Department of Chemical Engineering

ChE 442
Heat and Mass Transfer Laboratory
Laboratory Manual
Dr. Rami Jumah

http://www.just.edu.jo

September 2010

Table of Contents

Experiment #

Title

Page

Axial Heat Conduction in Solids

Radial Heat Conduction in Solids

16

Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases

26

Saturation Pressure and Steam Quality

36

Diffusion of a Liquid

44

Forced Convection Heat Transfer from Flat, Finned and

53

Pinned Plates
7

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

62

Boiling and Condensation Heat Transfer

69

Convective Mass Transfer

88

REPORT WRITING
All reports in the Heat Transfer Laboratory require a formal laboratory report unless specified
otherwise. The reports should be simple and clearly written and free of spelling and grammatical
errors. Following is a summary of the key elements in a well written, formal laboratory report.
Details regarding each of these elements are also provided.

TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT

Experiment Number, Title of the Experiment, Name of the

Author, Name of Partners, the name of the instructor to whom
the report is submitted, Date the Experiment was Performed,
Due date for this Report.
Brief summary of the objectives of the experiment, the most
important results obtained and do the results compare with the
theory. Main conclusions and recommendations.
An abstract should not exceed two-thirds of a page.

INTRODUCTION

Description of the problem, references, objectives.

THEORY AND ANALYSIS

Theory associated with this experiment, equation derivation.

Sources of equations and derivations should be referenced and the
equations must be numbered.

EXPERIMENTAL:

Describes the equipment used, equipment setup, model and/or

serial numbers, experimental procedure.

SET-UP AND PROCEDURES

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sample Calculations: Complete step by step calculations using the

original data and showing the transformation of the experimental
data into calculated results.
Results should be presented in neat tabular or graphical form and
must be discussed and if possible compared with expected results.
Sources of errors, if any, and their relation to the obtained data must
be stated. Different paragraphs must be used to discuss different
tables or graphs. Always refer to figures number when discussing
this figure.

CONCLUSIONS AND

Conclusions, observations, trends, and recommendations.

RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDICES

References, original data sheet, calibration curves.

Experiment # 1
Axial Heat Conduction in Solids

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the steady-state temperature distribution along a simple thermally
conducting sample with uniform cross-sectional area and composition.
2. To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat
transfer coefficient.
3. To determine the thermal conductivity of a number of metallic materials.
4. To observe unsteady steady state conduction of heat.
5. To compare the experimental measurements to textbook or theoretical results and to
discuss and explain any differences.

INTRODUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can
take place in solids or stationary fluids. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, conduction of heat in solids
occurs by one of several mechanisms, depending upon the type of solid. In metals the primary
mode of heat conduction is due to the energy transport by free electrons in the valence bond of
the atoms. This is the same mechanism that is responsible for electrical conduction, so it is no
coincidence that good conductors of heat are also good conductors of electrical current. To a
lesser degree, heat is conducted in metals by vibratory motion of the atomic lattice structure. For
nonmetallic solids having a crystalline structure, such as quartz, the primary conduction
mechanism is the vibratory motion of the atomic lattice structure. In amorphous solids, i.e.,
solids that do not have a crystalline structure, such as plastic and rubber, heat conduction occurs
by random molecular collisions.

Fouriers law of heat conduction is given as:

(1)

Where q (W) is the heat transfer rate in the x direction, A is the area normal the direction of heat
transfer, dT/dx is the temperature gradient, and k (W/m.K) is thermal conductivity of the
material, which is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat.
For a steady state, axisymmetric system with no generation, the heat conduction equation is

1 T T
kr k 0
r r r z z

(2)

For purely axial conduction, temperature does not change in the radial direction and the relevant
governing equation is:

T
k
0
z z

(3)

with corresponding boundary conditions requiring that T (z = 0) = T1 and T (z = L) = T2.

Integrating equation (3) results in a linear temperature profile:

z
T z T2 T1 T1
L

(4)

Fourier's Law relates the heat transfer rate to the temperature profile as:

q z kA

T kA
T1 T2
z
L

(5)

For steady heat transfer through a plane wall, the thermal resistance for conduction is therefore
given by

Rcond

T2 L

qz
kA

(6)

One-dimensional conduction through more complex systems, such as composite bars, is easily
analyzed using the thermal resistance concept. From the definition of thermal resistance, the
heat transfer rate qz can be expressed in terms of the overall temperature difference Toverall. For
example, for three successive slabs A, B and C,

qz

Toverall
Toverall

L
LA
L
R
B C
k A A k B A kC A

(7)

For steady flow along the bar, the heat flow through successive slabs is the same for reasons of
continuity and hence from Fourier's Law:

q z k A TA k B TB kC TC

A
LA
LB
LC

(8)

The heat transfer rate can be expressed in terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient as follows:

q z UAToverall

(9)

A comparison of equations (7) and (9) reveals that

UA

1
R

(10)

EQUIPMENT
Measurements of axial conduction heat transfer will be obtained using an experimental setup
consisting of three components (Figures 1 and 2): a "P.A. Hilton Axial Heat Conduction Unit
(H111A)" for the study of one-dimensional conduction through solids, a universal Heat
Transfer Service Unit (H111), and a computerized Data Logger (HC111A).
The Axial Heat Conduction Unit (H111A) is cylindrical and mounted with its axis vertical to the
base plate. The test section consists of three segments: a heating brass section on top; a cooling
brass section on the bottom; and an intermediate removable sample. The heating section, cooled
section, and all intermediate sections are co-axially aligned inside plastic housings which provide
an air gap and insulate the section to minimize heat loss to the surroundings. The heated and
cooled sections incorporate centralizing O rings to ensure that each are held concentrically.
Similar O rings are fitted to the intermediate sections so that are installed in alignment. A pair
of toggle clamps ensures that the sections are held tightly together when in use. Loosen the
clamp tensioning screw before releasing the toggle clamps and re-apply tension after fitting a
new specimen, thus avoiding over-stressing the clamping device.
The heating section houses a 25 mm diameters brass rod with a nominally 65 Watt (at 240 V
AC) cartridge heater in the top end. An integral high temperature cut out (automatic reset)
prevents overheating. Power is supplied to the heater from the Heat Transfer Service Unit
(H111) via the 8-pole plug and lead. Three thermocouples (T1, T2 and T3) are positioned along
the heated section at uniform intervals of 15 mm.
The cooling section is also manufactured from 25 mm diameter brass rod to match the heated top
section and is cooled at its bottom end by water flowing through a chamber in the material.
Water flow rate can be regulated by manual control from a local tap and can be measured with
the attached flow rate sensor. The heating and cooling sections consist of 25 mm-diameter brass
rods. Three thermocouples (T6, T7 and T8) are positioned along the cooling section at uniform
intervals of 15 mm. These thermocouples measure the temperature gradient along the section to
which they are attached. Each type K thermocouple is fitted with a miniature plug for direct
connection to the front panel of the heat transfer service unit (H111) and an edge connector for
use with the HC111A Data Logger.
Four intermediate sections are available for study:
Brass Specimen: 25 mm dia. 30 mm long (thermocouples T4 and T5 at uniform intervals of
15 mm). With the brass specimen clamped between the heated and cooled sections a uniform
25 mm diameter brass bar is formed with 8 uniformly spaced (15 mm intervals) thermocouples
(T1 to T8) (Figure 2).
Stainless steel Specimen: 25 mm dia. 30 mm long (no thermocouples fitted).
Aluminum Specimen: 25 mm dia. 30 mm long (no thermocouples fitted).
Brass Specimen with Reduced Diameter: 13 mm dia. 30 mm long (no thermocouples
fitted).

