrective strategy, such as consulting with
other faculty and librarians about possible causes and solutions

Inadequate equipment and facilities for faculty and librarians

Inadequate space in the library for programs that involve groups or teams
Inadequate staffing levels and burdensome workloads for faculty and

administrative staff, leading to a belief that the administration is insensitive to

the issues or is unwilling to make changes

A hectic campus environment that does not provide opportunities to discuss

constructive changes

Workshops offered at inconvenient times and places

24

A Culture of Information Literacy

The final aspect of the campus context is the extent to which other campus activities
reflect a culture of information literacy, because it is one sign of an academic
community with vitality. A culture of information literacy permeates the entire
institution when various units apply the principles of information literacy to areas
such as institutional research, the review of programs and services, or the decennial
self-study process for accreditation. Using terminology taken from the definition of
information literacy as it applies to students, one could say that an institution
demonstrates that it enjoys a culture of information literacy by:

determining what it needs to know about its status and activities

(i.e., planning for student learning and its assessment);

researching best practices at other institutions;

evaluating that information for its accuracy, relevance, and content;
using the information to improve the experiences of its students, faculty, and
staff; to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the institution itself; and
to become a learning organization; and

doing all of these ethically and legally

In conclusion, the cumulative effect of examining institutional goals, curricular
design, and all the aspects of the campus context should lead to conclusions about
what might best be incorporated within the institutions overall strategic and
operational plans.

25

Learning Goals and

Teaching Strategies for
Information Literacy

ost teaching has at its core an emphasis on ensuring that the student knows
how to access, evaluate, understand, and produce information. It is the role
of faculty members, librarians, administrators, and trustees to choose the
proficiencies that students should be able to demonstrate upon graduation. However,
the faculty define the specific student outcomes that are desired, outline where in the
curriculum certain skills are developed and practiced, develop the range of potential
learning experiences, select the most appropriate teaching strategies, and determine
where the outcomes will be assessed.

These strategies, as noted in Characteristics of Excellence (p. 33), should be designed

to foster a coherent student learning experience and to promote synthesis of
learning, because the Commission considers such coherence to be essential.
The result of detailed planning is a better education for students and a faculty who
clearly understand the structure needed to provide a quality education.
Faculty members can improve student learning by encouraging students to explore
and analyze ideas creatively. They also can use an awareness of the principles of
information literacy as a metacognitive strategy to manage their own learning.
In other words, as discussed earlier in the Introduction, an awareness of the
components of information literacy enables students to determine more clearly where
they fit within the paradigm at any given momentwhether accessing, evaluating, or
using a particular piece of informationand whether they need to return to some
prior point, even to reframing the research question and then retracing their steps
with a different breadth or depth.
Information literacy also presents a new way to think about campus collaboration
with support services, such as the library, the teaching center, the writing center,
computing or media services, and structured extra-curricular units or programs.
Once learning goals have been established, as discussed in Chapter 1, the process of
teaching information literacy usually consists of four phases (Figure 5), approached in
the following sequence: Preparing students for an information literacy experience;
Teaching students how to find and evaluate sources; Teaching students to evaluate
and understand the content of the information they find; and Encouraging students
to produce new information for others (or to articulate their own new understanding)

26

Figure 5

Phases in the Process of Teaching Information Literacy

I: Preparing Students for an Information Literacy Experience
v Defining Information Literacy and Learning Goals
v Surveying Student Preparedness
II:Teaching Students How to Find and Evaluate Sources
v Navigating the Library and Identifying Other Resources
v Providing Structure for Student Assignments
v Exploring examples of Collaboration
v Considering Active Learning Assignments
IV: Teaching Students to Evaluate and Understand Content
v Summarizing and Synthesizing Information
v Pursuing Deeper Understanding
V: Encouraging Students to Produce New Information
v Enhancing assignments in Writing, Oral Presentation, Visual Arts Projects or
Artistic Performances, Service Learning, Empirical Research, and Digital Media

by using information effectively in their documents, displays, constructions,

performances, or other activities.

Phase 1: Preparing Students for an

Information Literacy Experience
Any course in a discipline or any interdisciplinary course that elects to include
information literacy as one of its objectives (or interpreting what it is already doing as
a component of information literacy) should provide, at the beginning of the class, a
clear presentation of what students will be learning. This presentation should enable a
student to identify how information literacy relates to the specific learning goals for
the course and how any prior information literacy skills that the student brings to the
classroom may relate to the course content.

Defining Information Literacy and Learning Goals

Faculty, librarians, and administrators may need to define information literacy for
students, especially those in lower-level courses, but it is important to bring students
into the conversation. In the classroom, instructors should explain to students the
history, scope, and intended uses of information literacy. They also should allow
students to discuss their understanding of key concepts, such as the relationships
between information literacy and computer or technology literacy, including

27

explanations of their differences and how they overlap. Understanding students

perceptions helps instructors to develop better active-learning classroom strategies.
The goals at different levels of the organization are likely to be different. For example,
at the institutional level, goals are likely to be more general, but they will be more
specific at the program and course levels. In the library, the goals could be associated
with an already flourishing bibliographic instruction or library skills program. Learning
goals also will vary across disciplines, but the core requirements of any information
literacy initiative should reflect the commonly understood characteristics that define
information literacy.5
A common problem in defining learning goals is setting too many learning goals for
the time available and the scope of students projects. Covering material is not the
same as ensuring that students learn it. Instructors may well ask: Are the learning
objectives arranged in the best teaching sequence? Do the information concepts and
skills taught build upon each other? Are there sufficient opportunities for students to
develop their knowledge and to practice their skills before assessment occurs?
A related difficulty lies in making the match between the choice of instructional
method and the type and level of learning objectives (Svinicki and Schwartz, 1988,
pp. 215-216). It is important for faculty and other instructors to make abstract
concepts appear real to students, and to accommodate more than one learning
style in their teaching strategies. For example, lecturing to develop students
information skills may not be as effective as a brief presentation followed by a
well-conceived, hands-on assignment and a discussion of the concepts involved.
Perhaps having the students begin by doing the exercises would create a more
teachable situation, breaking down student resistance. Having students grapple
with a task briefly before moving into the explanation helps the instructor and
students to gauge what the students actually can do, not what students say they can
do. This simple reversal of the usual sequence confronts students with any gaps in
their skills and helps them to understand why the explanation of information literacy
is important for their success in a project.

Surveying Student Preparedness

Lifelong learning does not begin after students receive instruction in information
literacy. This process started before the students arrived in the college or university
classroom, and it is important to build on those skills and experiences throughout an
information literacy course. At the beginning of a course, the faculty member should
determine where the students are in this process of lifelong learning, given the
general learning goals that the institution has published and the facultys specific goals
for that course. This can be accomplished with a preliminary survey to measure
student perceptions of specific information literacy skills.

28

See the general goals from the Middle States Commission on Higher Education,
outlined in the introduction to these guidelines and in the 2002 edition of
Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education: Eligibility Requirements and
Standards for Accreditation, as well a set of more detailed but generic goals
outlined by the Association for College and Research Libraries (2000).

Figure 6 contains examples of some of the primarily library-related skill areas that
might be included in a survey of student preparedness. Although such a survey would
be an indirect measure of student knowledge and skills, the items in Figure 6 could
be adapted to construct direct measures in the form of assignments that require
students to perform the specific types of tasks described. Faculty also can add items
related to evaluating and using the content of information that will be discussed in
the course.
One method for collecting these kinds of data is to distribute a paper survey on the
first day of class so that students can indicate their level of experience with research
methods, library resources, databases, online searching, research writing, and
information production as it relates to the discipline involved. Another option is to
develop a web-based form, or to use a survey-tool function in a software program
that the institution supports. For example, WebCT allows instructors to develop a
web-based survey without having to write HTML code. Students in the course can
complete the WebCT survey in a password-protected environment. This tool
generates detailed reports based on responses from the entire class, and it also can be
used as a template for an exit survey to assess learning outcomes.
Either the indirect or the direct measures might produce surprising results about how
much students already know about key information literacy concepts. The results also
may suggest a need to modify the planned course outline, or they may reinforce the
original plan.

Figure 6

Skill Areas for a Preliminary Survey of Students

Survey questions may address the students perception of information literacy skills in
the following areas (but not necessarily in one question per skill area):
Familiarity with:
v the campus library Web site
v resources available through the institution, such as EBSCO and ArticleFirst
v discipline-specific online journals
v editorial styles such as APA and MLA
v the benefits of using interlibrary loan and its procedures
v search engines
Knowledge of:
v the existence of academic sources such as books, newspapers, media, and
periodicals in the campus library
v the value of evaluating academic and popular resources in the context of the
caliber of information needed
v the credibility and reliability of Web sites
Experience writing research papers

29

It is important also to share the results of the survey, assignment, or other test with the
class and to explain how students can use the results. They can better understand
their own skills as they begin the course, they can compare their skills to those of
their classmates, they can set their own individualized learning goals and objectives,
and they can be inspired to participate in course activities and assignments. Sharing
these data with students demonstrates that the faculty member is including the
students as partners in the learning process and is not just lecturing from a
pre-determined syllabus. Results indicating that most students in the course are not
familiar with databases such as EBSCO or ArticleFirst may make students who are not
familiar with these terms feel less isolated. This information also reinforces the course
assignments and activities related to learning and using these databases.
The accreditation standards of the Middle States Commission on Higher Education
focus on the skills that students have at graduation. However, although the
Commission does not require it, an institution may wish to measure the value added
by its information literacy instruction, whether that instruction occurs in a separate
course or is distributed across the entire curriculum. An institution may find that a
value added approach, if feasible, can be useful for its own information, for
improving teaching and learning, and for public accountability. In this instance, the
preliminary survey of student preparedness shown in Figure 5 could be made part of
the value-added measurement discussed in Reflecting on Context (Chapter 4).

Phase 2: Teaching Students to Find and Evaluate Sources

Pedagogical approaches to teaching students to find and evaluate sources are as
distinct as individualized teaching styles, as varied as the disciplines involved, or as
common across disciplines as interdisciplinary relationships permit. Nevertheless,
the basic principles for finding and evaluating sources can be addressed in formal
lectures, discussion sections, library visits, writing workshops, computer labs, or with
distributed learning technologies such as WebCT or Blackboard.
Instructors often can clarify what they are attempting to teach if they place
disciplinary differences and interdisciplinary connections in the foreground of
discussions, and this reinforces the metacognitive value of the information literacy
process. For example, in introductory courses, this technique can illustrate the
differences between academic and popular sources of information. In more advanced
courses, students can understand the complex nature of information within various
disciplines.
Teaching students how to find and evaluate sources typically begins by ensuring that
they understand how to navigate the library and identify other resources. In addition,
it is important for faculty to provide some structure and criteria for identifying
resources. Collaboration among faculty and librarians can achieve both of these
objectives, which are critical for active learning assignments.
Navigating the Library and Identifying Other Resources
The library includes both its physical space; archived materials; the print and
electronic resources available through the library web site, its databases, and tutorials;
and connections to libraries and virtual library collections beyond the campus. When
sources are not found in a library, it may be necessary to conduct oral interviews with
subjects, develop experiments in laboratories, explore visualization techniques or

30

simulations to challenge the mind about yet-unexplored sources of information, or

participate in field explorations such as those of a geographical or archaeological
nature. In the latter instance, the faculty member is likely to be the students primary
or only advisor for identifying and selecting potential sources and effective strategies
for access.
Providing Structure for Student Assignments
A second important objective for faculty in many instances would be to provide some
structure for students as they begin to identify sources for assignments. It has been
widely discussed in the media that many students, especially at the lower levels,
improperly rely on the Internet as their major or even only reference medium. As a
result, they often unearth material from sources of questionable reliability and
accuracy (Carlson, 2003; Stepp, 2002; and Carnie, 2001). Davis (2003) conducted a
longitudinal study at Cornell University from 1996 to 2001 and concluded that
Setting minimum guidelines in assignments ensures that students will attempt to
identify relevant scholarly literature in their subject field.
Exploring Examples of Collaboration
Collaboration among teaching faculty and librarians is especially important for
developing active learning activities and assignments for students to engage in this
process. This type of collaboration could result in the following activities to begin the
process:

Librarians can visit classrooms to discuss the organization of information;

electronic resources; library research methods; the differences among

popular, trade, and academic sources of information; and the content and
credibility of sources. Librarians who specialize in particular disciplines also
have a unique role in helping faculty achieve their objectives for student
learning in the major fields of study.

Students can engage in small group discussions about the content of

information that they have located from a range of sources. In this instance,
the faculty member can evaluate the relevance of the issues raised to the
course objectives and can ask probing questions. The librarian can assist in
evaluating the discussions with a focus on the students justification for their
sources.

Computer labs and workshops provide an opportunity to demonstrate search

strategies using specialized databases, web sites, and search engines, as well
as how to use discipline-specific research strategies and information
technology.

As noted in Figure 4, both faculty and librarians have a role in discussions

about ethical and legal considerations, including intellectual property,

plagiarism, copyright law, and the appropriate use of citations, quotations,
and summarizing techniques.

Broader discussions can cover the expanding role of information resources,

libraries, and societal values in the digital age.

Figure 7 provides an example of learning goals for accessing and evaluating

information sources.

31

Figure 7

Sample Learning Goals for Accessing and

Evaluating Information Sources
Students will learn how to:
v Identify, find, understand, evaluate, and use sources in a variety of formats
v Evaluate and analyze information sources in academic, trade, and popular
contexts
v Evaluate Internet resources, learning how to differentiate between work that is
produced for the Web and research that is reviewed by editors or peers in a
specific discipline.
v Use particular editorial styles, such as those of the American Psychological
Association (APA), the Modern Languages Association (MLA), or others that the
institution encourages
v Navigate the collections in libraries as well as the electronic resources available
through library databases, electronic journals, and web sites.
v Identify the ethical considerations relevant to the use of information, with a
particular focus on how to prevent plagiarism.

Considering Examples of Active Learning Assignments

Specific active learning assignments which faculty and librarians can develop together
may result in the following:

Writing assignments that challenge students to differentiate between

academic scholarly journal articles and popular sources of information.

Homework assignments that require students to chronicle the research

process by developing a paper or electronic journal to document their search

strategy, including a list of the keywords they used, the number of hits based
on Boolean search strategies (e.g., AND, OR, and NOT) compared to the
number of relevant hits, the modifications they made to their original search,
and specific documents that resulted from their search.

Small group discussion focused on students experiences accessing and

evaluating a range of information sources.

Collaborative writing assignments that require students to work together

to access a range of information sources and to write a collaborative
evaluative response.

A web tutorial, developed collaboratively, teaching how to evaluate

web-based resources.

32

Faculty also benefit from a wide range of educational resources developed by the
campus library, including:

Workshops on a variety of topics, including:

Internet searching
Evaluating Internet Resources
Discipline specific databases
Producing documents for the Web
Multimedia production

Handouts and web-based resources about various aspects of information

literacy, including research methods, evaluating resources, preventing
plagiarism, and editorial styles6

Libraries are dynamic institutions that are constantly evolving and responding to a
wide range of digital technologies for transmitting information and to new strategies
for interpreting that information. Therefore, students should understand the changing
role of libraries within communities and institutions of higher learning. This will
enable them to gain a better understanding of how information is organized and
evaluated within an academic context. They also will broaden their perspective of
information resources beyond popular ones and perhaps further develop their own
skills in the critical analysis of resources. It is also possible that a students relationship
with libraries will expand beyond the need to fulfill an assignment for a course to
having a deeper appreciation for the ongoing pursuit of knowledge in a variety
of contexts.

Phase 3: Teaching Students to Evaluate and

Understand Content
Becoming information literate is a pattern of learning that builds to a climax each
time it is invoked. The pattern will reoccur throughout a persons lifetime with each
learning experience as the individual achieves even higher levels of information
literacy. It starts when the student frames the research question, then identifies and
accesses information sources, evaluates the information, and finally uses the
information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.

The University Libraries at the University at Albany, State University of New York
has produced such resources as:
Instructions and Tutorials (http://library.albany.edu/usered/);
Doing Research (http://library.albany.edu/usered/research/main.html);
How to Cite (http://library.albany.edu/usered/style/main.html);
Tutorials (http://library.albany.edu/usered/tut.html);
Plagiarism 101 (http://library.albany.edu/usered/plagiarism/index.html); and
Characteristics of Scholarly Journals, Trade Journals, and Popular Magazines
(http://library.albany.edu/usered/char/index.html).

33

Evaluating the sources of information is critical for the next multi-stage phase, which
occurs when the student summarizes and synthesizes the information that he or she
has found and pursues even deeper understanding.
Summarizing and Synthesizing Information
The bridge that links access and evaluation is the ability to articulate the essential
content of the information that the student has found. This is accomplished by
summarizing and synthesizing the information, and it lays the foundation for critically
analyzing the content and its sources on the path toward understanding.
Ratteray (1985) describes the historical evidence for seven legitimate techniques for
summarizing that students can use, provided that they are guided by ethical
principles:
They can be divided into two major categories: sequential summaries and
synthesizing summaries. Sequential summaries retain more or less the order in which
the ideas being summarized were originally presented. Among these summaries are
the abstract, the prcis, secretarial minutes, and the abridging digest. A synthesizing
summary, on the other hand, alters the original sequence of ideas, sometimes
drastically, so as to accommodate the special research needs of certain users or
to provide structural coherence, clarity, or dramatic effect. These types of summaries
include what can be called locational digests, restructuring digests, and reviews
(p. 458).

The organized information-gathering student deliberately chooses the most

appropriate sequential summary technique as the first step. As sufficient numbers of
these pieces of information are gathered, the student then is able to use a completely
separate strategy, the synthesizing summary, which pulls them together into the
material needed for any class discussion, writing assignment, or examination in order
to demonstrate his or her level of understanding.
Pursuing Deeper Understanding
In a chapter on The Six Facets of Understanding, Wiggins and McTighe (1998)
propose the theory that students should meet all of the following criteria in order to
achieve understanding in the various subjects they study and at all academic levels:
1. Explanation The student can provide thorough, supported, and justifiable
accounts of phenomena, facts, and data.
2. Interpretation Can tell meaningful stories; offer apt translations; provide a
revealing historical or personal dimension to ideas and events; make it personal or
accessible through images, anecdotes, analogies, and models.
3. Application Can effectively use and adapt what we know in diverse contexts.
4. Perspective Can see and hear points of view through critical eyes and ears; see
the big picture.
5. Empathy Can find value in what others might find odd, alien, or implausible;
perceive sensitively on the basis of prior direct experience.
6. Self-Knowledge Can perceive the personal style, prejudices, projections, and
habits of mind that both shape and impede our own understanding; we are aware of
what we do not understand and why understanding is so hard.

34

Information literacy skills provide the raw material upon which a student can draw
to perform each of the six facets of understanding proposed by Wiggins and McTighe.
In other words, students would derive the phenomena, facts, and data, as well as
the images, anecdotes, analogies, and models and so on, from information literacy
experiences that occurred prior to the class discussion of the topic. In this sense,
there can be no understanding without some foundation in information literacy skills.
The best understanding probably would come from honing these skills to increasingly
sophisticated levels.
Having achieved understanding, the student then may select information
to incorporate into his or her knowledge base and may make a conscious
determination whether this new information affects not only the students beliefs
about what is or is not true but also the students underlying values that shape
attitudes toward other aspects of life. The ability to use that information becomes the
evidence of understanding, and the effective use of the information is one basis for
the students final grade.