The ends of the brass heater and cooler sections and the metallic samples have all been given a
fine surface finish to promote good thermal contact. Unless indicated, a heat-conducting
compound should also be applied at these surfaces to reduce thermal resistance. The paste should
be applied sparingly and smeared as thinly as possible over the entire contact area before
clamping the sections together. The voltage of the heating element is controlled through the heat
transfer service control unit. Voltage and current outputs can be read from the panel display.
Similarly, the thermocouple temperature readings can be read from the display panel by
adjusting the thermocouple selector switch. Alternatively, data can be recorded electronically
through the computerized Data Logger (HC111A) and the Hilton Data Logging Software
(HC111B).
In order to provide a basis for comparison of the experimental measurements obtained in this
laboratory, the nominal thermal conductivity for the materials tested are listed in the table below,
as provided by the equipment manufacturer. Note that for the materials listed, the exact value of
the thermal conductivity depends on the specific composition and temperature, those given are
only nominal values.

Material
Brass
Stainless Steel
Aluminum

Thermal Conductivity, k (W/m.K)

121
25
180

Figure 1: HT111A Axial Heat Conduction Unit, H111 Heat Transfer Service Unit, and HC111A Data Logger

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of the Axial Heat Conduction Unit

Thermocouple
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8

Distance from thermocouple T1, mm

0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Part A: Axial Conduction along a Simple Bar
1. Ensure that the Axial Heat Transfer Unit (H111A) has been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit (H111) and the Computerized Data Acquisition System (HC111).
2. Ensure that the main switch is in the OFF position (the digital displays should not be
illuminated).
3. Turn the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum.
4. Ensure that the cold water supply and electrical supply are turned on at the source. Open
the water tap until the flow through the drain hose is approximately 1.5 liters/min. (25
g/s).
5. Release the toggle clamp tensioning screw and clamps. Ensure that the faces of the
exposed ends of the heated and cooled sections as well as the intermediate specimen are
clean.
6. Coat the faces of the heated and cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp
them together with the 25 mm diameter Brass Intermediate Specimen in place.
7. Turn on the main switch and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the temperature
selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the bar.
8. On the computer desktop, click on the P.A. Hilton Data Loggers HDL icon.
9. On the System Configuration screen, click Load to be offered the pre-configured file
and then open the HC111B file.
10. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
11. Click OK. The Main Menu is the next screen when communication with data logger
is successful.
12. Click on Channel Configuration to check the pre-configured active channels. Then
click OK to get back to the Main Menu.
13. Select Collect Data and then OK, and then click NO in the offered box.
14. Choose data display method (e.g., Multiple Graph Display) and click OK.
15. Select the channel to view by use of the numbered tabs below the graph.

16. Rotate the voltage controller on Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) to increase the
voltage to 150 V.
17. Click on Start Recording and examine the on-screen values to verify all channels are
functioning. Again ensure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5
liters/min. (25 g/s).
18. Monitor development of temperature profiles to steady state.
19. Record steady-state temperatures T1 through T8, the heater voltage and the heater current
in your lab datasheet by reading them on the computer monitor.
20. Click on End Recording to get back to the Main Menu and then exit the program.
21. When the experiment procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to
the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before turning off the cooling water supply.
22. Ensure that the water supply isolation valve is closed.
23. Turn off the main switch.

Part B: Axial Conduction along a Composite Bar

1. Following the basic operating procedure described in Part (A) smear the faces of the
heated and cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together with
the Stainless Steel (or Aluminum) Intermediate Specimen in place.
2. Rotate the voltage controller on Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) to increase the
voltage to 120 V.
3. Click on Start Recording and examine the on-screen values to verify all channels are
functioning. Again ensure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5
liters/min. (25 g/s).
4. Monitor development of temperature profiles to steady state.
5. Record steady-state temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, the heater voltage and the
heater current in your lab datasheet by reading them on the computer monitor.
6. Click on End Recording to get back to the Main Menu and then exit the program.

10

7. When the experiment procedure is completed, turn off the power to the heater by
reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool before turning off
the cooling water supply.
8. Shut down the system.

11

RESULTS
Part A: Axial Conduction along a Simple Bar
1. Data file name:
2. Steady-state values:
Intermediate
Section
Brass

T1
(oC)

T2
(oC)

T3
(oC)

T4
(oC)

T5
(oC)

T6
(oC)

T7
(oC)

T8
(oC)

Voltage
(V)

Current
(A)

T7
(oC)

T8
(oC)

Part B: Axial Conduction along a Composite Bar

1. Data file name:
2. Steady-state values:
Intermediate
Section

Voltage
(V)

Current
(A)

T1
(oC)

T2
(oC)

12

T3
(oC)

T6
(oC)

CALCULATIONS
Part A: Axial Conduction along a Simple Bar
1. Plot steady state temperature versus distance using data from all eight thermocouples. Do
all of the data points lie on a single straight line? Discuss the significance of this plot with
reference to contact resistance and discontinuities.
2. From a best straight line fit to the data, estimate the thermal conductivity of each brass
section, assuming that q = P = V I. How does the average value compare with the
value provided by the manufacturer and with the published data?
3. What does the assumption q = P mean? Is it valid?
4. Calculate the individual and total thermal resistances involved.
5. Prepare two plots that illustrate the unsteady-state behavior of the system:
(1) Temperature versus time for each thermocouple, and
(2) Temperature versus distance at short, intermediate, and long times.
Comment on the behavior.

Figure 3: Temperature Profile with Brass Intermediate Section

13

Part B: Axial Conduction along a Composite Bar

1. Using heat balance (equation 8) , estimate the heater/sample interface temperature (T A)
and the sample/cooler interface temperature (TB).
2. Plot steady state temperature profiles. Do all of the data points lie on a single straight
line? Are the data similar to or different from those you obtained with the brass
midsection (Part A)? Why?
3. Estimate the conductivity of the intermediate section (Aluminum or Stainless Steel). How
does it compare with the value provided by the manufacturer and with the published
data?
4. Calculate the individual and total thermal resistances involved.
5. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U using equation (9). The value of the
overall heat transfer coefficient obtained using this method should be compared with the
value calculated from the thermal geometry (equation 10).
6. Prepare two plots that illustrate the unsteady-state behavior of the system:
(3) Temperature versus time for each thermocouple, and
(4) Temperature versus distance at short, intermediate, and long times.
Comment on the behavior.

Sample

TA

Aluminum
or
Stainless Steel

14

TB

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., Wiley,
New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 7th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

15

Experiment # 2
Radial Heat Conduction in Solids

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the steady-state temperature distribution resulting from radial heat
conduction through a thick cylinder and to demonstrate the effect of a change in heat rate.
2. To determine the thermal conductivity of the disc material.
3. To observe unsteady steady state conduction of heat.
4. To compare the experimental measurements to textbook or theoretical results and to
discuss and explain any differences.

INTRODUCTION
A typical application where radial heat conduction occurs may be found in piping systems,
where it is common for conduction from the inside to the outside of the pipe wall to occur. In this
case the Fouriers law of heat conduction is given as:

== 2

(1)

Where q (W) is the heat transfer rate in the radial direction, A is the area normal the direction of
heat transfer at any radius r, dT/dr is the temperature gradient, and k (W/m.K) is thermal
conductivity of the material.

For steady state condition with no generation, and assuming constant thermal conductivity with
no heat conduction in the axial direction, the heat transfer will occur only radially through the
cylindrical walls. The heat conduction equation, written in cylindrical coordinates, reduces to

16

(2)

with corresponding boundary conditions requiring that T (ri) = Ti and T (ro) = To. Integrating
equation (2) results in a logarithmic temperature profile:

= +

ln
ln

(3)

Applying Fourier's law (equation (1)) to relate the heat-transfer rate to the temperature difference
across the cylindrical walls gives

()

If this equation is solved for

and the result is substituted into equation
(3), the temperature distribution can also be written as

(5)

The thermal resistance for conduction is given by

17

(6)

EQUIPMENT
Measurements of radial conduction heat transfer will be obtained using an experimental setup
consisting of three components (Figures 1 and 2): a "P.A. Hilton Radial Heat Conduction Unit
(H111B)" for the study of radial heat conduction through solids, a universal Heat Transfer
Service Unit (H111), and a computerized Data Logger (HC111A).
The Radial Heat Conduction Module (H111B) comprises an insulated disc of brass (3.2 mm
thick 110 mm diameter) with a brass core (14 mm diameter) and an electric heater at the center
(Figure 3). The brass disc is water cooled around its circumference. The central heater is
nominally rated at 100 Watt (at 240 V AC) and an integral high temperature cut out (automatic
reset) prevents overheating. Power is supplied to the heater from the Heat Transfer Service Unit
(H111) via the 8-pole plug and lead.
Six type K thermocouples (T1, T2, T6) are positioned at increasing radii from the heated
center to record the temperature distribution across the disc. The thermocouple sensing tips are
located in drilled holes so that in each case the measured point is the center of the disc thickness.
Each thermocouple is fitted with a miniature plug for direct connection to the front panel of the
heat transfer service unit (H111) and an edge connector for use with the HC111A Data Logger.
Water for the cooled circumference is supplied from a local tap. Water flow rate can be
regulated by manual control of the supply tap and can be measured with the attached flow rate
sensor. After cooling the disc, the water is allowed to run to a drain via the outlet hose.
Voltage and current outputs can be read from the panel display. Similarly, the thermocouple
temperature readings can be read from the display panel by adjusting the thermocouple selector
switch. Alternatively, data can be recorded electronically through the computerized Data Logger
(HC111A) and the Hilton Data Logging Software (HC111B).

Useful Data:

Thermocouple
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6

Radial Position, m
0.007
0.010
0.020
0.030
0.040
0.050

18

Figure 1: HT111B Radial Heat Conduction Unit, H111 Heat Transfer Service Unit, and HC111A Data Logger

19

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of the Radial Heat Conduction Unit

20

Ri = 7 mm
Ro = 55 mm

L = 3.2 mm

Figure 3: Radial Heat Conduction

21

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Ensure that the Radial Heat Transfer Unit (H111A) has been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit (H111) and the Computerized Data Acquisition System (HC111).
2. Ensure that the main switch is in the OFF position (the digital displays should not be
illuminated).
3. Turn the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum.
4. Ensure that the cold water supply and electrical supply are turned on at the source. Open
the water tap until the flow through the drain hose is approximately 1.5 liters/min. (25
g/s).
5. Turn on the main switch and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the temperature
selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated center of the disc.
6. On the computer desktop, click on the P.A. Hilton Data Loggers HDL icon.
7. On the System Configuration screen, click Load to be offered the pre-configured file
and then open the HC111B file.
8. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
9. Click OK. The Main Menu is the next screen when communication with data logger
is successful.
10. Click on Channel Configuration to check the pre-configured active channels. Then
click OK to get back to the Main Menu.
11. Select Collect Data and then OK, and then click NO in the offered box.
12. Choose data display method (e.g., Multiple Graph Display) and click OK.
13. Select the channel to view by use of the numbered tabs below the graph.
14. Rotate the voltage controller on Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) to increase the
voltage to 100 V.
15. Click on Start Recording and examine the on-screen values to verify all channels are
functioning. Again ensure that the cooling water is flowing at approximately 1.5
liters/min. (25 g/s).
16. Monitor development of temperature profiles to steady state.