Phase 4: Producing New Information

Students gain critical insights about information literacy through their own production
of information in writing assignments, performances, and technology development.
These insights are likely to be the result of some form of active learning
opportunitiesthose that go beyond lectures and require students to make critical
decisions about the information they evaluate and produce, especially as they try to
formulate a response to an issue or develop a product or performance. Active
learning assignments in research, writing, oral presentation, constructions for
engineering or the visual arts, performances, service learning, and digital media have
the potential to challenge students to engage in critical analysis and the evaluation of
information.

Writing
A research writing assignment challenges students to examine a range of academic
and popular sources as they process and develop their own written response. This
approach may include the following assignments:

A research paper using a range of library and electronic sources focused on

the development of a thesis statement and proper documentation using a
formal editorial style

An annotated bibliography that requires the critical analysis and evaluation of

academic and popular sources in a bibliographic format

Short papers that examine in detail specific sources, such as a scholarly

journal article, or a short paper assignment that requires students to compare

the structure and content of scholarly and popular sources

Electronic communications in a web based asynchronous bulletin board or

synchronous chat room that require students to explore discipline specific or

interdisciplinary issues in dialogue with other students.

35

Writing assignments provide instructors with an opportunity to consider collaboration

on campus beyond the library. For example, writing assignments across the
curriculum may be more effective in a course if the instructor works closely with the
campus writing center. This collaboration may include in-class visits by tutors from
the writing center or the development of assignments and follow-up workshops in the
classroom and at the center. In addition, students can improve their writing through
consultation with writing tutors from a range of disciplines, even though they may not
see themselves as writers.

Oral Presentation
An oral presentation requirement challenges students to support their arguments with
research from a range of sources. This approach may include the following
assignments:

Individual or collaborative assignments using presentation software that

require students to evaluate, analyze, and interpret resources based on a

common theme

Individual or collaborative student lectures based on a specific course theme

that require students to research a topic, assign readings, and pose discussion
questions to the class

Videotaped presentations that require students to construct an oral argument

for the class and then analyze their own presentation of materials

A structured debate, based on a contemporary issue, requiring students to

research topics in advance and to present their arguments through an
organized point and counter-point format.

In large classes, teams of students can be assigned to develop an oral

presentation by the team.

Visual Arts Projects or Artistic Performances

Projects in the visual arts or artistic performances might include such assignments as:

The preparation of derivative works (including a work inspired by the

techniques and themes of a Master or a Master copy, which is an exact

replica of a work by a Master, using the original artists palette of colors or
performance techniques)

Student development of program notes for a dramatic performance

(e.g., historical explanations of language usage, period conventions, and other

social contexts for a play by Shakespeare)

A multimedia project for the web, CD-ROM or DVD, with dynamic links to
video and audio clips, text, web sites, narratives, and performance

A hypertext project for the web, CD-ROM or DVD, with associative links to
multiple content pages and images

Individual and collaborative web sites focused on discipline-specific and

interdisciplinary research topics

36

 A video project based on discipline-specific research or explorations into

media studies, art, contemporary issues, or popular culture

An artistic performance that incorporates a live performance with video

projection, music, art, set design, and an information website about the
project

Service Learning Experiences

Service-learning is an experiential learning strategy that combines academic study in
the disciplines with course-required community service assignments. The pedagogy of
service-learning can be found in all sectors of higher education. It is most often
associated with individual courses, but the practice is also found in learning
communities (i.e., two or more courses taught to a common student cohort).
The richest service-learning experiences go well beyond volunteer service and ask
students to engage in information gathering, analysis, and problem-solving processes
that can become very complex. In addition, the academic and experiential
components of a course or a series of courses are linked through processes of
reflection that include journals, essays, and group presentations. Academic theory
and content enhance the service-experience and, when combined with structured
reflections, enhance the acquisition of both content and service skills.
The following are examples of service-learning assignments:

Third year accountancy students at an urban university design and implement

free assistance in filing income taxes for low-income community members.

Students enrolled in a first-year learning community design and implement a

holiday food drive that requires them to research health department
regulations regarding food preparation and storage and also to investigate
issues of personal and institutional liability related to the delivery of the food
to poor families at off-campus locations.

Biology majors work with local environmental agencies to design and

implement environmental impact studies related to water quality.

Service-learning students engaged in an honors seminar are assigned to work

with homeless clients at a nearby shelter. Their first reflective essay
assignment is to interview agency personnel and others in the process of
writing an essay entitled Anatomy of an Agency.

Research, design, and write a business plan for a United Way Agency,

including a description of the agencys services, profile of clients, projection

of requests for services, as well as a profile of agencies that offer similar and
supporting services.

Empirical Research Projects

Some examples of empirical research projects that rely on a mastery of information
literacy principles are:

A database project that requires students to develop a searchable database of

information based on research topic

37

 A survey project that requires students to develop research questions based

on the study of research methodology

A web project that requires students to develop research questions and to

post questions on the web via forms

A Geographic Information System (GIS) project that requires students to

develop a map using GIS software, with content based on the visual
representation of map data, history, and communities

An advanced research project that requires students to conduct a literature

review, develop a research instrument, collect and analyze the data, and
prepare a written essay, thesis, or dissertation based on the findings

Digital Media
Media projects may challenge students in different ways. For example, learning how
to develop a web page may demystify the process of how the web works and may
demonstrate for students how easy it is to publish documents through a medium
that does not require editorial or peer review. Students will gain important insights
about the credibility and reliability of information sources, as well as their
understanding of the content and how they have constructed meaning, by placing
them in an active role of developing their own content for the Web. This may help
students to recognize the importance of a review process in determining the
credibility and reliability of information sources. This approach may include the
following assignments:

Individual or collaborative web projects that require the analysis of web

based resources, including search engines, university and library web sites,
and online databases and journals

Research web sites that require academic research and formal academic
documentation using editorial styles

Digital portfolios in a web-based, multimedia, CD-ROM or DVD format that

require students to document their academic work and intellectual growth
over time in a single comprehensive format

Assignments in a range of digital mediafrom using presentation software to web

development to multimediamay require another layer of expertise that benefits
from collaboration with campus computing, the teaching center, or media services.
These assignments also may require collaboration with students who have some
technical expertise in designing a web page but who may need to be challenged
to think critically about the credibility and reliability of popular sources found on
the Web.
In summary, teaching information literacy offers faculty an opportunity to take a fresh
look at their courses and to build on assignments that already are focused on
research, writing, and technology. Redesigning a course to incorporate information
literacy explicitly also challenges faculty to think about how information is presented
in class and the extent to which students participate as active learners.

38

Information Literacy Assessment:

A Reflective, Integrative, and
Iterative Process

he assessment of information literacy is an essential element of overall

curricular evaluation. It is part of the institutions evaluation of its effectiveness
in meeting its goals for teaching and learning. Characteristics of Excellence,
in Standards 11 and 12, indicates that one of these goals should be to produce
information literate graduates.
Assessment of any type is a reflective, integrative, and iterative process:
It is reflective in that it supports the practices that faculty members already
use to improve teaching and learning or to encourage new approaches,
it provides concrete feedback for critical reflection about instructional design,
and it enables students to reflect formatively on their own development.
It is integrative because of its focus on both institutional and programmatic
improvement, which is discussed further in Chapter 4. A review of assessment
results can help to incorporate the larger institutional goals for information
literacy within the disciplines and in the classroom. An integrated assessment
process for information literacy provides data on student learning that faculty
members can share with students to highlight goals that are being met,
to emphasize additional goals that should be met, and to encourage dialogue
and reflection on difficult concepts. Assessment data also can be used
to revise assignments or to develop follow-up quizzes, surveys, additional
lectures, or discussion groups to meet students learning needs more
effectively.
It is iterative in that an institution may at any point in this process find it
necessary to return to an earlier point and retrace its steps in order to refine
the breadth and depth of its self-examination. Once all the steps have been
completed and improvements have been made, the process begins again.

Effective courses continue to change and develop over time. Changes made to
instructional design, based on feedback from information literacy assessment, may
not be fully realized until subsequent semesters when faculty have a better
perspective about which approaches may have been more effective than others.

39

Why Assess Information Literacy?

Three of the most important purposes of the assessment of student learning are
to ensure that students are learning what the institution considers essential to their
education, to provide a basis for improving learning, and to satisfy the publics need
for accountability by explaining clearly the institutions goals and accomplishments.
This applies no less to information literacy.
The Middle States Commission on Higher Education emphasizes the role of
information literacy in the self-study process for institutions. The revised
Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education specifically states that the
Commission seeks to determine that programs are in place that promote student
use of information and learning resources (p. 34), and it includes a request for
information on the institutions assessment of information literacy outcomes,
including assessment of related learner abilities (p. 36).
As the Commission points out in Assessment of Student Learning: Options and
Resources, The purpose of assessment is to engage a campus community collectively
in a systematic process to understand and enhance learning. Those who have direct
instructional and supportive contact with the students, as well as those who lead
assessment initiatives, are responsible for motivating and involving the rest of the
campus community (p. 5).
The National Research Council (2001, pp. 51-53) strongly supports the alignment of
curriculum, instruction, and assessment so that all three are directed toward the
same ends and reinforce each other rather than working at cross-purposes.
To accomplish this objective, the Council further recommends that all three share a
common knowledge base about cognition and learning in the subject domain.
The Commission does not suggest that there needs to be a separate unit of
assessment or a distinct assessment instrument labeled information literacy.
The various elements of information literacy already may be assessed across the
curriculum. Some are integral parts of teaching specific courses in the disciplines,
some may be incorporated within the institutions general education objectives,
and some are unique to teaching library and other research skills. When making
the case that students who graduate are information literate, it is the institutions
responsibility to ensure that information literacy goals are defined and that the
various elements scattered across the curriculum are identified as part of a
coherent whole.
Assessment enables faculty and administrative staff to improve student learning and
to identify how best to revise and improve current offerings in curricular and
co-curricular programs and services. It helps to enhance current offerings by engaging
the faculty members, librarians, and the rest of the campus community in the initial
assessment, evaluating the findings, and making improvements to existing programs
for the purpose of enhancing learning and instructor satisfaction.
Therefore, at the institution, program, and course levels, as well as in the instructional
activities of the library, assessment provides the data needed to: (1) ensure that
learning is taking place, (2) engage in the process of improving teaching and learning,
and (3) justify continuing expenditures for programs that have been demonstrated to
be effective and increase expenditures for program enhancements.

40

Additionally, accountability has become of great importance to higher education

to demonstrate the contribution that higher education makes to the lives of its
students and for the benefit of the greater community at the local, regional, and
national levels. Assessment also is crucial because it lends credibility to offerings
within the disciplines and by libraries.
As with the assessment of all student learning, the most effective approach to
assessing information literacy is to take an inventory of the extent to which
information literacy is reflected in curricula, programs, and existing assessment at the
institution, to consider institutional constraints, to develop or refine a plan for
implementation, to measure the effectiveness of that plan, and to make any necessary
improvements.

Taking Inventory
Developing an assessment programthat incorporates information literacy begins with
taking an initial inventory of where the institution currently stands in its assessment
efforts and whether expertise is available on campus. The process for taking an
inventory is outlined in general terms in Chapter 1, Planning for Information Literacy.
An inventory of the institutions current assessment efforts provides at least four
benefits:

access to information on current projects that are currently underway,

including those that may not have been publicized to the campus
community;

understanding of gaps in the assessment plan and its implementation;

an opportunity to determine whether any existing programs might be revised
so that they include the assessment of information literacy; and

economies of scale which can derive from linking information literacy

assessment to existing assessment efforts, thereby making them less expensive

and easier to implement.

The inventory process also should be informed by the Commissions guidelines in

Student Learning Assessment: Options and Resources, which contains useful
support for institutions beginning or enhancing an existing assessment program.
This publication includes several exercises and resources that can assist the campus
community in identifying its goals and objectives. A website that is organized around
the chapters of the book (www.msache.org/mainstudents.html) provides many
real life examples and links to numerous resources. They can be adapted for
planning, implementing, and revising the institutions focus on information literacy
assessment.
The professional literature also provides specific information that is useful for
developing information literacy programs. For example, Grassian and Kaplowitz
(2001, p. 265) describe the development of an assessment program for information
literacy that provides insights into efforts currently underway and provides an
example of how to approach assessment at the campus level.

41

In addition, the nine Principles of Good Practice for Assessing Student Learning
proposed by the American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) provide a starting
point for determining how to approach the assessment process. The following list also
includes a tenth point, recommended by Pausch and Popp (1997, p. 1).
1. The assessment of student learning begins with educational values.
2. Assessment is most effective when it reflects an understanding of learning as
multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in performance over time.
3. Assessment works best when the programs it seeks to improve have clear, explicitly
stated purposes.
4. Assessment requires attention to outcomes but also and equally to the experiences
that lead to those outcomes.
5. Assessment works best when it is ongoing, not episodic.
6. Assessment fosters wider improvement when representatives from across the
educational community are involved.
7. Assessment makes a difference when it begins with issues of use and illuminates
questions that people really care about.
8. Assessment is most likely to lead to improvement when it is part of a larger set of
conditions that promote change.
9. Through assessment educators meet responsibilities to students.
10. Assessment is most effective when undertaken in an environment that is receptive,
supportive, and enabling.

It is important to identify individuals on campus who have expertise in developing

assessment strategies and who may have relevant assessment instruments available.
These individuals can provide feedback, support, ideas, and perhaps serve on the
campus group that is spearheading the assessment effort. These individuals also often
have information on other successful assessment efforts and can provide suggestions
for making information literacy assessment a success.
All of the stakeholders in the process of assessing information literacy should be
involved, including faculty, students, librarians, and the administration of the college
or university. All points of view should be included to ensure that the final assessment
direction chosen has campus-wide support and is useful for the institution.

Institutional Constraints
After the institution has reviewed its current assessment efforts, examined its
institutional mission and goals, and identified the educational values it wishes to
promote through information literacy education, the institution should consider any
constraints on the initiative.
Among the many limitations an institution may face when it considers an information
literacy assessment initiative is the possibility that funds may not be sufficient
to implement an entirely new assessment effort. If it is not possible to begin a new
assessment effort, combining information literacy assessment with other efforts
already underway may be the most expedient way for an institution to achieve its
goals.

42

It may not be realistic for a large institution to assess information literacy across its
entire student population. The Commission states in Characteristics of Excellence
(p. 51) that sampling methods are acceptable for assessment, and this applies equally
to information literacy initiatives. Therefore, it is possible to obtain results at the
institutional, program, or course levels without requiring a massive undertaking across
all levels, which would be overwhelming. In other words, assessment efforts can
achieve their goals and be both manageable and affordable.
In order for an institution to determine its constraints and its strategy, consider the
following questions:

What is the size of my institution? Is assessment of the entire student body

feasible? Would sampling be expedient for my institution? If so, how would

we determine the appropriate sample?

What other assessment efforts have been successful on campus? Were they
quantitative or qualitative or some combination of both? Who conducted
these efforts and how might their experience be useful in developing an
information literacy assessment effort?

What constraints do we face in establishing an information literacy

assessment effort? How can we accommodate our limitations? What can we

accomplish, given our current limitations?

What further assessment efforts would we like to achieve? When might it be

feasible to pursue these efforts?

Developing or Refining a Plan for

Information Literacy Assessment
An assessment plan is part of the institutions overall plan for teaching and improving
student learning. Efforts to develop or refine an assessment plan necessarily involve
making decisions about the level or levels at which assessment will occur and the
types of assessment that are appropriate. These decisions also apply to the role of
information literacy assessment and how to incorporate the assessment of any existing
programs for bibliographic instruction (now called library instruction) in the plan for
assessing student learning,
Chapters 1 and 2 discussed the need to review the goals for teaching and learning at
the institutional, program, and course levels (and in extra-curricular programs, if
desirable) to ensure that expected outcomes are linked closely to the institutional
mission and to ensure that they are relevant and meaningful. In addition, Grassian
and Kaplowitz (2001) point out that the presence of a strong institutional mission
statement provides an invaluable starting point for the assessment/evaluation/revision
cycle. When questions about educational mission and values are skipped over,
assessment may become an exercise in measuring what is easy rather than
meaningful (p. 266). This linkage also is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4 of
Student Learning Assessment: Options and Resources.

43

The Plan to Assess Information Literacy

There are two primary decisions to make when deciding how to assess information
literacy. The first decision is whether to assess at the institutional, program, and/or
course levels; in the instructional activities of the library; or at various combinations of
these. However, all assessment efforts should be part of a coherent plan for
systematic data collection and linked to the institutions overall plan for assessing
student learning outcomes. The second decision is to select the best type of
assessment strategy for the level at which information literacy assessment will be
conducted, including how best to incorporate the assessment of existing bibliographic
instruction programs into the overall information literacy assessment plan.
One advantage of assessing at multiple levels of the organization is that it provides
comprehensive data for understanding how student learning is taking place so that
the teaching and learning process can be improved. Combining efforts at the
institutional, program, and course levels, as well as from library instruction, offers
numerous data sources that reflect on students attainment of information literacy in
different settings within the institution. To accomplish this effect, it even may be
necessary to develop entirely new data sets, a practice that the Commission
encourages in Characteristics (Standard 14, p. 51), and this could be a particularly
helpful strategy in the still-evolving field of information literacy.
In addition, many different campus constituency groups should be included in the
planning process. The more collaboration there is among the faculty members,
librarians, and the administration, the greater the likelihood of a rewarding outcome.
Finally, the information literacy assessment plan can anticipate implementation in
phases, because it is neither necessary nor desirable to impose an elaborate and
daunting process on the institutional community. Efforts in one course can be
adapted for other courses or programs as long as the progress is intentional and part
of a coherent process.
For additional resources, such as information on formulating an assessment strategy
and a review of some assessment project examples, see Working with Faculty to
Design Undergraduate Information Literacy Programs (Young and Harmony, 1999).
In addition, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) offers an
example of a successful initiative for individual, campus-based programs. There is
now an ACRL Best Practices Initiative7 that includes innovations in information
literacy education and assessment at a range of colleges and universities.
In selecting the best assessment strategy for the chosen level of assessment, the
following questions might be useful:

What will be the guiding principles under which assessment will occur?
Are the assessment goals tied to the institutions mission and goals?
Does the assessment instrument measure what the institution wants to
measure?

44

See http://www.ala.org/acrl/nili.

 Do the assessment efforts cover the entirety of the standards and goals
established for information literacy at the institution?

Will the assessment of information literacy occur at one level or on several

levels?

Is it better to develop a new assessment effort or to alter an existing

assessment effort to include information literacy?

How will the current bibliographic instruction program be made part of the
overall information literacy assessment effort and linked to the course,
program, or institutional levels?

Are there any similarities between the information literacy assessment effort

and other programs (e.g., writing across the curriculum)? Do these similarities
overlap or offer any opportunities for coordinated activities?

To what extent will the plan rely on direct or indirect measures, quantitative
or qualitative evidence, or some combination of all of them?

Will information literacy assessment be formative or summative or both?