22

17. Record steady-state temperatures T1 through T6, the heater voltage and the heater current
in your lab datasheet by reading them on the computer monitor.
18. Click on End Recording to get back to the Main Menu and then exit the program.
19. Repeat steps 6-18 at 150 or 200 V.
20. When the experiment procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to
the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before turning off the cooling water supply.
21. Ensure that the water supply isolation valve is closed.
22. Turn off the main switch.

23

RESULTS
1. Data file name:

run#1:

run #2:

2. Steady-state values:

Run # Voltage
(V)

Current
(A)

T1
(oC)

T2
(oC)

T3
(oC)

1
2

24

T4
(oC)

T5
(oC)

T6
(oC)

CALCULATIONS

1. Plot the steady state temperatures versus distance of all thermocouples on one plot and
critique the result. Are there discontinuities?
2. Determine thermal conductivity k, assuming that q = P = V I. How does the value
compare with the value provided by the manufacturer (k = 121 W/m.K) and with the
published data? Perform error analysis.
3. For each power setting, note down the temperature distribution corresponding to radial
distances. Consider these temperatures as experimental values. Now using the
temperature at node 1 (T1) and the theoretical thermal conductivity of Brass determine
the temperature at various radii and compare with the experimental values noted above.
Perform error analysis.
4. Calculate the individual and total thermal resistances involved.
5. Prepare two plots that illustrate the unsteady-state behavior of the system:
(1) Temperature versus time for each thermocouple on one plot, and
(2) Temperature versus distance at short, intermediate, and long times.
Comment on the behavior.

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., Wiley,
New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 7 th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

25

Experiment # 3
Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the thermal conductivity of air and acetone.
2. To verify Fouriers law of conduction heat transfer.
3. To compare the experimental data with the published data.

INTRODUCTION
The basis of conduction heat transfer is Fouriers law. This law involves the idea that the heat
flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient, T in any direction, n. Thermal
conductivity, k, is the constant of proportionality; a property of materials that is temperature
dependent, and A is the cross-sectional area normal to the heat flow,

kA

T
n

(1)

Equation (1) can also be viewed as the defining equation for thermal conductivity. Thus the
thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. The thermal conductivity
of a material is a measure of how fast heat will flow in the material. A large value for thermal
conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor and a low value indicates that
the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the particles such as the molecules or atoms
of a substance. In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the molecules is due to their random
transitional motion as well as their vibrational and rotational motions. When two molecules
possessing different kinetic energies collide, part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic
(higher-temperature) molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower-temperature) molecule.
The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move and the higher the number of such
collisions, and the better the heat transfer. The kinetic theory of gases predicts and the

26

experiments confirm that the thermal conductivity of gases is proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature, and inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass.

The mechanism of heat conduction in a liquid is complicated by the fact that the molecules are
more closely spaced, and they exert a stronger intermolecular force field. The thermal
conductivities of liquids usually lie between those of solids and gases. The thermal conductivity
of a substance is normally highest in the solid phase and lowest in the gas phase. Unlike gases,
the thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature. Like gases, the
conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing molar mass.
Gas and Liquid Thermal Conductivity Measurements
There are several experimental techniques used to determine the thermal conductivity of gases
and liquids at steady state such as the hot wire method, the coaxial-cylinder method, the
horizontal parallel flat-plate method, and the concentric sphere and sphero-cylinder method. The
main principle of these methods is the employment of a thin layer of a test fluid enclosed
between two surfaces that maintained at different temperatures.
For precise thermal conductivity measurement, the account must be made of energy loss by test
fluid convective heat flow. An apparatus with the smallest gap width between the two surfaces to
employ the test fluid is recommended. Thus, coaxial-cylinder method takes an intermediate
position between the hot-wire method and the flat-plate method.
The apparatus consists of two coaxial cylinders vertically placed and leaving a very small
annular gap that is charged with the test fluid. The inner cylinder is heated with the electrical
heater.

Figure 1: Heat Conduction in Coaxial Cylinders

27

Fouriers law of heat conduction in the radial, one dimensional configuration can be written as:

(2)

The cross-sectional area is given by

= 2
where r is the radial coordinate, and L is the length of the cylinder. Substituting into Equation (2)
and integration gives

2 1 2
ln 2 /1

(3)

Where T1 is the inner cylinder temperature, T2 is outer cylinder temperature, R1 is the outer radius
of the inner cylinder, R2 is inner radius of the outer cylinder, and k is the thermal conductivity of
test fluid.

Solving for k, equation (3) can be written as:

ln 2 /1
1 2 2

(4)

Taking into account the heat losses or incidental heat transfer, the conduction heat transfer rate
is given by:

(5)

Where Q = P = power supplied to the system.

The incidental heat transfer (qlost) is proportional to the temperature difference (T1-T2) between
the plug and the jacket and can be estimated from calibration graph shown in Figure (2).

28

10

qlost (W)

10

20

30

40

50

T (oC)

Figure 2: Incidental Heat Transfer vs Temperature Difference.

29

EQUIPMENT
The SOLTEQ Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases Unit (Model: HE 156) consists
two coaxial concentric cylindrical plugs with a thin radial clearance in between (Figures 3 &4).
The clearance is made extremely small which is 0.3 mm to reduce the natural heat convection.
The heat sourced from the centre of the coaxial concentric cylindrical plugs.
The plug is made of copper and has two ports for introducing and venting the test fluid. The plug
is placed in the middle of the water jacket. The jacket has water inlet and drain connections.
Three type K thermocouples are positioned in the heating and cooling cylindrical plugs,
respectively. The positioning of the thermocouples and the high thermal conductivities of the
materials involved allows measuring the temperatures of the hot and cold faces of the test fluid.
The test module is connected to the control panel for the heater power supply. Power input and
temperature readings are digitally displayed on the control panel. A potentiometer on the control
panel allows student to vary the heating power of the heating elements.