Will data from new assessment efforts be linked to data from previous or
other types of assessments?

Do assessment results contain adequate evidence of success?

Who will be responsible for implementing information literacy assessment

and ensuring that results are obtained in a coordinated manner? In other

words, will the assessment effort be collaborative or, instead, conducted by
one individual or unit only?

Are the goals, benchmarks, milestones, and time lines for accomplishing the
information literacy assessment plan reasonable?

Is the institution prepared for possible mishaps or needed changes, and can
the assessment project accommodate such possibilities?

What will be the feedback loop? That is, how will the assessment results be
reported and used to improve current practice?

What are likely next steps, including what maintenance will be necessary and
what revisions are likely? Is there a timeline for these next steps?

Several institutions have devised successful information literacy assessment planning

initiatives. For example, Kings College in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, is discussed in
the book, Student Learning in the Information Age by Patricia Breivik. The College
identified eight information literacy skills to address throughout the Colleges
programs, both within and beyond the library. The planning process, shown in
Figure 8, resulted in a definition of information literacy for the College and a set of
standards for measuring achievement of the standards.8

For further information on Kings Colleges information literacy program, see

http://www.kings.edu/infoliteracy/index.html.

45

Figure 9 describes the process at the University of Maryland, University College that
produced a planning document for the infusion of information literacy throughout the
curriculum, and it continues to guide the enhancement of the information literacy
program at the University.
Another institution, the University at Albany, State University of New York, included
an information literacy component in the Universitys general education requirement.
The library staff formed a committee and created a for-credit course to respond to
the new requirements. The committees formation, progress, and the results of their

Figure 8

Kings College Information Literacy Assessment Planning Process

Step 1: Establish a team of individuals to define information literacy and to champion
the project. Ensure that the group represents a cross section of the campus community.
Step 2: Create a definition of information literacy and shepherd it through the campus
community for formal acceptance.
Step 3: Establish competencies (or standards) for information literacy. (Refer to the
ACRL standards to assist in this process: http://www.ala.org/acrl/ilintro.html.)
Step 4: Identify relevant resources for assisting with implementation, assessment, and
evaluation. Examples include tutorials, guides on information literacy, and instructional
techniques already in use or developed for information literacy.
Step 5: Assess current efforts, make revisions, ensure desired learning outcomes are
being achieved, and make changes accordingly.

Figure 9

The University of Maryland University College

Assessment Planning Process
The process at UMUC followed these steps:
Step 1: Establish an information literacy study group for the School of Undergraduate
Studies (SUS). Ensure wide representation from librarians and faculty.
Step 2: Charge the study group to devise a definition of information literacy, establish
information literacy standards, and develop a plan for approaching implementation,
assessment and on-going evaluation of information literacy standards across the
curriculum.
Step 3: Present the plan to the Curriculum Committee for formal acceptance.
Step 4: Implement the recommendations of the study group.
Step 5: Develop an initial course, and revise upper-level courses as appropriate.
Step 6: Devise assessment measures, and review and evaluate the effectiveness of
current offerings.
Step 7: Use assessment results to revise the learning process and improve assessment
efforts.

46

information literacy activities provide insight into how to integrate information literacy
into the curriculum and assess information literacy achievement (Bernnhard, 2002).
It also is possible to develop collaboratively an information literacy initiative that
applies to an entire university system. Such a plan could outline the information
literacy competencies and indicators that would be expected at all of the institutions
in the system, and it would provide a process for implementing the initiative.9
Dunn (2002) relates her experience assessing information literacy in the set of
institutions that comprise the California State University. Her article reviews the
process that was followed to determine information literacy competencies
system-wide, and it outlines the efforts to assess student information literacy.
The assessment plan was comprehensive, extends over several years, and builds on
each effort to create a unified whole.
The California plan included the following elements:
Phase I: A questionnaire-based quantitative study to establish a baseline of
student information competence;
Phase II: A multi-method qualitative study to capture what students do when
they search for information;
Phase III. A multi-part study to include some or all of the following:
A longitudinal study of a sample of students, using control groups and
specific instructional models or activities;
The development and testing of questions for an entrance/exit
assessment; and
A system-wide survey of faculty attitudes, expectations, and
awareness of student information.
Another university assessed its entire freshman class and used the results
as a benchmark for further assessment at the sophomore and senior level.10
The assessment tool was based on the information literacy goals of the institution and
of the library. It is an example of an institution-wide assessment effort with systematic
assessment and with evaluation included to improve student learning.

9
10

See the State University of New York (SUNY) document, available at

http://www.sunyconnect.suny.edu/ili/final.htm.
See the information literacy assessment effort of Appalachian State University,
available at http://appstate.edu/www_docs/depart/assessment/reports/literacy.html.

47

Types of Assessment
After there is campus-wide agreement on the institutional definition of information
literacy, the institutional goals and standards for information literacy, and the final
plan, then it is possible to begin exploring more specifically what types of assessment
are appropriate for the institution.
When developing an information literacy assessment strategy, it is important to
review Chapter 3 of Student Learning Assessment: Options and Resources for a
discussion of direct and indirect measures, quantitative and qualitative evidence,
other methodological considerations, and key questions to consider when choosing
evaluation instruments. Successful assessment requires that the institution consider
the type of assessment to be used and match it with an assessment tool that is
meaningful for the information literacy goal to be examined. This resource also notes
that assessment need not be difficult or complicated, but it needs to be objective,
fair, and helpful to students and faculty.
Assessment data on students information literacy skills may come from many
quantitative and qualitative measures as well as direct and indirect methods for
measuring students skills. Examinations, quizzes and essays, portfolios, direct
observation, anecdotal accounts, and peer and self-reviews are some of the potential
data sources on students information literacy.
Hernon and Dugan (2002, pp. 104-111) discuss these and other methods in some
detail. Their suggestions include such additional qualitative measures as think-aloud
protocols and directed conversations. The other quantitative methods they discuss
include content analysis, thesis/dissertation/senior paper evaluation, and videotape or
audiotape evaluation.
Figure 10 illustrates some of the measures that can be used to evaluate students with
regard to the six components of information literacy shown in the first column.
The examples of measures in the second column are phrased in qualitative terms.
However, some lend themselves well to devices that can produce quantitative data,
such as rubrics, which are discussed extensively in the Commissions Student Learning
Assessment: Options and Resources, by Huba and Freed (2000), and by Walvoord
and Anderson (1998). Furthermore, different measures may be appropriate for
various types of institutions. Each of these measures could produce the results similar
to those illustrated in the third column of the figure.11
Locally-developed Measures. There are numerous locally-developed measures that
faculty and librarians have developed at their respective institutions. Creating an
anthology of existing measures is beyond the scope of this book, but each institution
can develop its own and be inspired by instruments and evaluation strategies used by
its benchmarked peer group. Nevertheless, there are several recent reports and
articles outlining successful information literacy assessment efforts. The types of
programs designed and the assessment tools chosen varied by institution.

11

48

See also Hernon and Dugan (2002, pp. 111-115).

Figure 10

Selecting Appropriate Assessment Measures

Information Literacy
Components

Measures

Framing the
Research Question

Instructor or librarian reviews

the students thesis statement
for a 10-page paper.

Students thesis statements

are not focused.

Accessing Sources

Instructor or librarian reviews

a list of keywords and
synonyms that students
generate from their topics
and thesis statements.

Students keywords are too

broad to be productive. Few
synonyms or related words
are included.

Evaluating Sources

Sports medicine instructor

reviews the bibliographies
submitted with students
outlines of their 10-page
paper.

Eighty-five percent of the

sources are from appropriate
current peer-reviewed
scholarly sources.

Psychology students verbally

critique a journal article
commenting on the authors
use of the scientific method.
Students are asked to identify
the authors rationale for the
research, the validity of the
conclusions, and the articles
significance and potential
contribution to the project.

Students identify the various

elements of the articles but
are uncertain how the
authors method evolved
from his thesis. Students have
more difficulty identifying the
articles significance. Some
issues remain with students
identifying the articles
potential contribution to the
project.

Ecology instructor reviews

students poster presentations
of their semester projects,
using a criterion-based scale
(a rubric).
Instructor determines the
effectiveness of the students
constructed tables to present
their project data.

Text heavy posters indicate

students have difficulty
selecting and concisely
presenting the main points of
their projects.
Students have difficulty using
graphic information
effectively, but there are no
unnecessary tables. Most
tables are self-explanatory,
correctly labeled and
supplement but do not
effectively explicate the text.

History instructor reviews

students projects with
particular attention to
attribution and the use of
documentation.

Students consistently use an

appropriate documentation
style, complete with page
numbers for quoted material.

Evaluating Content

Using Information for a

Specific Purpose

Understanding Issues
Affecting the Use of
Information; and
Observing Laws,
Regulations, and
Institutional Policies

Findings

49

The majority of assessment efforts currently in use are test-based, quantitative

measures, and some rely on both direct and indirect methods. For example, librarians
and a faculty member worked collaboratively to develop an information literacy
assignment and assessment for a biology laboratory session (Bowden and
DiBenedetto, 2002). They evaluated the students final projects for the course to
examine how well they had learned information literacy skills (a direct method).
In addition, they distributed a questionnaire to determine the students perception of
their information literacy learning (an indirect method). This enabled them to
compare student perceptions of learning to actual performance.
There are other opportunities on campus for collecting indirect evidence. For
example, students perceptions of their information skills can be captured using a
brief exit survey, conducted as part of the institutions commencement practice.
Moore, Brewster, Dorroh, and Moreau (2002) describe several different approaches
to assessment at a California community college. In one instance, they compared the
grades of students who took library workshops with those who did not and found
statistically significant differencesup to 35 percent higher pass rates in courses for
those who took the workshops.
An important element of these examples is that indirect methods by themselves are
not sufficient. It is important to go beyond perceptions; to assert that learning has
occurred, it is important to have an objective measure that confirms or refutes
perceptions. There are many more assessment projects in information literacy that
focus on perception, and there is a further need for assessment projects that measure
both perceptions and actual learning.
Course-embedded assessments, such as students papers and other measures of
student performance, are rich sources of assessment data at both the course and the
program level because they are closest to the learning process. A review of students
papers could indicate the range and types of information sources students use, how
well students develop a thesis, and how effectively they use those sources to support
their thesis. Separate examinations of the papers by the instructor and a librarian
might reveal different information regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the
students work because of the expertise each reviewer can bring to issues of content
and available resources.
Other sources of assessment data might include:

A faculty members observation that students in the capstone course who

take certain major courses in a particular sequence tend to create better oral
presentations or more focused poster sessions than other students.
A transcript analysis and grade correlation could confirm that observation.
A review of the course syllabi and assignments should indicate the learning
activities that contribute to students success.

The results of placement tests that colleges frequently use to assist incoming

students in their course selections could provide a profile of students

information skills at the time of entry It could be reinforced by or combined
with the preliminary survey of student preparedness discussed in Chapter 2.
As noted there, indicators of students information skills may come from
students performance on a commercial or institutionally-developed objective
test which is specifically designed to measure information skills directly.

50

 Comments from alumni, who now understand how their undergraduate

research projects prepared them for graduate school, may reaffirm the
programs rationale for the role of information skills in its curriculum. Alumni
comments also provide an opportunity for the faculty to communicate with
current students about how the programs emphasis on information skills
contributes to the success of its graduates.

Standardized Tests and National Surveys. It should be noted that there are no
standardized measures for evaluating competencies in the emerging field of
information literacy, although one is currently under development.12 However, many
discipline specific or other standardized tests may include elements that meet some
of the components of information literacy, and an institution could develop a chart
that draws together these data sources and explains how information literacy is being
measured across the curriculum.
Institutions may find useful information in existing data from national surveys such as
the National Survey of Student Engagement,13 the Freshman Experience Survey, and
the Senior Experience Survey, all of which offer profiles of students observations and
assessments of their college experiences. National or regional surveys are helpful
because they allow comparisons with national norms or institutionally selected peer
groups. Standardized tests of specific students skills also can be helpful. These data
may provide schools with a sense of how confident students are about their
information skills and whether students believe that the curriculum challenges their
information skills.
All of these assessment measures produce data that can be analyzed by major and by
performance in each of the six information literacy areas. They could yield a wealth
of meaningful assessment findings on students information skills, which in turn may
be useful for curriculum redesign.

Links to Bibliographic Instruction

At many institutions, bibliographic instruction (now usually called library skills
instruction) has been an important vehicle for introducing students to library research.
In fact, it was the forerunner of todays concept of information literacy, although
information literacy now goes much further than accessing and evaluating
bibliographic sources. Nevertheless, a bibliographic instruction program provides an
opportunity to assess some of the lower-level aspects of contemporary information
literacy. Basic library instruction in some form will continue to be critical for
all students who are experiencing library research for the first time. However,
assessment at this level must be combined with other efforts on campus
to obtain a more well-rounded view of what students are learning within the
classroom, the library, or the co-curriculum in preparation for lifelong learning.

12
13

OConnor, Radcliff, & Gedeon (2002)

See www.iub.edu/~nsse/html/facts.shtml.

51

Numerous assessment instruments for bibliographic instruction programs are

available.14 Many instruments assess the students perceptions of what they have
learned. While these types of assessments are helpful, it is important to include both
opinion questions and questions that actually assess learning in order to have more
objective data for improving instructional practices and to evaluate the level of
student learning. The latter requirement increases the importance of the role of
faculty members in the overall plan for information literacy.
At the end of an instructional session, two or three questions could be included in an
assessment instrument to determine if students learned information that was new to
them. In addition, a pretest could be helpful in further shaping both the instructional
sessions and their final evaluation. If this is desirable, a librarian, collaborating with
the instructor, could administer a pre-test before the actual session. The assessment
instrument designed for use at the end of the bibliographic instruction session then
could indicate either the areas that students were unaware of or not knowledgeable
about or whether they had in fact learned the material that had been covered during
the session.

Measuring Assessment Effectiveness

Developing a successful assessment effort is an ongoing process. It should be part of
an overall plan that is focused on ensuring effective assessment, evaluation, the
attainment of learning, and the further improvement of the program. The purpose of
the assessment instrument is to obtain useful information for measuring student
learning and the success of educational efforts.
Having devised an assessment program, the institution is responsible for ensuring that
what it is measuring is what the institution seeks to learn about student attainment of
information literacy. Therefore, it is important to test the instrument and to refine it
before implementing it as a permanent part of the assessment effort. Once the
instrument is in use and there are sufficient data to understand what it measures
effectively, it is appropriate to consider opportunities for improvement.
Not only is the information obtained from an assessment effort helpful in refining the
instrument so that it is even more effective, the results also provide clues about what
other types of assessment may need to be performed or perhaps executed in a
different manner. For example, it may indicate that qualitative rather than
quantitative measures might further illuminate what students have learned.

14

52

See Merz and Mark (2002).

Improving Teaching and Learning

ears ago, when prospective students and their parents visited a college they
were considering, institutions encouraged them to visit the colleges library and
the science laboratories to see types of student activities. The level of library
use, as well as the variety of student learning activities observed, were accepted as
unobtrusive indicators of the quality of education that an institution provided. Today,
an institution emphasizes the skills of its graduates, and the extent to which the
institution develops and improves the information skills of students is one indicator of
the institutions commitment to effective education. The institutions resources are
only a means to the end.
Institutions usually rely on some form of assessment to determine the skills of their
graduates. One of the most important steps in the assessment process is what
happens after the data are collected (Assessment of Student Learning: Options and
Resources, Chapter 5). With regard to information literacy, after identifying the
sources of available data discussed in Chapter 3, the data should be analyzed,
the results presented in an understandable format, the findings summarized and
communicated with at least the campus community (and preferably also with a
broader audience), and improvements effected in teaching, learning, and
institutional effectiveness.

Analyzing the Information

Raw assessment data must be analyzed in order to contribute to student learning and
institutional effectiveness. Analysis of assessment results consists of three
complementary activities: (1) an examination of the data from a particular instrument
or other source; (2) a reflection on the context in which the particular instruction and
testing in question occurred; and (3) a description of the implications of the findings,
along with recommendations for action. Depending upon the nature of the data
and whether the assessment purposes are for course, program, or institutional level
improvements in student learning, the type and sophistication of the analysis
will vary.
Effective analysis at the course level may begin with pencil strokes on a simple tally
sheet or a scoring rubric, as an instructor seeks to identify where students had
difficulties with an assignment. At the course level, an instructor may be able
to communicate the assessment findings immediately to students and then use the
analysis to make changes in the course or assignments. Campus-wide results from

53

an objective multiple-choice instrument intended to measure students information

literacy skills may require an entire range of statistical tests and involve several faculty
members and librarians in the analysis process.
While a composite score or general indication of students information skills is helpful,
analysis of the data by particular information sets of skills or competency areassuch
as those in the Commissions standards in Characteristics of Excellence, which were
adapted from Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education
(ACRL, 2000)is even more helpful in identifying students information strengths
and weaknesses. The richer the level of detail, the easier it is for faculty members
to reaffirm or to improve instructional practices.

Examining the Data

Information literacy assessment data can be qualitative or quantitative, as described
in Chapter 3, Types of Assessment. Some qualitative data can be manually coded
and, like quantitative data, subjected to basic statistical procedures. Both then can be
assembled in an understandable format to provide an overview of student learning.
The answers to the following questions may spur further assessment procedures
to gain a deeper understanding of the students skills:

Do the data appear to be reasonably distributed and free of errors or

discrepancies which could be the result of a faulty instrument, including

ambiguous instructions, a particular qualitative assessment strategy, or
mistakes in sampling or data entry?

By controlling for selected variables, do the students information skills differ

by instructional method; by whether instructions are written or given orally;

by the respondents gender, grade point average, year in school, or major
program; or by students previous experiences? If so, what might account for
those differences?

Based on an analysis, where in the program, course, or instructional session

did students experience difficulties or misunderstandings?

What other data might further inform the analysis?

Reflecting on Context
Assessment data can reveal the level of actual student learning, compared to the
desired levels that are outlined in the institutional, program, or course learning goals.
For these findings to be helpful, it is important to understand the educational
processes that lead to that student learning. Gardiner (1994, p. 126) asks: What is in
the educational process that promotes students cognitive and affective development?
In other words, what are the conditions or situations that are most likely to facilitate
students learning?
Middle States focuses on the skills of graduates and requires the use of multiple
measures. However, as explained in Chapter 3, the Commission does not require
institutions to demonstrate that value is added by a particular course or program.
Nevertheless, an institution may consider it important to determine whether a course
or program could be credited with effecting a change in student performance.
In this instance, collecting multiple sets of data from different sources or from the
same sources over a semester, several semesters, or years might be appropriate.