Equipment Specification:
The test module consists of two cylindrical plugs assemble with 0.3 mm gap and a cylindrical
water-cooled jacket.
Inner cylinder plug
Outer diameter
Length
Material

: 33.3 mm
: 100 mm
: Copper

Outer cylinder plug

Inner diameter
Length
Material

: 33.9 mm
: 100 mm
: Copper

Cylindrical water jacket

Material

: Stainless steel

30

6
1
2
3
4
5

Figure 3: Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases Unit (Model: HE 156)

1. Thermocouple Sensors

5. Cooling Water inlet

2. Sample Port (Top)

6. Heater

3. Cooling Water Control Valve

7. Sample Port (Bottom)

4. Cooling Water Outlet

Cooling Water Control

Valve
Top Sample Port Valve

V1

Bottom Sample Port Valve

V3

V2

31

Thermocouples
Sample
Discharge

Hot
Water
Outlet
Outlet Cylinder
0.3 mm gap

Heater

Inner Cylinder

Cold
Water
Inlet

Sample
Inlet

Figure 4: Construction of Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases Unit

Outer radius of the inner cylinder, R1 (m)

0.01665

Inner radius of the outer cylinder, R2 (m)

0.01695

Length of the cylinder, L (m)

0.10

32

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Part A: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Air
1. Turn the power regulator fully anti-clockwise to set the power to minimum.
2. Ensure that the cold water supply is connected and electrical supply is switch on.
3. Open the main water supply and gradually regulate the cooling water flow to allow
sufficient cooling to the system.
4. Turn on the main switch.
5. Make sure that the temperature controller is set to 100 oC.
6. Make sure there is cooling water supply to the water jacket.
7. Turn on the heater switch, and then adjust the power regulator to about 20 W.
8. Record the power and temperature readings (T1 and T2) when all readings stabilised
for about ten minutes.
9. Repeat with heating power of 30 and 40 W.
10. Turn the power regulator on the control panel to minimum by turning the knob fully
anti-clockwise and switch off the heater switch. Keep the cooling water flowing for at
least 5 minutes through the module to cold down the test module.
11. Switch off the main switch and power supply.
12. Close the water supply.

Part B: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Acetone

Repeat the experimental procedure described in Part A by substituting the air with the
acetone with the heating power of 20, 30 and 40 W.

33

RESULTS
Part A: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Air

Q
(W)

T1
(C)

T2
(C)

Part B: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Acetone

Q
(W)

T1
(C)

T2
(C)

34

CALCULATIONS

Part A: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Air

1. Calculate the incidental heat transfer rate (qlost) using Figure (2).
2. Calculate the conduction heat transfer rate (qr) using equation (5).
3. Calculate the thermal conductivity of air using equation (4).
4. Compare with the published thermal conductivity data.

Part B: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Acetone

1. Calculate the incidental heat transfer rate (qlost) using Figure (2).
2. Calculate the conduction heat transfer rate (qr) using equation (5).
3. Calculate the thermal conductivity of acetone using equation (4).
4. Compare with the published thermal conductivity data.

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed.,
Wiley, New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

35

Experiment # 4
Saturation Pressure and Steam Quality

OBJECTIVES
1. To study the relationship between saturation pressure and temperature of a water-steam
mixture.
2. To use steam tables to determine the thermodynamic state of a liquid-vapor mixture.
3. To estimate the quality of a liquid-vapor mixture via throttling.

INTRODUCTION
Liquid-vapor phase change (evaporation and condensation) are extremely important to many,
industries. Processes such as distillation and separation in petroleum refineries, electrical power
generation in steam power plants, and refrigeration cycles all depend upon control of evaporation
and condensation. Evaporation (and boiling) is the process in which liquid becomes vapor and in
doing so absorbs a measure of thermal energy known as latent heat. The process of evaporation
occurs at a constant temperature. The cooling effect arises from the loss of thermal energy; that
is, the transfer of latent heat. The temperature at which evaporation and condensation occurs is
known as the saturation temperature. The corresponding pressure is known as the saturation
pressure. The temperature at which evaporation or boiling occurs varies with pressure.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between pressure and temperature for the solid, liquid, and
vapor phases of a substance. The triple point is the temperature and pressure at which all three
phases can coexist. The line separating the solid-liquid regions represents a set of temperatures
and pressures at which the solid and liquid phases (ice and water) may coexist. Similarly, the line
separating the liquid-vapor regions represents a set of temperatures and pressures at which the
liquid and vapor phases (water and steam) may coexist. The critical point is the pressuretemperature state beyond which there is no distinction between liquid and vapor phases.

36

Figure 1: General Pressure-Temperature Relationship

Quality of Steam
The thermodynamic state of a single phase fluid (gas or liquid) can be determined if two
properties are known. So, if the pressure and temperature are measured and the system is in
thermal equilibrium, then all of the other properties at this state can be determined. If two phases
are present (vapor and liquid), then three thermodynamic states must be known. Any three
properties may be used in specifying the thermodynamic state of a two-phase mixture. One
property typically used, in addition to temperature and pressure, is quality. Quality, x, is the
ratio of vapor mass, mg, to mixture mass, mg + mf :

(1)

By convention, a subscript f is used to denote the liquid phase and a subscript g to denote the
vapor phase.

Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only and must have a value between zero and one
(0 x 1). It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated vapor regions. The
quality of saturated liquid is 0 and the quality of saturated vapor is 1. The thermodynamic
properties of the mixture which are dependent upon mass can be expressed using quality. For
example, the specific volume (m3/kg) of the system is v = (1 x)vf + x vg. Other properties
dependent upon mass such as internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy can be determined in a
similar manner.

37

Measuring Quality
Saturated liquid-vapor mixture at high pressure is allowed to expand through a throttling valve
(flow-restricting device) resulting in a sharp decrease in pressure. Some familial examples are
ordinary adjustable valves, capillary tubes, porous plugs, and orifices). If a wet steam is throttled
though a large enough pressure drop, the steam becomes superheated. In this state the steam is
defined by pressure and temperature. The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are commonly used in refrigeration
and air conditioning applications.
P1

P2 < P1

vapor

T1

T2

Figure 2: Throttling process for a liquid-vapor mixture.

The throttling process can be analyzed by applying conservation of energy (the First Law of
Thermodynamics) to a control volume surrounding the throttle in Fig. 2. Assuming steady and
uniform flow, negligible change in kinetic energy and potential energy, no heat transfer
(adiabatic) and no work crosses the control surface, and then the conservation of energy is
reduced to:

1 2

(2)

The enthalpy at the exit, h2, can be determined if the pressure and temperature are known. This
is a single phase so only two properties need to be measured to define the thermodynamic state.
The value of the enthalpy at the inlet, h1, is defined by the amount of fluid in the liquid state and
vapor state.