54

The underlying reason is that a single set of assessment results is like a snapshot in
time, but it does not permit a comparison of the situation before and after the
learning experience. Using multiple sets of data for analysis, although fraught with
methodological dangers, can provide some additional context in which to interpret
the results. Executed correctly, it can reinforce the validity of assessment measures
and strengthen subsequent recommendations.
It also is possible to shed light on students information literacy by using data that
have been gathered for another purpose. For example, students evaluations of their
courses and assignments may include data that can be used to confirm results from
other data sources and to suggest patterns. Likewise, indirect self-reported data from
attitudinal measures, which reflect how students feel about their information skills,
can be compared to direct measures of actual knowledge or to other evidence of
student performance.
The following questions might inform the analysis of data to describe the students
information literacy skills, to reflect on possible causes for the findings, and
to determine how teaching and learning can be improved:

Understanding Skill Levels:

First and foremost, is the assessment measuring what it is intended
to measure?
Are students able to apply what they learned in a subsequent part of
the course or major program? (Selected examples from these
assignments could prove helpful in illustrating to other students
excellent, acceptable, or poor applications of information skills in a
particular content area.) If there are multiple sessions, with students
from different course sections, do the results vary?
Are there differences in the levels of sophistication with which
students use information resources in their projects, within or across
academic levels, and are any patterns evident?
Do the data on information literacy skills correlate or triangulate with
other institutional data on students learning? For example, are faculty
in the disciplines inclined to believe that students actually may have
mastered the content of the course, using acceptable citations,
without reference to whether the students have accessed and
evaluated some of the less obvious but available resources?
Do the instructors observations of students behavior while doing the
exercises correlate with their assignment results, comments, and
one-minute papers15? (For example, a faculty member can observe
students execute a project or a librarian can observe students actual
search strategies, and they can draw inferences about whether a
students performance on any particular assignment exceeded or fell
below the assumed prerequisite knowledge and skills.)

15

The one-minute paper was developed by Cross and Angelo (1988, pp. 148-150).

55

 Reflecting on Possible Causes of Assessment Findings:

Might a pre-test of students skills have revealed that students are not
quite ready to pursue fully previously-established learning outcomes
for the course? If so, there may be one or more gaps in basic and
prerequisite information or skills that need to be filled before the
course can be pursued.
Were the instructions communicated clearly in the assessment
instrument, or were instructions explained clearly prior to the
evaluative strategy the instructor used for gathering qualitative
information?
Would the use of examples or different examples help students
to understand?
Were the objectives for the instructional session appropriate for the
time available?
Do any unusual distributions in the data or responses, such as
extraordinary highs and lows or clusters in the data, suggest potential
biases in the sample, the questions, the procedures, or other aspects
of the process?

How might the expected or any unexpected discoveries be used to improve

teaching, learning, and assessment?

Findings and Recommendations

In addition to a summary and analysis of the data, a report on information literacy
assessment results also should include a discussion of findings and recommendations
for action.
Findings. The final question for the institution is: Can it be stated with confidence
that, upon graduation, students have achieved the institutions standards for
information literacy? This question also can be adapted for the program or course
level and included with more precise findings that are consistent with the particular
learning goals and assessment methods being used.
Recommendations. The recommendations are a call for actions that will further
develop students information skills. These recommendations should be supported by
evidence that is credible, and specific recommendations make it easier for faculty and
librarians to accept the challenge and to make changes in their information literacy
instruction. Faculty, librarians, and administrators should be willing to provide the
resources necessary for implementation. This can be accomplished by ensuring that
there is agreement on an implementation plan (Palomba & Banta, 1999, p. 311-313).
This plan should include, as Farmer and Napieralski (1997) point out, the assignment
of responsibility and a time frame for actions.
Multiple Perspectives. Data often can be interpreted as having more than one
meaning, because people with various perspectives see different possibilities in the
data. Therefore, faculty, librarians, and other administrative staff should engage in
extended conversations before the final report is shared. Such conversations, relying
on multiple viewpoints as filters, can be invaluable in interpreting the data and

56

drawing conclusions (Palomba & Banta, 1999, p. 311), as well as developing any
recommendations that might emerge.

Improving the Curriculum

After the initial development of courses or programs for information literacy, applying
the knowledge gained through assessment to improve student learning begins to bring
the process full circle. Most institutions will take what they have learned and progress
to the next level, improvement, to assure the vitality and relevance of the course and
its role in institutional effectiveness.
As Breivik (1998) succinctly notes, the primary value of assessment is the early
detection and redirection of any learning effort that is not producing the intended
outcomes in students mastery of information [skills] (p. 114). Evaluating and
improving instruction based on the feedback received from sharing assessment results
can accomplish this. Those redirected efforts also should affect the institutions
overall effectiveness, because student learning is at the heart of most, if not all,
academic institutions.
For example, in 1996, the University of Maryland University College established a
non-credit, online tutorial on library research skills. The tutorial is required for all
entering graduate students at the university. The students provided an independent
assessment of the tutorial every semester. Typically, over 600 students completed the
tutorial each time it was administered. After an analysis of data from the student
evaluations, it became clear that while the tutorial provided a solid foundation and
ensured that students had a fundamental understanding of resources and services, it
did not include enough built-in assignments and assessment to ensure a consistent
understanding and achievement for all students taking the course. As a result, the
Graduate School, in collaboration with the library staff, revised the tutorial and
created a new course that addressed its inadequacies. The tutorial also measures the
students level of understanding and achievement at the conclusion of the course in
order to ensure that they have the foundation necessary to progress successfully
through the Graduate School.
Figure 11 indicates how data from a variety of sources can lead to specific
improvements in the curriculum to promote learning. Faculty and librarians who
analyze assessment findings may suggest the need for specific types of professional
development opportunities, such as how to improve the design of assignments or
effective teaching techniques for different learning styles. Their discussions also may
reveal underlying assumptions about how students and faculty apply information
skills, and further discussion may test those assumptions.
The summary and analysis of the assessment results, along with the implications and
recommendations, can be used in the institutions annual reports, postings to a web
site, or broadcasts via campus e-mail. They can become a discussion topic at
departmental meetings. An information literacy listserv or web-based bulletin board
could be used to share best practices electronically. If a campus favors face-to-face
interaction, workshops or brown bag lunches, sponsored by the library or the
teaching center, can be used to demonstrate and discuss experiences in teaching
information literacy. The specific form of communication and reflection will depend
on the campus culture at an institution.

57

Figure 11

From Assessment Data to Improvement

Assessment Findings

Problem Areas Identified

Proposed Solutions

Lower-level Examples:
Freshman Experience Survey
reveals that 35 percent of
freshmen believed their
library skills were deficient;
55 percent indicated that the
curriculum challenged their
library skills.

Students unprepared in basic

skills, such as the ability
to formulate a search and
identify appropriate
information; limited previous
experience with libraries and
information resources

Freshman seminar to include

series of short assignments
designed to improve
students ability to formulate
searches and to identify
topics and resources for their
seminar project
Students complete an on-line
tutorial for basic skills as part
of their first assignment

A sociology instructor finds

numerous references to
Redbook, Newsweek, and
web sites in students social
problems reports.

Expectations not clearly

communicated; students
unfamiliar with the types of
resources expected

A review of a semester-long
project (due by the last class)
reveals several students
plagiarized and most students
did not effectively utilize
information sources to
support their thesis.

Procrastination; lack of
familiarity with the steps in
the research and writing
process and with the use of
information sources in
building and refuting a
position

More detailed instructions;

outline the role of
information sources in the
project; break the project
into smaller segments with
sequential due dates and
more frequent feedback;
provide a project rubric and
samples of excellent work;
and offer warnings about the
significance of plagiarizing.

Instructor notes many

students were unable to
critique journal articles
effectively

Limited knowledge of the

structure of research articles
and elements of research
design

Materials distributed to detail

the elements of a research
article, their purpose, and
common research flaws;
more practice in critiquing

Program faculty observe that

several capstone students had
difficulty distilling their
research for oral presentation.

Inability to summarize,
identify major points, and
point out the implications of
their findings; no oral
presentations in previous
courses

Multiple assignments
requiring the abstracting and
annotation of research as well
as oral presentations
introduced earlier in the
curriculum

Study guide detailing the

differences between popular
and scholarly information
resources
Study guide outlining
sociology-related information
resources

Upper-level Examples:

58

Discussions such as these may create a long-term opportunity for librarians and the
faculty who are developing students information literacy skills to share best practices
and to address common problem areas. It will provide an opportunity to reflect and
build on the assessment process in order to improve students information skills, the
acquisition of specific learning outcomes, and overall institutional effectiveness.

Communicating Assessment Information

Information derived from the assessment of information literacy should be
communicated to and discussed with others, both students and faculty on campus
and colleagues off campus. Assessment is designed to be a supportive process that
leads to improvement in practice; it is not a report card on instructional performance.
Therefore, sharing assessment results can lead to a discussion of instructional
objectives, trends, accomplishments, and what the faculty members and the
institution plan to do differently in the future.
As Palomba and Banta (1999) point out, Assessment information is of little use if it is
not shared with appropriate audiences and used in meaningful ways (p. 297). They
also note: Much of the value of assessment comes from the systematic way it makes
educators question, discuss, share, and observe (p. 328). To facilitate that discussion
and understanding, it is important to avoid jargon or terminology with which the
intended audience may not be familiar or comfortable. The communication process
should not derail assessment efforts because of value laden terminology or words
with connotations that some may find distasteful.
In addition to the findings and recommendations, the implications of the data should
be communicated clearly. Explaining the implications reduces indifference,
defensiveness, or tendencies to rationalize and dismiss the findings (Astin, 1991,
p. 134-135). If the results indicate a need for improvement, this can be an
opportunity to explain what has been learned and, more importantly, how that
learning will be applied to improvement in the development of students information
skills (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2001, p. 269).
Making the connections between assessment findings, recommendations, or
implications and what they may mean for their students helps faculty to put a
human face on the findings. Disaggregating institutional data and making
comparisons by student subgroups or major programs also may assist readers in
understanding the information and reflecting on the larger message.
At the institution level, the act of sharing assessment results solidifies perceptions
about the institutions return on its financial investment in learning and celebrates the
success of its efforts. In addition, a successful program in one department should be
shared with other departments and organizations across campus. One of the most
convincing ways to let others know the value of information literacy and assessment is
to make them aware of how assessment results have been used in the past to improve
student information skills, such as by modifying classes, assignments, and courses or
by introducing new strategies for teaching and learning. Faculty and librarians can
learn from each other, and this feedback enhances their understanding of the
connections between their actions and the development of students information
skills. In other words, it assists them in becoming more effective (Astin, 1991, p.130).

59

Increased confidence in the process and the results may gradually raise the level of
faculty commitment and increase their expectations for student learning (Katz, 1993,
p. 62). Communication also reinforces the commitment made by faculty who
recognized early the importance of information literacy instruction and who are well
placed to help prepare others. With a common knowledge and understanding of the
institutions information literacy efforts and assessment results, it is possible to
develop strategic partnerships and to create a supportive environment for innovative
approaches to developing information and lifelong learning skills. It is especially
important to share information about the institutions efforts with new faculty, who
may not yet understand or accept the concept of information literacy instruction,
because they are the future leadership who will shape the curriculum.
Sharing assessment information can be an invitation for constructive input from a
variety of sources, and it can lead to assessment efforts being recognized at the local,
regional, and national levels. By reaching out to peer or sister institutions with
information about successful programs, such as through a consortium or a
system-wide supportive committee, an institution can promote collaborative
approaches that will generate new ideas, and those joint efforts will invigorate each
institutions programs. In the absence of formal collaboration, inter-institutional
discussions by local, regional, or statewide groups of faculty and librarians should
further benefit an established program.
Finally, Characteristics of Excellence requires institutions to make information on
student learning outcomes available to prospective students (p. 25). Applicants
should be aware of the institutions commitment to information literacy, which is one
of the student learning outcomes specified in Characteristics; the students success in
mastering the necessary skills, as reflected in assessment data; and the students
obligation to be information literate upon graduation. This advance notice should
help to focus the prospective students approach to learning across the curriculum
and have a positive effect on persistence and retention.
For these reasons, institutions may wish to ask the following questions when they
consider how and with whom to share the results of their information literacy
assessment:

Who should have access to the assessment results?

How will the reporting of the results ensure privacy for all concerned?
Can the information be shared widely for planning purposes?
Will the results be combined with other efforts or reported separately?
To what extent and how can the results be summarized and shared beyond
the campus?

In summary, continually diffusing innovative approaches will invigorate and further

develop programs and courses.

60

Sustaining the Momentum of

Information Literacy: An Overview

s explained in Chapter 3, the various elements of information literacy may be

taught and assessed across the curriculum, in the general education
requirements, in the major fields of study, and in the library. Therefore each
institution will want to assure itself that the various elements of information literacy
that are scattered across the curriculum form a coherent whole. Even after the
perfect student learning plan is in place, each institution will continue to review the
status and success of its information literacy program and to plan for the future.
Institutions with different missions will have different expectations, both within and
across institutions, for the specific information literacy skills that students will have
achieved when they graduate. These specific skills would be in addition to the
minimum expectations for information literacy at all institutions, as recognized across
the United States, as described in Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education
(2002), and as shown in the examples given in these guidelines. In addition, not all
institutions will explore or emphasize the same areas in creating a plan for themselves
or when choosing a design for self-study in preparation for the decennial
accreditation review.
This chapter suggests several areas that institutions may choose to consider as they
review their existing efforts from a broad perspective and consider how best to revise
their institutional plans, curricula, teaching strategies, and information resources in
order to sustain the momentum for developing information literate graduates.
The questions that follow will not be applicable to all institutions, and they are not
presented as lists of requirements for any institution.

Are the curricula part of an obviously-integrated plan for learning?

Are the student learning outcomes that the institution seeks to foster
at the institutional and program levels (i.e., whether part of the
institutional plan for general education, its program-specific goals, or
both) integrated into a coherent set of experiences, designed to
promote synthesis of learning?
Is information literacy included appropriately and sufficiently among
the outcomes that are discussed in the institutions plan for defining,
teaching, and assessing student learning?

61

 Is the information literacy curriculum distributed across curricula

(either in course-related sessions or embedded within and throughout
each course), or is it compartmentalized (e.g., as one or more courses
in its own right or as part of the general education curriculum)?
Does the institution make
connections between learning in
its general education courses
(including but not limited to
information literacy) and learning
in the students major programs?
Is information literacy explicitly or
implicitly recognized as an
outcome that facilitates and
enhances other learning
outcomes?
How does the role of information
literacy relate to the institutions
other parallel and overlapping
curricular initiatives, such as
critical thinking, technology competency,
writing, and public speaking?

[E]ach institution will want

to assure itself that the
various elements of
information literacy
that are scattered across
the curriculum form a
coherent whole.

What is the institutions process for defining specific information literacy

outcomes?

Is developing information literacy outcomes part of the institutions

planning process at the institution, department/program, and course
levels?
Is the explication of those outcomes consistent and relevant as the
definitions become more specific?

How has the institution defined the characteristics of an information literate

graduate?

Is the institutions definition of information literacy consistent with

Characteristics 2002 and with the institution-wide mission and goals?
Are the criteria (i.e., the elements of the definition) appropriate and
sufficient?
Are there explicit, different characteristics for students as they
progress through various years or levels during their career at the
institution? Are there major differences for various programs that are
offered?
Can the criteria defining an information literate student reasonably be
expected to lead to a manageable assessment program that develops
useful results within an appropriate time frame?

62

 Does the institution draw clear distinctions between information

literacy and computer literacy?

How are the institutions expected information literacy and other learning
outcomes communicated to students?

Do students know what it means to be information literate?

Can students articulate which information skills they have and the
relationship of information skills to their future careers?
Is it clear to the institutions faculty and students where and how
students information skills are identified, developed, assessed, and
improved in the curriculum?

What is the evidence that the institution produces graduates who are
information literate?

Is the evidence based solely on student performance in courses, or

has the institution also demonstrated creativity in incorporating
information literacy in the co-curriculum?
What types of assessment processes and data are used, including how
the institution determines if one student is more information literate
than another?
Are the available data sufficient to establish student learning, or
would other data or other types of evidence be more appropriate?
Is the librarys contribution to the learning experiences of students
among the types of data that are considered?
Although not required by Middle States, has the institution elected
to use benchmarks, longitudinal data, or information from peer
institutions in its analysis? If so, does the analysis draw reasonable
conclusions?

Is there evidence of improvement based on what the institution has learned?

How has assessment information been analyzed and used to enhance
the program and the development of information skills among
students?
Does the institution periodically identify its strengths and the areas
institution-wide that need improvement, and does it explain how it is
going to address those areas?

63

When the institution is reviewing and explaining the results of its data on student
learning with regard to information literacy, it may consider a number of indirect
factors, even though many are not requirements for accreditation.16 These include:

Do faculty members and administrators collaborate on information literacy in

the areas that are uniquely within their separate expertise?

Is there an ongoing discussion on campus about using the results of

information literacy assessment to improve individual student learning,

teaching, and administration?

To what extent do the faculty use active learning techniques (including

requiring students to use information resources), whether or not a library is

necessary in the information-gathering process (i.e., on field trips, in the
laboratory, or in developing oral histories and patient profiles)?

What professional development is available to full-time and adjunct faculty,

administrators, and professional staff with reference to student learning and
information literacy?

Specifically, do professional development seminars address all six of

the components of the information literacy paradigm, or are they
limited to only those within the technical expertise of a particular
seminar facilitator?

Does the institution lack any resources that others might consider as baseline
and indispensable for a higher education mission, whether those resources
are available from the institutions own library or by contracts with others?

Could the institution use its web site(s) more effectively to support its

information literacy program? Can it also effectively rely on websites from

other institutions to help meet its needs? What types of tutorials, study
guides, or handouts are available to students and faculty?

Are the resources supporting information literacy dedicated to that purpose,

or are they shared with other instructional units that use them for different
purposes or shared by independent or affiliated providers (e.g., consortia)
under contractual agreements?

Are they being utilized appropriately and sufficiently to achieve the

stated learning outcomes or other institutional objectives?

16

64

To identify the actual Middle States requirements for accreditation, see

Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education.

 Do contracts with affiliated or unaffiliated providers not only comply

with the Commissions standards in Characteristics 2002 but are not
barriers to improvements based on the institutions unique
assessment findings?

Do institutions or programs that deliver instruction by distance-learning

ensure that their resources are adequate for the institutions mission and that
distance learning students and off-campus faculty are integrated into
information literacy planning, instruction, assessment, and improvement?

Many of the skills included in information literacy are not new. Framing the research
question and finding, evaluating, using, and communicating information ethically and
legally are basic elements of higher education. However, as the amount of available
information expands rapidly, and as technology and methods of research change,
it is important to pay attention to the increasing complexity of skills needed to ensure
that all students are prepared to use information in all aspects of their lives.
The detail devoted to information literacy in these guidelines is not intended to
impose new burdens on institutions to create large, new programs. It is intended to
demonstrate how this important area can be addressed within existing curricular
structures and content, using existing faculty and librarians when possible. Once the
need for educating students about information literacy is accepted, the means to
achieve that objective may be diverse. The challenge for each institution is to define
its own mission-driven path to producing information literate graduates.

65

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institutional self-study. Philadelphia: Author.
________________________________________. (2003). Student learning assessment: options
and resources. Philadelphia: Author.
Moore, D., Brewster, S., Dorrh, C., & Moreau, M. (2002). Information competency instruction
in a two-year college: One size does not fit all. Reference Services Review, 30 (4),
300-306. [Electronic version available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0090-7324.htm.]
National Research Council. (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of
educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Nerz, H. F. & Weiner, S. T. (2001). Information competencies: A strategic approach. Session
2241, Proceedings of the 2001 American Society for Engineering Annual Conference
& Exposition.
Nichols, D. (2002, June 28). The digital dissertation: Graduate student support at the
University of Michigan Library. A PowerPoint presentation at Serving the information
literacy needs of our graduate students: Collaborative strategies for success. LOEX of
the West Conference, Eugene, OR.
Oberman, C., Gratch Lindauer, B, & Wilson, B. (1998, May). Integrating information literacy
into the curriculum: How is your library measuring up? College & Research Libraries
News, 59, 347-352. ().
OConnor, L. G., Radcliff, C. J., & Gedeon, J. A. (2002, November). Applying systems design
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College & Research Libraries, 63, 528-543.

67

Palomba, C. A. & Banta, T. W. (1999). Assessment essentials: Planning, implementing, and

improving assessment in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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_______________. (2000-2002). Oswald Ratteray presented the concept of shared
responsibilities for information literacy instruction in at least four forums across the
Middle States region:
(1) Reshaping the Ivory Tower: The Power of Information Literacy, presented at the
Annual Meeting of the SUNY Council of Library Directors, April 5-7, 2000;
(2) The Spring Meeting of the Congress of Academic Library Directors of Maryland,
May 19, 2000;
(3) Are Students Really Learning? Faculty/Librarian Collaboration for Accreditation,
an address to The Greater New York Metropolitan Area Chapter of the Association
of College & Research Libraries, December 7, 2001; and
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of College and Research Libraries, May 31, 2002.
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students as independent learners (pp. 15-25). New Directions For Higher Education,
Number 78, Summer. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Walvoord, B. E. & Anderson, V. J. (1998). A tool for learning and assessment. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
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Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. 1998. Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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68

Appendix 1

Criteria for Information Literacy

Competency
Developed by Grace Bulaong, Director of the Library; Dr. Helen Hoch, Professor of Biology; and Robert J. Matthews,
Associate Professor of Business Administration, New Jersey City University. It is based on Information Literacy Competency
Standards for Higher Education (Association of College and Research Libraries, 2000). Reproduced with permission.

Name:________________________________________________________ Date:________________________
Course Title:___________________________________________________ Instructor:____________________
Assignment Title:_____________________________________________________________________________

Competency

Assessment Criteria
Novice

Developing

Proficient

Accomplished

N/A

q Cannot develop
a thesis
statement

q Develops a clear
thesis statement,
formulates a
question based
on information
needed

q Defines or modifies q Combines existing

information
information and
to achieve a
original thought,
manageable focus
experimentation
and can identify
and/or analysis to
key concepts and
produce new
terms
information

q Does not
recognize that
knowledge is
organized into
disciplines and
cannot locate
information
beyond local
and print
resources

q Recognizes that
knowledge is
organized into
disciplines and
identifies the
value differences
of potential
resources

q Identifies the
q Recognizes the use
purpose and
and importance of
audience of
primary and
potential resources,
secondary sources
reevaluates the
and realizes that
nature and extent
information may
of information
need to be
needed and
constructed with raw
differentiates
data from primary
between primary
sources
and secondary
q Knows how
sources
information is
formally and
informally produced,
organized, and
disseminated

Extent of Information
1. Ability to define
and articulate the
need for
information

2. Identifies a
variety of types
and formats of
potential sources

69

Competency

Assessment Criteria
Novice

Developing

Proficient

Accomplished

N/A

Access to Information
1. Selects the
most appropriate
investigative
methods or
information
retrieval systems
2. Constructs and
implements
effectively
designed search
strategies

3. Retrieves
information using
a variety of
methods

4. Refines the
search strategy

5. Extracts,
records, and
manages the
information and
its sources

70

q Cannot select
appropriate
investigative
methods for
information
retrieval

q Identifies
appropriate
methods and
investigates the
benefits and
applicability

q Investigates the
scope, content,
and organization
of information
retrieval systems

q Selects efficient and

effective approaches
from the
investigative method
or information
retrieval system

q Cannot
construct or
implement
search strategies

q Identifies
key words,
synonyms, and
related terms

q Constructs a
search strategy
appropriate to the
information
retrieval system

q Selects
discipline-specific
search vocabulary
and develops an
appropriate research
plan

q Cannot retrieve
information
effectively from
any source

q Uses various
search systems
in a variety of
formats

q Uses various
classification
schemes and other
systems to locate
information
resources and
identifies specific
sites for exploration

q Uses specialized
services (on-site or
on-line) as well as
surveys, letters,
interviews, and
other forms of
inquiry to retrieve
primary information

q Cannot assess
the quantity,
quality, and
relevance of
search results

q Revises and
repeats
searches
effectively

q Identifies gaps
in retrieved
information and
determines if
search strategy
should be revised

q Assesses quantity,
quality, and relevant
search results to
determine whether
alternative
information retrieval
systems or
investigative
methods should
be used

q Cannot select
appropriate
information
technologies
to gather
information

q Selects
appropriate
sources and
can create a
system for
organizing the
information

q Differentiates
between types of
sources and
understands the
elements and
syntax of citations

q Uses various
technologies to
manage information
and can record all
pertinent citation
information for a
wide range of
resources

Competency

Assessment Criteria
Novice

Developing

Proficient

Accomplished

N/A

Evaluation of Information of Information

1. Summarizes
main ideas

q Cannot select
main ideas from
text information
gathered

q Selects data
accurately

q Identifies verbatim
material and
appropriately
quotes it

q Summarizes main
ideas from
information sources
and can restate
textual concepts in
own words

q Cannot evaluate
information

q Examines and
compares
information
from various
sources to
evaluate
reliability,
validity, and
timeliness,
authority, and
point of view of
bias

q Analyzes the
structure and logic
supporting
arguments or
methods
q Recognizes
prejudice,
deception, or
manipulation

q Recognizes the
cultural, physical, or
other contexts
within which the
information was
created and
understands the
impact of context on
information

q Cannot
synthesize main
ideas

q Uses computer q Recognizes

and other
interrelationships
technologies for
among concepts
studying the
and combines
interaction of
them into
ideas and other
potentially useful
phenomena
primary statements
with supporting
evidence

q Extends initial
synthesis to
construct new
hypotheses that may
require additional
information

q Cannot
determine
whether
information
satisfies the
information
need

q Tests theories
with disciplineappropriate
techniques

q Uses consciously
selected criteria to
evaluate
information from
other sources and
draws conclusions
based upon
information
gathered

q Integrates new
information with
previous knowledge,
can select
information that
provides evidence
for the topic
q Determines
probable accuracy
by questioning the
source, the
limitations of
gathering
information, and the
reasonableness of
conclusions

q Cannot
determine
whether new
knowledge has
an impact on
ones value
system

q Investigates
differing
viewpoints

q Investigates
differing viewpoints
to determine
whether to reject
viewpoints
encountered

q Determines whether
to incorporate
viewpoints
encountered into
ones own value
system

2. Articulates and
applies initial
criteria for
information and
its sources

3. Synthesizes
main ideas to
construct new
concepts

4. Compares new
knowledge with
prior knowledge
to determine the
value added,
contradictions, or
other unique
characteristics of
information

5. Determines
whether new
knowledge has an
impact on the
individuals value
system and takes
steps to reconcile
differences

71

Competency

Assessment Criteria
Novice

Developing

Proficient

Accomplished

N/A

Evaluation of Information contd

6. Validates
understanding
and interpretation
of information
through discourse
with others,
including experts
and/or
practitioners

q Cannot
effectively
participate in
discussions

q Participates
effectively in
classroom
and other
discussions

q Effectively uses
class-sponsored
electronic
communications
forums

q Seeks appropriate
expert opinions
through a variety of
mechanisms

q Determines
if original
information
need has been
satisfied or
if added
information
is needed

q Reviews search
strategy and
incorporates
additional concepts
as necessary

q Reviews
q
information retrieval
sources and search
strategies used to
revise initial queries

q Cannot organize
content in a
meaningful way

q Manipulates
digital text,
images, and
data from
original
locations to
format a new
context

q Organizes content
in support of
purposes and
format and
articulates
knowledge and
skills from prior
experiences

q Integrates new and

q
prior information,
including quotations
and paraphrasing,
in a manner that
supports the
product or
performance

q Cannot
effectively revise
work

q Maintains a
q Maintains a log that q Reflects on past
journal or log of
includes an
successes and
activities
evaluation of
failures; Develops
information relevant
alternative strategies
to the data found
in searching,
evaluating, and
communicating

q Cannot
communicate
effectively

q Uses a limited
range of
information
technology

q Cannot
determine if
7. Determines
information
whether the initial
needs have
query should be
been satisfied
revised

Use of Information
1. Applies new
and prior
information to the
planning and
creation of a
particular product
or performance

2. Revises the
development
process for the
product or
performance

3. Communicates
the product or
performance
effectively

72

q Uses a range of
information
technology
q Chooses
communication
medium/format that
best supports the
purposes of the
product or
performance and
the intended
audience

q Incorporates
principles of design
and communication
and communicates
clearly to the
intended audience

Competency

Assessment Criteria
Novice

Developing

Proficient

Accomplished

N/A

Ethical and Legal Issues

1. Understand
ethical, legal, and
socio-economic
issues surrounding
information and
information
technology

2. Follows
copyright and
other laws,
regulations,
institutional
policies, and
etiquette related
to the access and
use of information
resources

3. Acknowledges
the use of
information
sources

q Does not
understand the
ethical/legal/
socio-economic
issues
surrounding
information and
information
technology

q Identifies and
discusses issues
related to free
vs. fee-based
access in print
and electronic
environments

q Does not follow q Uses

appropriate
appropriate
laws, policies,
passwords,
and netiquette
ID, and
netiquette in
the collection
of information
q Understands
what plagiarism
is and does not
plagiarize

q Identifies and
discusses issues of
privacy, security,
censorship, and
freedom of speech

q Demonstrates an
understanding of
intellectual
property, copyright,
and the fair use of
copyrighted
material

q Complies with
q Obtains, stores, and q
institutional policies
disseminates text,
on information
data, images, and
resources and
sounds within legal
preserves the
guidelines
integrity of
q Understands
information sources,
relevant institutional
equipment,
policies, including
systems, and
those on human
facilities
subject research

q Does not
acknowledge
sources

q Inappropriately
acknowledges
sources

q Usually
acknowledges
sources in an
appropriate style

q Consistently cites
sources in an
appropriate style
and posts
permission granted
notices for
copyrighted
material, where
applicable

q Identifies major
weaknesses and
strengths

q Synthesizes
feedback from
instructor and
students

q Synthesizes
feedback and
integrates with
self-analysis

q Utilizes
self-assessment and
feedback to
determine means of
modifying
performance

Self-Assessment
Self-regulation
and goal-setting

73

Appendix 2

An Entry-level Course on
The Research Aspects of
Information Literacy
Course Proposal for CSIS 103: Information Literacy
Marist College, Poughkeepsie, NY (Masters I). [Reproduced with permission of
Dr. Artin Arslanian, Dean of Faculty and Vice President for Academic Affairs.]

The Middle States Commission on Higher Education defines information literacy as:
an intellectual framework for identifying, finding, understanding, evaluating and using
information. It includes determining the nature and extent of needed information; accessing
information effectively and efficiently; evaluating critically information and its sources;
incorporating selected information in the learners knowledge base and value system; using
information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose; understanding the economic, legal
and social issues surrounding the use of information and information technology; and
observing laws, regulations, and institutional policies related to the access and use of
information.

Information management skills are necessary in every discipline and in every professional
career. The ability to locate and evaluate meaningful information is vital to good
decision-making. Information literacy is a means of personal empowerment; it allows
individuals to verify or refute expert opinions and to become independent seekers of truth; it
provides them with the ability to build their own arguments and to experience the excitement
of the search for knowledge.
Information (organized data, the raw material for specialized knowledge, and generalist
wisdom) is a globally important resource. Industry, diplomacy, politics, and commerce are
based on a transfer of specific kinds of data and information. As the world embraces
technology as its primary vehicle for information transfer, special skills have become necessary
to process and analyze information.
It has been said that todays students are the first truly wired generation. Students entering
the global marketplace in the 21st Century are far more likely to be familiar with current
technologies, including the expanse of the World Wide Web. Success in this environment will
be determined by a students ability to master these technological tools and access the
information they require quickly and effectively.
Information literacy standards explore an approach to problem solving that suggests multiple
solutions of varying degrees of usefulness that can be pieced together-often from many
disciplines and from multiple information sources such as online databases, videotapes,
government documents, and journals. This method of locating and analyzing information is a
lifelong learning activity, and is evidenced by: knowing when there is a need for information;
identifying information needed to address a given problem or issue; finding needed
information and evaluating the information; organizing the information; and using the
information effectively to address the problem or issue at hand.

74

This learning process will not only enhance the critical thinking skills of students but will also
promote the effective performance of professional and civic responsibilities.
Number of Credits: 3
Suggested class size: 20 (due to class projects and lab requirements which demand significant
instructor-student interaction)
Requirements: None. This is a basic course for entry-level students.
Planned number of meetings per week: 2 at 1 hour 15 minutes each (lecture and lab will be
combined)
Professor responsible for the course: Computer Science and Information/Library Science
faculty.
Previous Offerings: The content of this course is new and incorporates certain aspects from
CSIS 150, 151, 152, 153, and 158.

Course Approach
In order to teach information literacy effectively, it must be done from the pedagogical
framework of problem solving (i.e., the asking of significant questions, researching of those
questions, analysis of the questions, and the successful communication of the results).
Successful integrated information skills programs are designed around collaborative projects
and will include computer skills instruction.
A computer literacy curriculum must be more than laundry lists of isolated skills, such as:
knowing the parts of the computer, writing drafts and final products with a word processor, or
searching for information using a CD-ROM database. This approach does not allow students
to understand why or when or a certain piece of data, information, or tool is called for.
Students need to be able to recognize that computers and other technologies serve learning as
a means to obtain information, but do not substitute for an ability to locate and analyze that
information. Information literacy includes building computer skills as part of the
problem-solving process, but it focuses on overall learning and information-gathering skills.
Experts in the field of information literacy have warned against teaching computer skills in
isolation and have emphasized a need to combine such training with the students knowledge
base and value system, whereby the student fully understands the nature and impact of the
information sought.

Catalog Description
This hands-on course will provide students with an overview of the types of information
resources found in libraries and with a working knowledge of the electronic resources
available in the Marist College Library. In addition, information available via the Internet, and
the World Wide Web in particular, will be explored. Search techniques will be demonstrated
and practiced. Critical thinking and evaluation of information resources will be emphasized
throughout the course. The impact of the use and availability of information locally, nationally
and globally will be discussed. MLA and APA citation style will be used. Students will learn
when and why to use computer skills as well as how. Students will develop information
and computer literacy by applying various computer skills as part of the learning process.

Background
It is the general consensus among the various schools that the current computer modules no
longer meet the needs of our students. Issues raised include:
Students are arriving with significantly more computer skills and no longer need introductory
skill courses.

75

More and varied computer skills are needed depending upon the curriculum in which the
student is majoring.
Skill courses do not fulfill the pedagogical requirements of a college course; they specifically
do not encourage independent thinking or problem solving.
Skills that are learned in isolation are not retained or transferred to future courses.

Rationale for the Course

In response to a growing need for a less computer-skills-driven and more ideologically focused
component to helping students fulfill information needs, the School of Computer Science and
Mathematics is proposing a course that will emphasize the principles of information literacy.
This assumes that Marist students are approaching this course with a more
technologically-advanced skill base than previous classes and will need to keep ahead of
changes in the information technology world.
Information literacy has been defined as a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognize
when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the
needed information. Information literacy is increasingly important in the contemporary
environment of rapid technological change and proliferating information resources.
The uncertain quality and expanding quantity of information pose large challenges for society.
The sheer abundance of information will not in itself create a more informed citizenry without
a complementary cluster of abilities necessary to use information effectively.
Information literacy, while showing significant overlap with information technology skills, is a
distinct and broader area of competence. Increasingly, information technology skills are
interwoven with, and support, information literacy. Fluency with technology focuses on
understanding the underlying concepts of technology and applying problem-solving and
critical thinking to using technology.

Information technology fluency focuses on a deep understanding of technology

and graduated, increasingly skilled use of it.

Fluency with information technology may require more intellectual ability than the
rote learning of software and hardware associated with computer literacy, but the
focus is still on the technology itself.

Information literacy, on the other hand, is an intellectual framework for

understanding, finding, evaluating, and using informationactivities which may be

accomplished in part by fluency with information technology, in part by sound
investigative methods, but most importantly, through critical discernment and
reasoning. Information literacy initiates, sustains, and extends lifelong learning
through abilities that may use technologies but are ultimately independent of them.17

The following standards, performance indicators, and outcomes (In Information Literacy
Competency Standards for Higher Education, Approved by the ACRL Board, January 18, 2000)
will be used.
1. The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the
information needed.
2. The information literate student accesses needed information effectively and
efficiently.

17

76

Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Association of

College and Research Libraries. http://www.ala.org/acrl/ilintro.html.

3. The information literate student evaluates information and its sources critically
and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value
system.
4. The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses
information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
5. The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal, and
social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses
information ethically and legally.

Bibliography
Middle States Commission on Higher Education. 2002. Characteristics of Excellence in Higher
Education: Eligibility Requirements and Standards for Accreditation. Philadelphia:
Author.
Association of College and Research Libraries. 2000. Information Literacy Competency
Standards for Higher Education. Chicago: Author.
Committee on Information Technology Literacy. Being Fluent with Information Technology.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Eisenberg, Michael B. and Johnson, Doug. (1996, March). Computer Skills for Information
Problem-Solving: Learning and Teaching in Context.
http://ericit.org/digests/computerskills.shtml

CSIS 103: Information Literacy

Objectives
By the end of the course students will:

Understand electronic information resources found in Libraries, such as OPACS

(Online Public Access Catalogs), bibliographic, full text, and directory databases.

Use effectively the electronic resources in the Marist College Library.

Understand and correctly use basic searching techniques.
Have a basic understanding of the Internet including the sources and quality of the
information available to the general public, and through fee-based services.

Navigate and effectively search the World Wide Web.

Be able to discuss political, social, legal, economic, and intellectual property issues
relevant to electronic information.

Be able to evaluate information for reliability and accuracy.

Develop tool literacy (integrating and utilizing various software packages for problem
solving, such as SPSS and Excel)

Understand resource literacy (ability to understand the form and format)

Have a basic understanding of electronic publishing (web page an example of this)
Be exposed to emerging technology literacy (new methods of communication such as
net meeting, etc.)

77

Assessment methods include

Tests and in-class exercises

Annotated bibliography
Documents and presentation of project using MS Word, PowerPoint, Excel, SPSS
Demonstrated classroom use of the WWW, eLearning, e-mail, virtual classroom
exercises

Class 1

Information Literacy
Overview of course and definitions
Introduction to elearning.Marist.edu
Overview of library web page and class web page and lecture on
the reading
Reading: Educom Review article: Information Literacy as a Liberal Art

Class 2

Introduction to the Internet

Reading : Introduction to the Internet. Lagerstrom

Class 3

Internet: Socio-political issues and technology.

Reading: Introduction to Information Systems, Chapter 11, OBrien

Class 4

Internet: Online discussion (virtual) on the Digital Divide

Reading: The Digital Divide by Kathy Koch (CQ Researcher)

Class 5

Topic selections for term project based on social, legal,

political, moral, and ethical issues relating to the Internet
Explanation of term project

Class 6

Selection and evaluation of websites.