2 = 1 = (1 1 ),1 + 1 ,1

(3)

Thus, by combining equations (2) and (3), the quality can be found:

,
, ,

()

The enthalpies, hf,1 and hg,1 are estimated from steam tables at P1. The enthalpy h2 can be found
from steam tables at T2 and P2.
38

Empirical Correlation for Saturation Pressure and Temperature

An empirical correlation between saturation pressure and temperature is:

(5)

Where Pabs is the absolute pressure, Tabs is the absolute temperature and a and b are empirically
determined coefficients. Equation (5) can be linearized to give:

= +

(6)

Thus, plotting vs results in a straight line and hence the constants a and b can be
determined.

39

EQUIPMENT
A bench top unit designed to introduce students to the characteristics of saturated water vapor
and throttling. The saturation pressure apparatus consists of a boiler vessel, a separator, a
throttling valve and a condenser.
If the steam is quite wet then pure throttling may not be enough to ensure that the steam is
superheated. Thus, it is necessary to partially dry the steam. This is done by passing the liquidvapor mixture to a separator. Here, the mixture is made to change direction suddenly. As water
is denser than steam, it is separated out. The separated water quantity is measured. The
remaining steam now goes to the throttle. It is then passed to a condenser and the condensate is
collected and measured.
The analog signals for various thermocouples and pressure transducers are acquired by a data
acquisition system connected to a personal computer for digitized data gathering. The data
acquisition system consists of a data logger (Pico Technology) and Pico software package for
data acquisition and monitoring.

40

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Part A: Saturation Pressure Experiment:

1. Place a bucket under the drain pipe and open the drain valve.
2. Close the steam valve and let any remaining moisture to drain out of the vessel.
3. Close the drain valve.
4. Open the steam valve and pressurize the vessel to the steam supply main pressure and
then close the steam valve.
5. As the pressure decreases, record the gauge pressure and steam temperature.

Part B: Throttling Experiment

1. Pass the steam through the throttling orifice to warm up the unit.
2. Circulate cooling water through the condenser during operation.
3. Open the separator valve to drain any condensate.
4. Close the separator valve and open the steam main valve.
5. Keep the steam main valve open until a reasonable amount of condensate is collected
then close the steam main valve.
6. Record pressure and temperature data.

41

RESULTS

Part A: Saturation Pressure Experiment:

Data file name:

T1 (C)
P1,gauge (bar)

Part B: Throttling Experiment:

Volume of condensate =
Volume of separated water =
T1 (C)

P1,gauge (bar)

T2 (C)

42

P2,gauge (bar)

CALCULATIONS
1. Plot the measured saturation temperature against the measured saturation pressure. Verify
your measured data with published data (steam tables) by overlaying the data on the same
graph. How well does the experimental data compare to the published data over the
temperature and pressure range covered by the experiment? Provide qualitative and
quantitative comparisons.
2. Prepare a semilog plot [ln(Pabs) vs (1/Tabs)] of your experimental data and derive an
empirical correlation for the vaporization curve data using least squares methods.
Compare this fit with your data by plotting on the original linear Tsat vs Psat graph.
3. Calculate the steam quality using data from the throttling.
4. Find Tsat at P1 and P2 from steam tables and compare with T1 and T2.
5. Comment on your findings.

REFERENCES
1. engel, A.Y. and Boles, A.M. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach. 6th edition,
McGraw-Hill (2007).

2. Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C. and Abbott, M.M. Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill (2005).

43

Experiment # 5
Diffusion of a Liquid

OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the diffusivity of sodium chloride solution in de-ionized water at ambient
temperature.

2. To compare the result with results from generalized correlations.

INTRODUCTION
Diffusion of solutes in liquids is very important in many industrial processes, especially in such
separations as liquid-liquid extraction, gas absorption, and distillation. Diffusion in liquids also
occurs in many situations in nature, such as oxygenation of rivers and lakes by air and diffusion
of salts in blood.
It should be apparent that the rate of molecular diffusion in liquids is considerably slower than in
gases. Since the molecules in a liquid are packed together much more closely than in gases, the
density and resistance to diffusion in a liquid are much greater. Also, because of this closer
spacing of the molecules, the attractive forces between molecules play an important role in
diffusion. In general, the diffusion coefficient in a gas will be on the order of magnitude of
about 105 times greater than in a liquid. However, the flux in a gas is not that much greater,
being only about 100 times faster, since the concentrations in liquids are higher than in gases.
In diffusion in liquids an important difference from diffusion in gases is that the diffusivities are
often dependent on the concentration of the diffusing components due to the changes in viscosity
with concentrations and changes in the degree of ideality of the solution.
Certain molecules diffuse as molecules, while others that are designated as electrolytes ionize in
solutions and diffuse as ions. For example, sodium chloride, NaCl, diffuses in water as the ions
+
Na and Cl . Though each ion has a different mobility, the electrical neutrality of the solution
indicates that the ions must diffuse at the same rate; accordingly, it is possible to speak of a
diffusion coefficient for molecular electrolytes such as NaCl. The average diffusivity of the
electrolyte is a combination of the diffusion coefficients of the two ions. Its value is in between
the diffusivity values for the two ions. However, if several ions are present, the diffusion rates
of individual cations and anions must be considered.

44

The well-known Nernst-Haskell equation [1] for dilute, single-salt solutions can be used at 25 oC
to predict the overall diffusivity DAB of the salt A in the solvent B:
o
D AB
8.928 1010T

1/ n 1/ n
1/ 1/

(1)

o
Where D AB
is in cm2/s, n+ is the valence of the cation, n- is the valence of the anion, and + and
- are the limiting ionic conductances in very dilute solutions in (A/cm2)(V/cm)(g equiv./cm2).
Values of the conductances are given in Table A1 (Appendix A) at 25 oC. The value of T =
o
298.2 K when using values of + and - at 25 oC. To correct D AB
for temperature, first calculate
o
o
D AB at 25 C from Eq. (1) then multiply this value by T/(334w), where T is the new
temperature in K and w is the viscosity of water in cp at the new T.