Limit your search to get better results
structure vs. interface
controlled vocabulary; semantic web
keyword searches
search engine directories

Class 7

Test One

Class 8

Web evaluation continued

In-class assignment using search engines
Reading: Evaluating a Website

Class 9

Scholarly, Popular, and Professional Journals.

Whats the difference?
Reading: Scholarly Research and Publishing by Katy Silberger

Class 10

Primary & Secondary

Reading: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources of Information,
by Katy Silberger

78

Class 11

Library web page and catalogs: Overview of library web

page contents

Classes 12-16 Database research

Using: Electronic resources of Marist Library and subscription services

Class 17

Annotations, citations, and writing style manuals using

End Notes or APA Software
Annotated bibliography is begun

Class 18

Annotated bibliography completed.

Class 19

Systems approach as a problem solving framework

for research
Reading: Chapter 10 Introduction to Information Systems, OBrien

Class 20

Creating an opinion survey instrument on your topic of

research using MS Word, Excel, etc.
Reading: Integrating and Extending Office: Hutchinson and Coulthard
Chapters 1 3.

Classes 2122 Enter and analyze data in Excel and/or SPSS

Reading: SPSS tutorial and Office XP, by OLeary Ex 1, 2, 3.

Class 23

Link data into PowerPoint

Classes 2426 Design and e-publish the analysis and research from
your project.
Reading: Internet Literacy. Hofstetter, Chapters 15 - 17)

Classes 2728 Presentations of final projects

79

Appendix 3

A Distributed Approach to
Information Literacy at
A Two-Year Institution
RDG 030: Library Research and Literature Circles Project
Nassau Community College (Associates)
[Reproduced with Permission of Dr. Qiong-Ying Chen,
Assistant Professor, Reading and Basic Education Department]

The purpose of this project is to help you become actively engaged in researching, reading,
discussing, and reflecting on the novel, A Walk to Remember, throughout the semester.
The project consists of three components: (a) library research, (b) literature circle discussion,
and (c) a novel/movie report. Therefore, you will be assigned to work in groups of 4-5
students and required to do both individual reading/writing outside of class and group
discussing/sharing inside of class.

I. Library Research
The purpose of the library research is to help you learn to use the library facilities to do
research projects, not just for this class but also for other classes you will take in the future.
A. You will use the library catalog to find the novel and the movie, A Walk to
Remember. You must fill out request slips or attach the printout of this search
to the assignment.
B. You will use the different online databases, literature resource center, websites,
etc., to locate articles on:
1. the novel (e.g., book review)]
2. the author
3. the movie
4. the director
5. the actors, actresses, etc.
6. the setting of the novel and the movie
C. You will have to print or photocopy the articles for literature circle discussions
and to use as sources for your novel/movie report.

80

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________

II. Literature Circles

The purpose of literature circles is to provide an opportunity for you to share your
understanding of the events of the novel and to discuss your ideas, concerns, and questions of
what you read.
A. You will read, discuss, and reflect the novel and the articles on the novel/movie.
B. You will have rotating task roles in the literature circles discussions. (See sample
role sheets attached.) Role sheets are to be developed.
C. You will be assigned a specific role for each literature circle discussion.
D. You are responsible for reading, annotating the novel/articles, and
preparing/completing the role sheets.
E.

Each student will assume the role of Discussion Director at least once and
contribute one article to the group.

F.

When you have the role of Discussion Director, you are responsible for
developing a list of questions that your group might want to discuss.

G. You will write a reflective journal entry after each group discussion.
Note: Library research printouts, articles, literature circles discussion notes, role sheets,
and journal entries should be arranged into a portfolio and handed in before the end of
the semester.

III. A Novel/Movie Report

Students will write a novel/movie report on A Walk to Remember, using at least four sources
from the library research and the skills learned in class, such as mapping, outlining,
summarizing, etc. The purpose of this report is to help you develop appreciation and critical
thinking on two art forms: books and movies. This report must be typed and should include
the following:
A. A title page with your name and class/section on it
B. Information about the novel and the movie:
a.

Title of the novel, author, publisher, and date

b. Title of the movie, director, producer, main actors/actresses

C. A comparison between the movie and the novel: Were the setting, characters,
plot, and resolution the same as the novel? If not, where did the movie differ?
Which did you like better? Did the movie help clarify any part of the story?
Do you think the characters or plot took on a different meaning in the movie
version? Did you see the movie and read the novel for the first time? Which did
you prefer and why?
Please refer to the course outline for the due dates of each part of the assignments of this
project.

81

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: DISCUSSION DIRECTOR

Group Members: ___________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _______________________________________________________
Discussion Director: Your job is to develop a list of questions that your group might want to
discuss about these chapters of the book. Dont worry about the small details: your task is to
help people to talk over the big ideas in the reading and share their reactions. Usually the best
discussion questions come from your own thoughts, feelings, and concerns as you read, which
you can list below, during or after your reading. Or you may use some of the general
questions below to develop topics for your group.
Possible discussion questions or topics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sample questions:
What was going through your mind while you read this?
How did you feel while reading this part of the book?
What was discussed in this section of the book?
Can someone summarize briefly?
Did todays reading remind you of any real-life experiences?
What questions did you have when you finished this section?
Did anything in this section of the book surprise you?
What are the one or two most important ideas?
Predict some things you think will be talked about next.

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

82

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: LITERARY LUMINARY

Group Members: ____________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _______________________________________________________
Literary Luminary: Your job is to locate a few special sections of the novel that your group
would like to hear read aloud. The idea is to help people remember some interesting,
powerful, funny, puzzling, or important sections of the text. You decide which passages or
paragraphs are worth hearing, and then jot plans for how they should be shared. You can read
passages aloud yourself, ask someone else to read them, or have people read silently and then
discuss.
Location

Reason for Picking

Plan for Reading

1. Page _______

____________________

_________________________

Paragraph ___

____________________

_________________________

2. Page________

____________________

_________________________

Paragraph ___

____________________

_________________________

3. Page________

____________________

_________________________

Paragraph____

____________________

_________________________

4. Page________

____________________

_________________________

Paragraph____

____________________

_________________________

Possible reasons for picking a passage to be shared:

Important

Informative

Surprising

Controversial

Funny

Well written

Confusing

Thought provoking

Other: _______________________________________________________________________

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

83

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: CONNECTOR

Group Members: _____________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _________________________________________________________
Connector: Your job is to find connections between the book your group is reading and the
world outside. This means connecting the reading to your own life, to happenings at school or
in the community, to similar events at other times or places, to other people or problems you
are reminded of. You might also see connections between this book and other writings on the
same topic, or by the same author. There are no right answers herewhatever the reading
connects you with is worth sharing.
Some connections I found between this reading and other people, places, events,
authors. . .
1. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

84

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: SUMMARIZER

Group Members: _____________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _________________________________________________________
Summarizer: Your job is to prepare a brief summary of todays reading. The other members
of your group will be counting on you to give a quick (one- or two-minute) statement that
conveys the gist, the key points, the main idea or events, the essence of todays reading
assignment. If there are several main ideas or events to remember, you can use the numbered
slots below.
Summary:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Key points:
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3.

_____

4.

_____

5.

_____

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

85

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: VOCABULARY ENRICHER

Group Members: _____________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _________________________________________________________
Vocabulary Enricher: Your job is to be on the lookout for a few especially important words
in todays reading. If you find words that are puzzling or unfamiliar, mark them while you are
reading, and then later jot down their definition, either from a dictionary or some other
source. You may also run across familiar words that stand out somehow in the readingwords
that are repeated a lot, used in an unusual way or key to the meaning of the novel. Mark
these special words too, and be ready to point them out to the group. When your circle
meets, help members find and discuss these words.
Page No. &
Paragraph

Word

Definition

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

_________

___________

_______________________________________________

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

86

RDG 030
Dr. Chen

Name:____________________
Date: ____________________
ROLE SHEET: RESEARCHER

Group Members: ____________________________________________________________

Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment: _________________________________________________________________
Researcher: Your job is to dig up some information/articles on any topic related to the novel
and the movie. This might include:
1. Information about the setting of the novel and the movie (time, place, season, etc.).
2. Information about the author, his life, and other works.
3. Information about the director, actors, and actresses of the movie.
4. Pictures, objects, or materials that illustrate elements of the book.
5. Article(s) about the novel (e.g. book review).
6. Article(s) about the movie (e.g. movie review).

Note: The idea is to find some information or material that will help your group understand
the book better and to do the novel/movie report. Since there are so many topics you need to
investigate, you may want to discuss with your group members to decide who is going to do
what (i.e., to divide the library research topics among yourselves). So, each of you will get at
least one article of the related topics to share with your group members. This way, you will
have all the related information/material you need to write your novel/movie report.

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

87

ROLE SHEET: TRAVEL TRACER

Group Members: _____________________________________________________________
Book: A Walk to Remember
Assignment Chapters: _________________________________________________________
Travel Tracer: When you are reading a novel where characters move around a lot and the
scene changes frequently, it is important for everyone in your group to know where things are
happening and how the setting may have changed. So your job is to track carefully where the
action takes place during todays reading. Describe each setting in detail, either in words or
with an action map or diagram you can show to your group. Be sure to give the page
number(s) where the scene is described.
Describe or sketch the setting (you may also use the back of this sheet or another sheet):
Where todays action begins:

Page where it is described ____________

_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Where key events happen today:

Page where it is described ____________

_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Where todays events end:

Page where it is described ____________

_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

Adapted from Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom by Harvey Daniels.
Stenhouse Publishers, York, ME.

88

Appendix 4

A Distributed Approach to
Information Literacy in
A Lower-level Economics Course
ECON 115: Economy, Jobs, and You (Revised 12/02/02)
Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, NY (Masters I)
[Reproduced with permission of Dr. Stuart Cohen, Professor, Activity Director Title V,
Division of Social & Behavioral Sciences]

Topic
The purpose of this introductory course is to enable you to acquire some basic concepts of
economics that you can apply to current public issues in order to understand them better and
to take informed positions on them. The textbook presents a number of these issues, all of
which you can understand better by examining them from an economic point of view or
perspective. This perspective has a number of basic concepts, which include the following:

Scarcity and trade-offs

Marginal analysis: costs, benefits, and opportunity costs
Supply and demand
Market price system: equilibrium price, elasticity
Non-price rationing: wage and price controls
Market structures: monopoly, pure competition
Product differentiation
Economies of scale
Public goods and property rights
Intellectual property and human capital
Negative externalities and social costs
Monetary policy: money supply, interest rates, inflation
Fiscal policy: surplus, deficit, public debt
Gains from trade: comparative advantage, protectionism
For the information literacy assignment, you are to choose a public issue and examine it by
applying a concept or concepts from economics. You may choose an issue presented by the
textbook or an issue that you have identified by reading, viewing, or hearing the news. You
must frame the issue as a question in a form that requires an examination of more than one
side. For example, you could frame the question: Should the government ban smoking?

89

That would require you to examine arguments in favor and against such a policy. These
arguments must be based on economic concepts.
Framing your question in a productive form will enable you to focus your research. Without
such focus, you will not be able to carry out this assignment effectively, so you are required
to obtain prior approval of your question from the instructor.
This project addresses parts of the information literacy competency (listed under General
Education Competencies section near the beginning of the undergraduate catalog). You will
need to frame a topic, choose workable databases and sources concerning the topic, and
briefly cite and evaluate those sources. All these skills will be vital in other research and in
other settings.

Assignment Overview
For this assignment you will not write a paper, but you will choose the best sources for
such a paper. Over several weeks you will:
1. Choose a topic, approved by your instructor
a. Pose the relevant questions and look up definitions as needed
Complete Form 1: Developing a Topic
Your class should get a library session soon after this.
2. Create a documentation file of research activities and their outcomes
a. Access suggested databases, listing key words/terms used in each one
b. Evaluate each database for your topic, and provide notes on items found
in each database
c. Print/record potentially useful items for further evaluation
Complete Form 2: Database Search and Evaluation
3. From the materials identified above, select (and justify your choices):
a. Two books or selections/chapters from books
b. Two articles from scholarly journals
c. Two articles from general audience (popular)magazines or newspapers
From an Internet search engine (www.Google.com), select and justify:
d. Two good Websites that deal with your topic
Print the first one to two pages of each of these 8 sources.
Complete Form 3: List of Recommended Sources, citing all sources in the
reference style attached to these guidelines.
Use the three forms that follow. Your instructor will provide a due date for each one. Its
essential to hand them in on time so that you get feedback on each stage before you
proceed to the next.
Whenever you have questions about the databases or the research process, ask a librarian.

Tips from the Library

The topic selected and the question that you seek to answer may not be represented in each
type of source. Its not likely that youll find a whole magazine article, a whole newspaper
article, or a whole book, on that exact topic. So be flexible and learn to examine each
resource for any relevant information it may contain about your topic and the question you
seek to answer. Sometimes if you cant find information on a topic it may not be because of
your search procedures. If this occurs please see your instructor or a librarian.
When you search, try different terms, and keep track of the terms that work well. Even a term
that is changed by one letter will give different results.

90

The librarys website is at www.mercy.edu/libraries.. The main menu begins with the
CATALOG, then INDEXES (General or Current Affairs), where you get to the databases
recommended below:

Catalog (books and AV) Youll need to see the book to determine whether any part
of it can be useful for your topic. If you need to get it from another Mercy library,
allow a week or more for delivery.

Paroquet A group of very large databases. If you want to focus on business and

economics journals, you might choose ABI-Inform. If you want to focus on the
newspaper articles, try Paroquet Newspapers. (The New York Times and Wall Street
Journal both have their own

databases also.) If you pull up too many (50+) citations in Paroquet, try adding a

word like ECON? or cost? to your topic to focus the search. You can always rerun
the search back before 1999 by selecting Date range: Backfile. Many sources are
full text, and Mercy owns most of the others as well.

Wilson OmniFile All full text. Especially strong in journals.

EBSCO Host Masterfile Like Paroquet but much smaller.
SIRS Researcher Excellent for full-text articles and editorials that have been selected
to represent differing points of view.

CQ Library Especially for the CQ Researcher (first on the menu), which will

examine any major public issue in depth. You would cite the name and date of the
most useful report, which counts as a magazine article.

Issues & Controversies Similar to the CQ Researcher above.

Alt-Press Watch Includes full texts of articles from the alternative and independent
press. Mostly recent magazine articles and newspaper editorials, especially from the
Left.

Other databases: Ask the librarian if you need other ideas.

Search engine for the Internet:

Google.com A search engine to find material anywhere on the Internet. Its

important to check the sites and the information for quality e.g., authority of the
source and depth of the evidence provided.

91

Form 1 Developing a Topic

Information Literacy Assignment
Name _________________________________ ECON 115 Section_______ Date:___________
Choice of topic / title for your research project:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
What issue are you examining? What questions are you trying to answer?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Possible key words or terms to begin database searching:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

92

Form 2 Database Search and Evaluation

Information Literacy Assignment
Name ___________________________________ ECON 115 Sec.________ Date __________
Use the scale provided to assign the rating value indicating the usefulness of the database for
your research objectives.
1--2---345
Very Useful

Useful

Average Useful

Minimally useful

Not Useful

For Strengths and Weaknesses, ask yourself: Are the articles from this database actually
relevant? Are they too brief and newsy? Too advanced? Too biased? Do any take an
economic viewpoint?

Databases

Keywords/ Terms Used

to Search

# of
Hits

Rating

Strengths or Weaknesses
of the Database

Books and
Media Catalog
(WebPals)
Paroquet Direct
Wilson
Omnifile
EBSCO
Masterfile
SIRS
Researcher
CQ Library
Issues &
Controversies
Alt-Press Watch
Other Library
Database:
Internet Search
Engine (Google)

93

Form 3 List of recommended sources

Information Literacy Assignment
Name_____________________________________ ECON 115 Sec._______ Date__________
Now cite the 8 sources youve chosen, using the reference style provided on pages 9-10.
You will also indicate the database where you found each source, and type a justification for
each source you chose. Here is an example:
Smith, J. P. 1998. Global strategy: A necessity. Journal of International Business 23
(December): 92-121.
(From Paroquet)
This clearly written article reviews much of the recent literature and gives a marketing
perspective that isnt covered in my other sources.
Thenfor your articles, chapters and Websitesattach to this form the first 1-2 pages copied
from each, so that your instructor can judge the usefulness of your sources.

Books or book chapters:

1.
Justify this choice :
2.
Justify this choice :

Journal articles:
3.
Justify this choice :
4.
Justify this choice :

Magazine or newspaper articles:

5.
Justify this choice:
6.
Justify this choice:

Websites:
7.
Justify this choice:
8.
Justify this choice:
Staple these sheets to your photocopies/printouts.

94

Appendix 5

A Distributed Approach to
Information Literacy in
An Upper-level Course on
Information Science and Policy

R ISP 301 (5677): The Information Environment (3), Spring 2003

University at Albany, State University of New York (Doctoral/Research-Extensive)
[Reproduced with permission of Dr. Thomas P. Mackey
Assistant Professor, School of Information Science & Policy]

Texts
Lessig, Lawrence. The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World. New
York: Random House, 2001.
Niederst, Jennifer. Web Design in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference (Second Edition).
Sebastopol: OReilly & Associates, Inc., 2001.
Books are available uptown at the Barnes and Noble Campus Bookstore and downtown at
MaryJane Books.
Additional readings will be available in ERes (electronic reserves).

Description
ISP301 is a core requirement for undergraduate majors in the School of Information Science
& Policy. This course will approach Information Science from an interdisciplinary perspective
and address several technical and theoretical issues related to the field, including Internet and
Web History, Web Design and Usability, Web Accessibility and Compliance, Information
Architecture, Information Ethics, and the Digital Divide.
ISP301 fulfills the University at Albanys Information Literacy Requirement. As such, this course
includes a research component. Students will access and evaluate a wide range of sources
from the University Libraries, including scholarly journals in the field of information science,
popular and trade magazines, newspapers, and government documents. Students will
differentiate between academic, trade, and popular sources and will analyze content and the
research process in several writing assignments.
This course includes a technology component that requires introductory web development
through the application of HTML 4.01, XML, XHTML, Cascading Style Sheets and UNIX. This
introduction to web design addresses web compliance, the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C), and the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). The technology component will intersect
the research component through the analysis and production of meaningful web content.

95

Learning Goals
Students will participate in a research and discovery process in which they:

Find, organize, evaluate, and cite information in print and electronic sources from
the University Libraries and the World Wide Web;

Utilize information technologies for research, communication, and the development

and design of original web based research projects with meaningful content.

Work as individuals and in collaboration with other students in web teams to learn
UNIX, HTML, CSS, XML, XHTML, and Adobe Photoshop.

Address issues of web accessibility and web compliance based on the World Wide
Web Consortiums Web Accessibility Initiative.

Students will gain a critical understanding of the following issues:

Ethical and professional considerations of the information environment, including

responsible computing, intellectual property, online publishing, content
development, information analysis and evaluation, and research methods;

Impact of the World Wide Web on todays information environment;

Changing role of information and information technologies in society, popular
culture, and its impact on individuals, groups, and education;

Relationship between the information environment, information technologies, and

the development of public policy.