The diffusion coefficient of an individual ion i at 25 oC can be calculated from

Di 2.662 107

(2)

ni

Then Eq. (1) becomes

o
DAB

n n
n / D n / D

(3)

Several methods are used to determine diffusion coefficients experimentally in liquids [1-3]. In
this experiment a small volume of concentrated solution is placed on one side of the honeycomb
of capillaries, inside the glass diffusion cell, whilst the other side consists initially of a large
volume of pure solvent (water). As diffusion of the solute occurs, the concentration within the
larger volume increases and is monitored with a conductivity meter. The mixture is continuously
agitated with a magnetic stirrer to ensure uniform concentration within the bulk liquid.
The rate of diffusion for a liquid can be expressed by the equation
*
J Az
DAB

cA
z

(4)

*
where J Az
is the molar diffusion flux of component A in the z direction in gmol A/s.cm2

DAB is the molecular diffusivity of the molecule A in B in cm2/s

c A
is the concentration gradient in the z-direction in (gmol/cm3)/cm
z

45

To restrict diffusion in one dimension, a small vertical capillary is used in the present
experiment. Hence, the concentration at the lower ends is taken to be constant. The
concentration at the top ends is effectively zero during the experiment.
Thus

V dk
d 2 M
D AB
N
C M dt
4
z

Therefore

D AB

4Vz
dk
d NMC M dt

(5)

(6)

Where
V = volume of water (cm3)
z = length of capillaries (cm)
d = diameter of capillaries (cm)
N = number of capillaries
M = Molarity of the salt solution in diffusion cell
CM = the electrical conductivity change per unit molarity change for dilute solutions (-1 M-1 or
Siemens M-1)
dk/dt = the rate of change of conductivity with time (-1 sec-1 or Siemens sec-1)
Thus by plotting conductivity against time the diffusion coefficient can be calculated using the
slope of the graph and Eq. (6).

46

EQUIPMENT
A simple apparatus to measure the liquid diffusivity of sodium chloride in water is shown in
figure 1. The apparatus consists of a specially designed diffusion cell containing a high
concentration of sodium chloride, a stirred reservoir containing a low concentration of sodium
chloride, which at the beginning of the experiment will be deionized water, a variable speed
magnetic stirrer with stirring bar and a conductivity cell connected to a conductivity meter. The
salt concentration in reservoir is measured with the conductivity cell and read on the conductivity
meter.

Diffusion Cell Specifications:

Number of capillaries = 317
Length of capillaries = 5 mm
Diameter of capillaries = 1 mm (to restrict diffusion to one dimension).

Figure 1: Diffusion of a Liquid Apparatus

CHEMICALS/MATERIALS
-

NaCl solutions.
Deionized water.

47

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
I. Relation between the Concentration of a Saline Solution and the Conductivity:
1. Prepare NaCl solutions at different concentrations: 0.001, 0.0012, 0.0014, 0.0016, 0.0018
and 0.002 M.
2. Make sure that conductivity meter and magnetic stirrer is working properly.
3. Record the readout of the conductivity meter for all the standards prepared in step 1.

II. Determination of Diffusivity:

1. Make sure the conductivity meter and magnetic stirrer are working properly.
2. Clean the diffusion cell (reservoir (1)) and the test vessel (reservoir (2)) thoroughly in
deionized water.
3. Clamp the reservoir (1) on the side of reservoir (2) so the top of the capillaries are
parallel with graduation mark of reservoir (2) and 5 mm below this mark.
4. Fill the reservoir (1) with the salt solution (2M NaCl solution) so the liquid just reaches
the tops of the capillaries.
5. Fill reservoir (2) containing magnetic stir bar with deionized water from a squeeze bottle
to the graduation mark. The capillary tops should be submerged 5 mm below the surface
of the water.
6. Record the volume of the deionized water needed.
7. Switch on the magnetic stirrer at the lowest setting possible and at the same time start the
stopwatch. The speed must be sufficient to give good mixing within the vessel but not to
allow disturbance such as a vortex to form.
8. Record the conductivity reading. Take the data every 60 seconds. Data should be
collected for 1 hour.
9. Turn off the conductivity meter and remove reservoir (1) from the reservoir (2). Rinse the
cell and test vessel several times with deionized water to remove all traces of the salt.

48

RESULTS
I. Relation between the Concentration of a Saline Solution and the Conductivity:

Concentration (M)

Conductivity (S)

49

II. Determination of Diffusivity:

Volume of water =
T=

Time
(sec.)

Conductivity
(S)

Time
(sec.)

Conductivity Time Conductivity

(S)
(sec.)
(S)

50

CALCULATIONS
I. Relation between the Concentration of a Saline Solution and the Conductivity:
1. Plot the conductivity (Siemens) against the concentration of NaCl (M).
2. Estimate the slope of this line, CM.

II. Calculation of Diffusivity:

1. Plot the conductivity as a function of time and determine the slope dk/dt.
2. Calculate the diffusivity using Eq. (6).
3. Compare the experimental value for the diffusivity with the estimated diffusivity using
the generalized correlation, Eq. (1), and discuss any differences.
4. Calculate diffusion coefficient of the individual ions Na+ and Cl- using Eq. (2) and use
Eq. (3) to calculate DAB.
5. Compare between the diffusivity of the salt and that of the two ions.

REFERENCES
1. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed., Prentice
Hall, NJ (2003).
2. R.E. Treybal, Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).
3. E.L . Cussler, Diffusion: Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems, 3rd Ed., Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK (2009).

51

APPENDIX A

Table A1. Limiting Ionic Conductances in Water at 25 oC [1]

Anion
-

Cation

OH
ClBrNO3-

197.6
76.3
78.3
71.4

H+
Li+
Na+
K+

349.8
38.7
50.1
73.5

CH3CO3-

40.9

NH +4

73.4

1 2SO2-4

80

1 2Ca 2+

CLO

68.0

1 2 Zn

52

2+

59.5
53

Experiment # 6
Forced Convection Heat Transfer from Flat, Finned, and
Pinned Plates

OBJECTIVES

1. To calculate the forced convection heat transfer coefficients and compare these results to the
calculated values from empirical relationships.
2. To demonstrate the relationship between air velocity and surface temperature in forced
convection heat transfer from flat, finned and pinned plates.
3. To demonstrate the use of extended surface to improve heat transfer from the surface.
4. To determine the temperature distribution along an extended surface.