Technology
WebCT

E-Res

UNIX

HTML and
HTML-Kit

96

Students are required to login to our ISP301 WebCT course on a regular basis to be
aware of all updates and assignments posted in this web-based extension of our
course. We will use several WebCT features, including: grading, bulletin board, private
e-mail, and online quizzes.
Electronic Reserves is facilitated by the University Lilbraries and provides legal copies
of essays and book chapters in the PDF format. E-Res also provides links to full-text
scholarly journal articles. These readings are password protected for the class. The
password you will need to acces ERes for this course is: (omitted). You will need to
have Adobe Acrobat on your computer in order to read these PDF files. If you do not
have Adobe Acrobat installed on your computer you can download it for free from the
Adobe home page at: http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html.
Students are required to have an active UNIX account. The web files you create for
this course will be uploaded to a public_html sub directory in your UNIX space. If you
do not have a UNIX account you can obtain one via WEBCAAP, which is available at
the Computing at UAlbany Home Page, at:
https://maenad.csc.albany.edu/accounts/webcaap_newuser.html.
Students will learn the basics of HTML code and will be introduced to the HTML
editor HTML-Kit. Students will be required to produce original web pages that are web
compliant based on W3C guidelines for accessibility. Students are required to use this
editor to complete all web assignments in this class. Students will be expected to
understand how HTML works, how to validate HTML documents, and to think
through toubleshooting problems that involve HTML code. Download HTML-Kit for
free at http://chami.com/html-kit/

XML and
XHTML

CSS
Adobe
Photoshop

XHTML is the latest recommendation for writing markup by the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), combining the strict rules of XML with HTML 4.01. Coding a
document in XHTML is very similar to creating an HTML file, but XHTML allows for a
relatively easy transition for creating XML documents. Since the technology component
of this course focuses on developing effective content through the production of
original digital documents, it is important to understand the latest developments in
writing markup.
W3C highly recommends the use of Cascading Style Sheets to separate style elements
such as typography and color from the structure and content of HTML documents.
Students in this course will be introduced to internal and external style sheets and will
learn how to validate CSS documents through W3Cs web-based CSS validation
service.
This is the definitive program for developing digital images for the web. This course will
introduce a few key Photoshop concepts.
The purpose of the ISP301-L listserv is for me to communicate essential updates and
announcements about the course to everyone in class via e-mail. Students are required
to subscribe to the ISP301-L class listserv from the e-mail address of your choice. Be
sure to subscribe to this listserv using an e-mail address that you use often. If you
change e-mail providers it is your responsibility to re-subscribe to the ISP301-L listserv
with your new address. You will not be able to post messages to this listserv. Students
are responsibile for all information sent via the listserv.

ISP301-L
Listserv

To subscribe to the ISP301-L listserv, follow these instructions:

1. Send an e-mail message to: [email protected].
2. Leave the subject line blank.
3. On the first line of this e-mail message to the listserv, type the following message:
subscribe ISP301-L your name. (Be sure to type your first and last name where the
directions indicate your name.
4. Send your message.
5. Dont stop there!
6. If you did everything right up to this point, the automated listserv will send a
message to your e-mail address asking you to confirm your subscription to the listserv.
You need to open this message and look for the hypertext link to confirm your
subscription. From a web based e-mail service click on the link provided in the
message from the automated listserv.
7. Once you are officially subscribed to the listserv you will receive a Welcome
message from the listserv confirming your subscription. Make sure you receive this final
confirmation message because if you are not subscribed to the listserv you will not
receive credit for this assignment.
Please note: the ISP301-L listserve is completely seprate from the SISP-L and SISP-BA
listservs available through the SISP department. Subscription to the SISP-L and SISP-BA
listserv does not count toward the requirement for the ISP301-L listserv. The ISP301-L
is unique to this course.

SISP-BA

You are also encouraged to subscribe to the SISP-BA listserv available to all ISP
undergraduates. Pleasae follow the same instructions above to subscribe teo the
SISP-BA listserv (but in the first line of the message teype: subscribe sisp-ba followed
by your first and last name).

97

Grading
Assignments

Percentage

Participation Grade: WebCT Bulletein Board discussion responses, Quizzes,

Homework and In-class Assignments, 3 Library Tutorials, and Extra Credit
Computer Labs

15%

Web Project #1 (HTML): Individual Information Page and Web Team Page #1.

15%

Scholarly Journal Critizue

15%

Midterm Exam

20%

Web Project #2 (XHTML): Individual Evaluation Page and Web Team Page #2

15%

Final Exam

20%
Total

A = 100-95
A- = 94-90

B+ = 89-96
B = 85

C+ = 79-76
C = 75

D+= 69-66
D = 65

B- = 84-80

C- = 74-70

D- = 64-60

100%
E

= 59 and
below

Web Pages
Students will learn the basics of HTML, XML, XHTML, CSS, and UNIX to develop 2 individual
web pages, and 2 web team pages.
All web pages produced for this class must be completely original and must not contain:
clip-art, background images, animated gifs, downloaded images, code or content from other
sites.
Web Teams
Students will be organized into web teams to provide peer support for individual and
collaborative web development. The web team format also provides a way to organize a large
class into smaller sections for group work during lecture and for troubleshooting support
outside of class and via WebCT. Each web team will have access to a separate bulletin board
and private e-mail in WebCT especially for your team to communicate. Web teams also have
access to a folder in WebCT for file sharing.
It is important that everyone on the team contribute to this process in a fair and meaningful
way. Each team is required to designate a project manager and to assign specific duties to
each individual team member. Students who do not work on the team page will not receive
credit. Each team will determine which students receive credit for the web team pages. The
project manager is responsible for including the names of students who worked on the web
team page in the meta tag for author (based on input from the team). Students will not receive
credit for the web team page if their name is not in the meta tag.

98

Web Project #1 (HTML)

Informatrix (75 Points)
This web page provides relevant and credible information links to reliable web resources in a
table format. The purpose of this first page is to locate and organize web sites that may assist
you in your academic research and web development and to explore possible topic areas
based on professional Information Science sites (for example, you may discover an
information science theme in this first project that you choose to explore further in your
scholarly journal critique and/or final web site evaluation page). The design of this first page is
entirely up to you, as long as you include the following requirements:
1. Professional heading defining your information theme (based on content)
2. Table for layout to organize page elements
3. Menu bar with internal links (using name tag) linking to the main headings in your
page.
4. Return to top links after main information categories
5. Unordered List with links to 5 different search engines.
6. Ordered list with links to your top five links to web development sites (tutorials and
how-tos, product information, free downloads, etc.)
7. Data Table with links to 5 reliable information sources, including: online dictionary,
online newspaper, online news magazine, online TV news source, and technology
news source.
8. Data Table with links to five academic and/or professional web sites related to
Information Science. These web sites must be academic, based on Library and
Information Science topics available at BUBL. To read more about the way this online
service is organized, visit: BUBL Link / 5:15
9. Include 1 column for the number of your site in the table, 1 column for the site type,
1 column for the name of the site as a hypertext link, and 1 column for a brief but
meaningful one-sentence description of the site. This data table must also include a
table heading (and colspan) with an appropriate heading based on content.
10. This initial exploration of a specific information science topic through academic web
sites may inform your scholarly journal critique and final web site evaluation page.
11. Mailto link to your e-mail address and page authored by: your name
12. This page must be saved as your_last_name.html in your /isp301 subdirectory (which
is a subdirectory or folder you will create in your public_html subdirectory).
13. Include title tag and meta tags for author, keywords, description, char-set, and
generator.
14. Internal Style Sheet with at least 6 different selectors and 10 unique properties and
values.
15. Link to your Web Team page
16. This page must pass the W3C Validation Service for HTML and CSS (you must
include the HTML and CSS icons for validation. The CSS validation icon must link to
your validation results and not the generic CSS page).

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Informatrix Web Team Page (25 Points)

This is a collaborative web team page that links to all the informatrix web pages developed by
your individual team members (in a table), with the names of each student and a brief but
professional description of each page. This team page must reside in a directory named after
your web team (such as /webteam1") in the /isp301 subdirectory of your project manager.
You will also need to link this page back to the main ISP301 page. This team page must also
pass the HTML Validator and include the W3C icon for validation.

Web Project #2 (XHTML)

Web Site Evaluation Page (75 Points)
This page provides evaluations of 6 relevant web sites based on a common web format, such
as: Search Engines, News, Business, Technology, Women in Technology, Student Resources,
Employment Resources, Online Magazines, Research, Digital Libraries, College and University
Sites, Museums, Artists, Graphics, Internet and Web History, Tutorials, Travel Sites, or
Diversity. If you have a topic that is not on this list, feel free to propose your idea via e-mail or
during office hours, but your topic must be approved in advance (absolutely no unprofessional
or inappropriate sites).
1. Write evaluations for 6 web sites based on usability and accessibility criteria (150
word minimum for each site).
2. All web site evaluations must be written in a professional manner and address the
design of each site as well as the relevance of the sites content.
3. Organize this information in a data table (2 columns and 7 rows) and include table
headings for each column of information.
4. Internal links and links using name tags
5. Create a professional banner in Photoshop using color, gradient, and type tools.
6. Link to a common External Style Sheet (CSS) created by your web team (this means
that every page will have the same styles).
7. Include columns and rows with the names of each site (with hypertext links to each
site), and the description and evaluation of the 6 sites based on web usability and
content.
8. Save this page with a unique name (page2.html or eval.html) in your /isp301
subdirectory (contained inside your public_html subdirectory).
9. Include title tag and meta tags for author, keywords, description, char-set, and
generator.
10. This page must also pass the W3C Validation Service for XHTML and CSS (you must
include the XHTML and CSS icons for validation. The CSS validation icon must link to
your validation results and not the generic CSS page).
Web Team Page for Web Site Evaluations (25 Points)
This is a collaborative team page that includes links to all of the individual evaluation pages
created by students on your team. For this page, create a professional banner based on the
evaluation topics (absolutely no inappropriate or non-academic images). You will also need to
link to all of the individual evaluation pages in a table and include a brief description of each
individual student page. This team page must also pass the W3C Validation Service for
XHTML and CSS (with each icon).

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This project also requires your team to develop 1 external style sheet that defines the styles of
all of individual evaluation pages. The CSS file and XHTML file created by your web team
must reside in the subdirectory for your web team (inside the /isp301 subdirectory of your
web team manager)

Participation
Students are expected to attend every class and to participate effectively in all lecture center
activities and discussions. It is also expected that students will read all required texts in
advance of each class session and that students will bring questions, insights, and ideas to the
lecture based on the readings. If you have questions during class, please feel free to ask for
further clarification about the ideas and technical procedures discussed that day.
Your participation grade will include the following:
WebCT Bulletin Board
Students are required to contribute to the online discussions in WebCT. Two discussion
questions will be posted throughout the semester. One of these questions will be based on the
Lessig text, and the other will be based on the video Digital Divide: Virtual Equality, the
Information Revolution and the Inner City. Students will have one week to complete each
discussion question. All student responses in WebCT must be posted in the main forum. Late
posts will not be accepted. The detailed grading scale for the WebCT Bulletin Board
responses is based on the following points system:
20 points: Excellent and thoughtful post. This is an effective response to the discussion
question. It is clear that the student has a full understanding of the issues examined,
incorporating class discussions, readings (with specific page citations) and original insights.
Student also makes thoughtful connections to other student posts (without simply repeating
what other students wrote). Please note: students who are the first to post will need to return
to the online conversation with follow-up comments.
18-19 points: Very Good Response, but missing a key point or two (such as a substantive
reference to another students post or specific page citation).
14-17 points: Good Response, but missing a number of key points.
12-13 points: Good insights overall, but ideas are not fully developed (you should discuss this
with us so that we can offer suggestions for improvement).
11 points (and below): Not an effective response (you need to discuss this with us so that we
can offer suggestions for improvement).
0 points: Response was not completed or was submitted past the deadline.
The WebCT Bulletin Board is an academic forum for students to discuss readings, lectures,
technical procedures, and assignments related to this course. Students will be expected to
communicate online in a responsible manner at all times and to be aware of spelling,
grammar, voice, audience, and appropriate language. Online flaming will not be
accepted. Please think carefully about your responses to other student comments or messages
from the instructor or assignments before posting in WebCT. You may want to preview all of
your messages before sending. Please do not post information that has nothing to do with this
course.

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Quizzes (10 points each)

Students are responsible for all quizzes that are assigned throughout the semester. Quizzes
will take place in lecture unannounced and via WebCT. The quizzes scheduled in WebCT
will be announced in lecture or via the ISP301-l class listserv. Students are responsible for
knowing when the WebCT quizzes are announced. Points will be assigned to each quiz and
will be factored into your participation grade. Quizzes will not be accepted late and cannot be
made-up.
Homework and In-Class Assignments
This course requires homework and in-class assignments. Some of the in-class assignments
may include group work. The points for these assignments will vary. In-Class assignments will
always be evaluated based on the expectations for that assignment. Students will not
automatically receive full points for filling out an assignment. The quality of the response will
always be a consideration for grading.
Library Tutorials (10 points each)
Students will complete three library tutorials available at the ULIB web site: Researching 101,
Evaluating Internet Sites 101, and Plagiarism 101.

Scholarly Journal Critique (5-page essay)

Students must demonstrate the ability to conduct academic research utilizing the resources of
a research library. This assignment will focus on locating and evaluating 1 specific Information
Science scholarly journal article and 4 different sources (newspaper, web site, government
document, trade and/or popular magazine) based on an information science topic, such as:
web usability, accessibility, copyright, meta data, information architecture, information
literacy, digital libraries, electronic books, distance education, distributed learning, databases,
XML, CSS, or perhaps a topic you discovered when developing your informatrix web page.
The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate the content of a wide range of sources and to
better understand the conceptual links and differences between each.
This is not a generic research paper, but rather an essay focused on the evaluation of one
scholarly journal article in relation to 4 additional sources of information. The focus here is on
the types of sources, similarities and differences between these sources, and the kinds of
information you discover through each source. The major requirements for this assignment are
organized into two parts (with very specific questions):
Part I:
1. Locate 1 scholarly article in an Information Science Journal (full-text online or in the
library) and take the time to read the article closely and carefully. Then, compare this
resource with the same topic area in 4 additional popular, trade and/or government
resources, such as a newspaper, a popular or trade magazine, government document,
web site, video, or web based multimedia or audio file.
2. Write about the content of the scholarly journal article in detail. This part of your
critique must demonstrate that you read the entire article and not just the abstract.
What is the article about? What conclusions did the authors arrive at? Do you agree
or disagree with these conclusions? Did the author fully support his or her ideas and
conclusions?
3. Closely examine the Bibliography or Works Cited page included in the article (if this
is a scholarly journal article it will include this; if your source does not have a
bibliography or works cited page you need to find another article). Describe the

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references used by the author to write this article. For example, did the author refer
to other scholarly journal articles, books, magazines, and/or web sites?
4. How would you describe the writing style of the article? Does the article have a
serious tone? Is the writing intended for a specific or a general audience?
Part II:
1. Locate the same or similar topic in 4 different sources of information.
2. What are the popular, government, and/or trade sources about? How do these
sources relate to the scholarly article? In your view what are the most obvious
differences between the scholarly article and your popular, government, and/or trade
sources? How would you describe the writing style of your additional sources?
3. The web source can be from your informatrix web page.
4. Include a complete bibliographic entry using APA style for each resource.
5. Spell check and grammar check your document using a word processor.
6. Submit your article via the WebCT drop box.
Although you must address all of these questions in your essay, be sure to write a cohesive
response in actual essay form (and not a Q & A format). Your essay should also include an
introduction and a conclusion. Every student must locate their own scholarly journal article.
Unintentional overlap may occur, but if we see a repetition of the same articles we will raise
questions about research methods and this may impact your grade.
Students will have the option to revise and resubmit this assignment, but the first
submission is an absolute requirement. Students who do not submit the first essay on
March 20 will not have the option to submit a revision on April 24. Students who submit the
required essay and the optional revision will receive a final essay grade based on the highest
of the two scores (the lowest essay grade will be dropped).

Extra Credit Computer Labs

Detailed concepts for understanding HTML, XHTML, CSS, and UNIX will be covered in
lecture. Students are expected to attend lecture, complete the readings, and work through the
troubleshooting challenges that may arise when developing your own code. Students should
consider troubleshooting an essential part of the process and do so on their own.
Additional instruction is also available during weekly computer labs in CETLs Digital
Workshop 2. These weekly labs are held outside of our scheduled class time and are
completely optional, but students are strongly encouraged to attend (which is why you
receive extra credit for doing so).
Extra Credit: Every computer lab you attend is worth 10 bonus points. These points will be
added to your total participation grade. Students who leave the extra credit lab early or arrive
late will not receive full points for the lab. Each lab has a defined start and end time. The labs
are not open hours for drop-by troubleshooting questions. If you sign-up for the lab, you need
to be on time and prepared to work on the topic for that day.
CETLs Digital Workshop 2 has 40 workstations, so if you are interested in attending one of
the weekly labs, you will need to reserve your seat in advance.

Please note: it is not possible to substitute any of the required participation assignments with
extra credit. In order to receive any extra credit, students must complete all participation
assignments. This is extra credit that is added to your total participation grade (extra credit
points beyond 100% will not be added to any other category). The computer lab option is not
a substitute for any lecture class. Students will need to sign-up for the lab in advance (during
lecture) and then sign the attendance sheet in the lab to receive credit.

Extra Credit Computer Labs

Thursdays

5:35pm7:05pm

Digital Workshop 2

Computer Lab Policy

If you sign-up for one of the weekly computer labs, please arrive on time and follow all
policies and procedures defined by CETL when working in Digital Workshop 2. Do not bring
food or drink into the digital workshop at any time. When you are done with your computer
session, be sure to close out any programs that you opened (but do not turn off the
computer). You may save temporary files in the My Documents folder on your desktop, but
these files are routinely deleted. We will also have access to an ISP301 folder on the common
drive (W) that is accessible via the computers in either digital workshop. You may want to
bring a CD-RW disk to save your work or use WS-FTP to upload your files to your UNIX
account.

Exams
Mid-term and Final Exam:
Each exam will consist of 50 multiple choice questions. Each question is worth 2 points for a
total of 100 points (for each exam). All course content will be considered for inclusion in the
exams (lectures, readings, technical instructions and procedures, etc.). The Final Exam is not
cumulative. Grades will not be curved in any way.
If you arrive to the Mid-term or Final Exam after the first student leaves, you will be unable to
take the exam late and you will automatically receive a zero for the exam.
It is not possible to make-up either exam.
Please bring your SUNY ID to each exam. We may spot check SUNY IDs. If you do not have
your ID we will be unable to accept your exam and you will automatically receive a zero for
the exam.

Policy
Assignment Completion
Students must complete all assignments in order to pass this course.
HTML Code vs. Web Development Software
Students must demonstrate an understanding of HTML Code and UNIX basics for all web
projects, quizzes, and exams. Students are required to write original code using HTML-kit
rather than a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) editor. Code that is generated from
a WYSIWYG program will not meet the requirements for this course and will result in a failing
grade for that file. In addition, appropriated code from online sources or other student pages

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(or from my pages!) is plagiarism and will result in a failing grade for the course. Turning in
any code or writing that is not your own is plagiarism. Any reports indicating that some
students are creating web pages for other students will be taken seriously and follow-up may
result in referrals to the Deans office or the Office of Judicial Affairs.
Example pages will not be made available for any assignment in this course.
Last-minute troubleshooting assistance will not be available.
Please note: Students who post inappropriate images or link to inappropriate resources will
receive a zero for the web page that includes such material.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting technical problems is probably one of the most important skills you can learn.
In this course, students will be encouraged to troubleshoot on their own before seeking
assistance. Support will be provided to help students think through problems, but not to
complete a certain task for the student or to do all the work when troubleshooting.
Technical assistance is also available during office hours, via e-mail, and WebCT, but again,
students will be encouraged to think through problems on their own.
Specific questions about course assignments should be directed to me during class, office
hours, computer lab, or via e-mail Please do not expect the IMC or the Computing at
UAlbany Help Desk to know about ISP301 course assignments or requirements. Please do not
ask for troubleshooting assistance about specific course assignments at the IMC or the
Computing at UAlbany Helpdesk.
Cheating and Plagiarism
Cheating on exams will result in a zero for the exam, a zero for the course and a referral to
the Office of Judicial Affairs.
Plagiarism will result in a zero for the assignment in which the plagiarism occurred, a zero for
the course and a referral to the Dean of Undergraduate Studies. After two referrals to the
Deans office for plagiarism students are automatically referred to the Office of Judicial Affairs.
Please read the Standards of Academic Integrity in the Undergraduate Bulletin 1999-2000
at: http://www.albany.edu/tree-tops/docs/undergraduate_bulletin/regulations.html. The
standards described in this document will be upheld in this course.
Late Assignments/Missed Classes or Exams
Students will not be excused from any class, assignment, due date, or exam for any reason.
Reasonable Accommodations Policy
Reasonable accommodations will be provided for students with documented physical,
sensory, systemic, cognitive, learning and psychiatric disabilities. If you believe you have a
disability requiring accommodation in this class, please notify the Director of Disabled Student
Services (Campus Center 137, 442-5490). That office will provide the course instructor with
verification of your disability, and will recommend appropriate accommodations.

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Lecture Center Policy

Please consider this course an active learning opportunity for you to work with me,

teaching assistants, and other students to advance your knowledge and skills. Active
learning in the lecture center requires concentration, cooperation, and dialogue.

Do all that you can to plan ahead, arrive to class on time, and read all print and

online assignments. You need to be aware of all WebCT updates, E-mail from the
ISP301-L listserv, and the syllabus topic for each class.

Please do not arrive to class late and do not leave early. Late is defined as 5 minutes

after class starts. Plan ahead rather than rush to class. Everyone has a bad day and this
is understood but repeated lateness by students is very distracting in the lecture
center. If you have special circumstances that require you to be late or to leave early
on rare occasion, please let me know in advance of the class or soon after so that I
am aware of your special circumstances.

If you have a question about the lecture material, please feel free to ask.
If any aspect of the technology is not working from where you are sitting, or if the
microphone is set too low or too loud, please let me know.

Please be aware that talking during lecture is distracting to everyone.

If other students are being disruptive and you cannot hear the lecture, please say
something (it is not always possible to hear this from the podium).

Most class sessions will run for the entire class time (4:15pm-5:35pm) but never over
that time. Be prepared to attend the entire class session.

If someone in class expresses an idea that is different from your own, always be

certain to respond in a respectful and thoughtful manner. Always try to carefully

listen to what other students in class are saying and understand their viewpoint
before responding.

Please turn off your cell phone before class starts.

Please do not bring food to the lecture center.
Additional lecture center policies may be established if the need arises.

Student Feedback
If you have any comments or suggestions concerning the syllabus or the course feel free to let
me know. Your constructive feedback concerning this class will be welcomed and appreciated
and your ideas or concerns will always be taken seriously. Please talk to me after class, or visit
office hours with your questions or comments. If you are unable to attend scheduled office
hours feel free to call my office or send e-mail to set up an appointment:
[email protected].

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Appendix 6

A Distributed Approach to
Information Literacy in
An Upper-level Biology Course
Cell Biology BS 461, Fall 2002
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia (Specialized)
[Reproduced with permission of Dr. John R. Porter, Professor of Biology
and Graduate Director of Cell Biology and Biotechnology]

Texts:
Alberts, B., A. Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts, and P. Walter. 2002. Molecular Cell
Biology, 4e. Garland Science, New York, NY.
Ambrose, III, H. W., K. P. Ambrose, D. J. Emlen, and K. L. Bright. 2002. A Handbook of
Biological Investigation, 6e. Hunter Textbooks, Winston Salem, NC.

Course administration. Grading:

First writing assignment (100 pts.: article listing (50 pts.), five abstracts (50 pts.)), second
writing assignment (150 pts.), 5 completed labs (25 pts ea., 125 pts), two examinations (100
pts. each, 200 pts.) Course total - 575 pts. Each student will be expected to complete two
written assignments based on searches of a specific topic in the current literature.

Cell Biology Writing Assignment 1

Virtually all of science is communicated through journal articles. This is especially true in cell
biology, which is moving at such a rapid pace that no textbook can hope to stay current for
more than a few months. In this assignment, you will choose a topic of relevance to cell
biology, thoroughly research it, prepare a comprehensive bibliographic list for the topic,
prepare article summaries of a few of the articles found, and then prepare a state of the art
paper. Writing Assignment I encompasses the list and summaries, while Writing Assignment II
is the paper.
Several sources are available to provide the ability to locate and collect a body of literature on
a given topic, about a specific organism or by a particular author. These bibliographic indexes
include, but are certainly not limited to Medline, Biological Abstracts/BIOSIS, Chemical
Abstracts/SciFinder Scholar, and Science Citation Index. The first three of these allow you to
build a reference list based on certain key words, phrases or authors names, or, in the case of
Chemical Abstracts, based on a particular chemical structure or functional group. Searching
these databases requires much time and effort to choose appropriate searching vocabulary
and syntax and to refine searches to optimize search results.
Further information on use of the library and bibliographic sources, in addition to being
readily available in the library itself, can be found in chapters 9 and 10 of the Handbook of
Biological Investigation, 6e.

107

The assignment for this course will begin by providing you with background in using several of
the various types of bibliographic searching. Because these methods require some training,
you will receive an orientation during the normal class time and be assigned to a session for
more training in the library. More will be said about these training sessions during the initial
introduction. You must provide written evidence that you have done this training and
demonstrated some proficiency in search strategies. A form for this purpose is available
on-line. The form must be completed, signed by a librarian, and submitted to Dr. Porter by no
later than 5 p.m., Friday, October 4, 2002.

Part One
From the list of citations provided, select one article you would like to pursue. From that
article, or abstract of that article, choose a single topic which you can search (it is a good idea
to obtain the article you have chosen to pursue to get a better idea of what it is about and the
different topic ideas which it may contain). The topic you choose may not be the title of your
citation reiterated verbatim but must come from the ideas presented in the article. For
example, one past citation was Denaturation of viruses by ethanol which could lead to
topics such as the use of organic solvents in controlling viral contamination, the action of
ethanol on viral coat proteins, the sensitivity of viral coat proteins to denaturation, the
importance of coat proteins in viral infection, or other similar topics. Keep in mind that this is
a course in cell biology and choose your topics accordingly. The list of citations is generated
from listings of Hot Papers, covering areas of intense research interest, in The Scientist.
Before you choose your article you should first seek and digest relevant background so that
you understand what task you are setting for yourself. This may mean searching
encyclopedias, scientific dictionaries, the library catalog, and textbooks pertinent to your topic
area. To assure that you have time to do this, although you have access to the list before you
are introduced to the searching, you will not be allowed to sign up for an article before 12
noon on Friday, September 13. Only one student may sign up for a given article even though
there may be several viable topics contained in that article. Each student must sign up before
Friday, September 20 at 5 p.m. You may not change your mind about an article for any
reason once you have signed for it.
Update the topic you have chosen for the last two years. This means that you will develop a
list of articles that relate to your topic, none of which may be older than 2000. Your choice of
topic will dictate how onerous a task this will be, but you must narrow or expand the topic to
generate a list with between 30 and 50 articles. Fewer than 30 articles found will result in a
lower evaluation of your efforts and more than 50 will just create extra work for yourself (and
me) and represent a topic too broad to be understood with any ease. In any case, the topic
being searched must be clearly stated at the beginning of the listing. The format of the
reference list is to follow the format set out in the Handbook of Biological Investigation, 6e,
pp. 141-142, regardless of the format of the original article or of the bibliographic database(s)
searched. The expected format is also used in the citation list from which you choose your
original article. This is the first part of the assignment and will be due by no later than
Wednesday, October 16 at 5 p.m. The assignment may be handed in as traditional hard-copy
(paper), on disk or submitted electronically by e-mail.

Part Two
The second part of the first assignment will consist of annotations of five of the listed articles.
This means that you will write a unique summary or abstract of five of the articles contained in
your reference list (Handbook of Biological Investigation, pp. 120-122). This summary will
be unique (not plagiarized) from the abstract published as a part of the paper and must show
the relevance of that article to the chosen topic as well as outlining the major methods,
results and discussion relevant to the topic. Because the topic of choice may be different from
the main topic of a chosen paper, you will probably highlight different things than were felt to
be of most importance by the original authors. Each summary should be at least one full

108

paragraph, but no more than one page in length. The citation of the annotated paper must
be clearly stated at the beginning of each annotation, not referred to by reference number,
first authors name only, etc. These five abstracts are due Monday, October 28, by 5 p.m.
Again, paper or readable electronic submission is acceptable.
Grading of this assignment will be based on adherence to the requirements as outlined above:
Search certification form completed, there must be a clear statement of the topic and the
citation classic from which the topic originated, a list of 30-50 articles relevant to the topic,
and five abstract summaries showing relevance to the topic. You will also be judged on how
completely you update the topic, the style and evenness of the abstracts, format, and for the
adherence to your topic in both the reference list and annotations (you should be aware that I
strictly enforce adherence to format guidelines). Examination for plagiarism, accuracy,
relevance, and completeness will occur using the same sources available to you. Plagiarism in
any form will be submitted to the Committee on Student Discipline; penalties may include
failure in the course. This assignment constitutes a significant proportion of your course grade
and will also be used as the basis for the second assignment. Choose your topic carefully; it
will be yours throughout the semester. Any difficulties you are having in choosing an article or
topic or any other aspect of this assignment should be referred to Dr. Porter well in advance
of any deadlines.
Summary of deadlines and due dates
Sign up for topic begins (12 noon)
Topic sign-up closes (5 p.m.)
Submit signed certification form
Citation list due (30-50 article)
Article summaries due
Final paper due

13 Sep 2002
20 Sep 2002
4 Oct 2002
16 Oct 2002
28 Oct 2002
3 Dec 2002

CELL BIOLOGY 1ST WRITING ASSIGNMENT CHECKLIST

Citation List
( ) Search certification form completed
( ) Topic clearly stated
( ) List comprehensive and complete for the last two years
(including all languages and meeting abstracts)
( ) List consists of between 30 and 50 relevant articles
( ) Citation format follows that of the Handbook of Biological
Investigation, 6e, p. 141-142
( ) List alphabetically arranged by first author
( ) Author lists complete
( ) Spelling correct
Abstracts
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

) Topic clearly stated

) Citations complete
) Each abstract is unique from all published abstracts
) Each abstract covers all sections of the paper (Intro, Methods,
Results, Discussion)
) Each abstract not more than one page in length
) Each abstract relates the article to your topic (implicit or explicit)
) Sentence construction clear and language coherent
) Spelling correct
) Total of 5 abstracts

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Cell Biology Writing Assignment II

Position Paper
Now that you have thoroughly immersed yourself in the literature of your topic, it is time to
put together a position paper about the state of the research on your topic. Among the
resources (references) for this position paper, there are to be a minimum of two electronic
resources (web pages, e-mail contacts with researchers currently working within the topic you
have chosen).
The position paper should be thought of as a mini-review of the state of knowledge about the
topic, which you have chosen for the semester. The paper will consist of five parts, labeled as
follows: Background, Principal Approaches, Present Knowledge, Future Directions, and
Conclusions. You may use subheadings, as you feel appropriate. The Background section
should contain a historical perspective, terms and definitions. The Principal Approaches
section is a methodology section, which explains the major types of experimental designs,
which are found in the field of your topic (not solution-by-solution methods, but kinds of
experiments that are done). The Present Knowledge section contains just that - what is
known about the topic at the present time. Future Directions includes the kinds of
experiments which need to be done, along with probable results or implications of possible
results, or the directions that the research seems to be heading in the near and/or distant
future. Conclusions should contain a summary of the previous sections as well as major
implications of the types of experiments, which have been done and are likely to be done.
All statements should be firmly grounded in the literature. You may speculate, but not wildly.
Nor is this to be a one paragraph - one reference type of approach common to most
undergraduate scientific writing. Use the Handbook of Biological Investigation and reviews
on the topic of choice for guidance in style and construction, referencing, phraseology, and
limits of conclusions (e-mail and other electronic sources should be referenced using the
guidelines contained in How do you cite URLs in a bibliography?, available online). Use the
same reference format as you used for your bibliographic list. You do not have to use all of the
literature, which your searching has revealed, but you should plan to use a significant
proportion. I will judge whether you have made adequate use of the available literature.
Plagiarism is strictly prohibited and the Student Handbook will be followed in the event of
evidence of this and other forms of cheating.
The paper should be 9 to 12 pages in length, with a greater emphasis on a well-executed,
well-researched topic than on an absolute page limit. The papers must be word-processed,
with spell checking, and may be submitted electronically. If you do submit electronically, they
must be submitted as a word-processing file or as an e-mail attachment of such a file so that
you do not lose the formatting. The paper is to be 1.5- to double-spaced, with 1-inch margins
all around, and with a reasonable font size (11-13 point). All aspects of the paper will be
graded, including scientific soundness, content, literature use, referencing (format and
appropriate use), grammar, spelling, sentence construction, clarity, and title.
The paper is due no later than 5 p.m., Monday, December 2, 2002.

Web Pages
Much useful information has become available on web pages; especially those associated with
a particular laboratory or research group, which may be relevant to your topic. See if one of
more of the researchers in your list has a lab web page. Search engines also are very effective
tools to finding a relevant web page. But, be aware that a recent review of search engines
shows that even the best access no more than 15% of the web at any one time. A lack of
relevant hits does not necessarily mean that there are no relevant sites (I will be glad to engage
in a discussion of why this is the case, if you wish). However, be aware that not everything
published on the web is of high quality. Much of the content has not gone through the
scrutiny or oversight of peer or editor review. Even very reputable sites may be publishing

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information, which is speculative or tentative, without clear indication that this is the case.
Other web sites are downright fabrications, which have been created to support a particular
political, personal or other agenda.
Whenever you view a web site, ask yourself three questions: 1) Who wrote this? What are
their credentials and is it reasonable to think that they would be a reputable authority on the
topic? 2) When was this written? Is the material factually correct, but only for a previous time?
Web pages sometimes do not get updated for 10 years! 3) When was the web page last
revised? Is this a site, which is frequently modified and updated, or seldom managed? The
latter indication may mean that even its creator does not take the web site very seriously.

Making E-mail Contact

If you wish to communicate by e-mail with a researcher as one form of electronic resource,
keep a few of things in mind. Not all scientists are well connected - they may have e-mail but
they may seldom use it. Scientists are busy people and they may not respond if 1) they view
your e-mail as trivial, 2) they are too busy at the moment, or 3) they are not at their labs
temporarily. It has not been unusual for a student to receive a very good response up to two
months after the inquiry because the person was out of the country. You can avoid being
viewed as trivial if you show enthusiasm, genuine interest, and write with an obvious
appreciation of the current literature. Inquire as to the current state of the research in their
laboratories, whether the same topic is of major importance or have other avenues become
more promising, do they still accept the hypotheses and conclusions stated in the papers to be
correct or have there been modifications, and similar questions related to the information you
have learned from the literature. Ask open-ended questions (those which do not result in
simple yes or no responses) and clearly identify who you are (undergraduate biology,
biochemistry, microbiology, pharm chem, pharm/tox major), why you are making the contact
(assignment in your Cell Biology course), what your interest in the topic is, and enough sense
of urgency that they will respond soon. Some students believe a mild threat is effective (I
really need this, so you must respond.). This tactic seldom works. If you have gotten very
involved in the topic, and the contact might be in consideration as a graduate school advisor,
mention this also, but only if it is true. Such requests for information are common in the
scientific community. Your enthusiasm and clarity are more likely to yield good responses than
is boredom and half-hearted attempts.
The sooner you start making the contacts, the sooner you will start receiving responses. Do
not expect researchers to drop everything to e-mail a reasoned response overnight.

What To Do When Researchers Wont Reply

Sometimes, even with your best efforts, you cannot get researchers to respond. In that case,
pose specific questions on your topic to the Cell Biology UseNet forum or one of the other
topic-specific discussion groups (e.g., Virology, Caenorhabditis, Arabidopsis, Drosophila). This
will likely yield responses, but do not be surprised if they are not on topic or ask you for
information because you raised the topic for discussion. Compile these responses, as you
would have for an individual direct contact.

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Finding a Researchers E-mail Address

Follow the suggestions listed to maximize the chance that you will find the electronic address
of the person of choice. These are listed roughly in the order that will give you the most
success or be least intimidating to you.
1. Look at the addresses given in the papers these researchers have written. It is
becoming increasingly common for e-mail addresses to be given in addition to
the postal address.
2. Use Yahoo. Choose Education, College and University, Colleges and Universities,
and then the country, as appropriate. You can search institutions by country,
then state, public or private, and then institution, to find whether a faculty and
staff directory exists (it most often does). If there is not a directory, look for a
listing of faculty within the department, college, division, graduate programs, or
other such category. If a person is listed in boldface or color highlighted, this is a
hot-link, meaning that you can click on it and send the message or question
directly. If the name is not bold-faced, there may be an e-mail address listed next
to the name. If not, that person may not be electronically connected.
3. Use one of the Internet search engines, such as Altavista, Lycos, Google, or
WebCrawler, either using these hotlinks or from the Netscape Search page. Go
to the page which allows Boolean searches (and, or, near, etc.) and construct a
search which consists of the persons last name and one or more words in the
institution or department name. The listings returned when you submit the
search may or may not have what you want depending on the commonness of
the name and whether or not they are connected.
4. Use the article address and directory assistance or the White Pages search engine
to find a phone number for the researcher. Call and ask whether they have an
e-mail address; be sure to tell them why you are asking and why it is important to
contact them electronically.
5. Probably the longest shot, especially for a researcher who doesnt use electronic
communication very often, is to use the Usenet News address search, but the
suggestions above are much more likely to yield the person you want with
relatively little extraneous material.
6. Remember that you can use the Cell Biology UseNet group to pose specific
questions for discussion or reply in the event that you cannot contact any
researchers directly. Depending on the specific topic being researched, one of
the other Usenet groups (e.g., Virology, Arabidopsis, Caenorhabditis, and many
others) might be more appropriate. (A full listing of the BioScience UseNet
discussion groups is available.)
j:\Developing Skills

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