INTRODUCTION
Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion and it is comprised of two mechanisms. In addition to energy transfer due to
random molecular motion (diffusion), energy is also transferred by the bulk, or macroscopic,
motion of the fluid. Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the
surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or wind. In contrast, convection is called free (or
natural) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. Convection may be classified further
by specifying whether the fluid flows over a surface or through a pipe or duct. These two
situations correspond to external and internal convection, respectively.

Convection occurs in a variety of heat transfer applications. In heat exchangers, thermal energy
is transferred by convection between two fluids that pass each other in tubes or channels. Ovens
used in industrial processes such drying and curing materials use convection. Quenching of
metals during heat treating is primarily a convection process. Electrical heating elements in

53

boilers transfer energy to water by convection to make steam. Fans and blowers in electronic
equipment move air over heat producing components to keep them cool.

The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newtons law of cooling as

(1)

Where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient in W/m2.K, A is the surface are through which
convection heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and T is the temperature of
the fluid far from the surface. The heat transfer coefficient is a fluid and a flow parameter. It is
an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the variables affecting
convection such as the surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, type and properties of the
fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.
An inspection of equation (1) reveals that the only way to increase heat transfer rate, q, when the
temperature difference is fixed by design considerations is to increase the heat
transfer coefficient, h, the surface area, A, or both. Increasing h may require the installation of a
pump or fan, or replacing the existing one with a larger one, but this approach may or may not be
practical. The most viable approach for increasing heat transfer is to the increase the surface area
by attaching to the surface extended surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials
such as aluminum. The car radiator is an example of a finned surface. Fins are classified
according to their geometry. A longitudinal fin is flat plate that protrudes from a plane or
cylindrical surface. A pin fin is a rod of circular, square, or rectangular cross section whose end
is a attached to the surface. A radial fin is an annular disk whose inside edge is attached to a
cylindrical object such as pipe.

54

EQUIPMENT
The P.A. Hilton H111P convection heat transfer apparatus (Figure 1) consists of a vertical
rectangular duct supported by a bench-mounted stand. A flat plate, pinned, or finned exchanger
can be installed in the duct and secured by a quick release catch on each side. The H111P
apparatus is designed to be used with the Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) and the
computerized Data Logger (HC111A).
The accessory comprises a rectangular duct (6) mounted on the discharge of a base mounted
variable speed centrifugal fan. Air velocity in the duct is measured on a portable hot wire
anemometer held in bracket on the duct wall and displayed (m/s) on the air velocity display (4)
below the base. The air velocity is controlled by the use of an intake air throttle (9). At the
center of duct is an aperture that allows any of the three plates (8) supplied to be installed. Each
plate incorporates an electric heater mat with thermostat protection against overheating. The
surface temperature (T1) of each plate is continuously monitored and displayed by the
temperature indicator when plugged in to the console. The pinned plate is fitted with three extra
thermocouples (T3,T4,T5) to measure the temperature of extended surfaces. Also, The finned
plate is fitted with three extra thermocouples (T6,T7,T8) to measure the temperature of extended
surfaces. The air temperature (T9) is measured by sensor (7) located at the base of the duct and
records the temperature of the air flowing over the heated plate. Thermocouple attachment
points on the plates are protected by a covering of adhesive.
Thermocouple
T1
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9

Location
Plate (flat, finned or pinned) surface
Pin, 10 mm from prime surface
Pin, 30 mm from prime surface
Pin, 50 mm from prime surface
Fin, 10 mm from prime surface
Fin, 30 mm from prime surface
Fin, 46 mm from prime surface
Air temperature

Flat Plate Specifications:

Length = 15 cm, width = 12.5 cm

Pinned Plate Specifications:

Length = 15 cm, width = 12.5 cm
number of pins = 16 (each pin is 12.5 mm in diameter and 45 mm in length)

Finned Plate Specifications:

Length = 15 cm, width = 12.5 cm

55

Figure 1: The P.A. Hilton H111P Convection Heat Transfer Apparatus

56

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Part A: Forced Convection over a Flat Plate
1. Ensure that the Convection Heat Transfer Unit (H111P) has been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit (H111) and the Computerized Data Acquisition System (HC111).
2. Ensure that the instrument console main switch is in the OFF position (the digital
displays should not be illuminated). Ensure that the fan is switched off.
3. If the flat plate is not in position, open the toggle clamps. Replace with the flat plate and
close the toggle clamps. Note that with the plate the power leads exit from the top of the
plate. Refer to the diagram (Figure 1).
4. Turn on the main switch (1) and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the air
velocity to a low value by closing the air throttle (9).
5. On the computer desktop, click on the P.A. Hilton Data Loggers HDL icon.
6. On the System Configuration screen, click Load to be offered the pre-configured file
and then open the HC111B file.
7. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
8. Click OK. The Main Menu is the next screen when communication with data logger
is successful.
9. Click on Channel Configuration to see the pre-configured active channels. Then click
OK to get back to the Main Menu.
10. Select Collect Data and then OK, and then click NO in the offered box.
11. Choose data display method (e.g., Multiple Graph Display) and click OK.
12. Select the channel to view by use of the numbered tabs below the graph.
13. Rotate the voltage controller on Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) to increase the
voltage to 200 V. Ensure that the surface temperature (T1) does not exceed 100 oC.
14. Set the air velocity at 5 m/s by opening the air throttle.
15. Click on Start Recording and examine the on-screen values to verify all channels are
functioning.

57

16. Monitor development of the plate temperature to steady state.

17. Record steady-state plate temperature (T1), the air temperature (T9), the air velocity, the
heater voltage and the heater current in your lab datasheet by reading them on the
computer monitor.
18. Click on End Recording to get back to the Main Menu and then exit the program.
19. Repeat steps 5-18 at 10 m/s.
20. When the experiment procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to
the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before turning off the fan.
21. Turn off the main switch.

Part B: Forced Convection over Extended Surfaces (Finned or Pinned Plate)

1. Ensure that the Convection Heat Transfer Unit (H111P) has been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit (H111) and the Computerized Data Acquisition System (HC111).
2. Ensure that the instrument console main switch is in the OFF position (the digital
displays should not be illuminated). Ensure that the fan is switched off.
3. If the pinned or finned plate is not in position, open the toggle clamps. Replace with the
pinned or finned plate and close the toggle clamps. Note that with the plate the power
leads exit from the top of the plate. Refer to the diagram (Figure 1).
4. Turn on the main switch (1) and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the air
velocity to a low value by closing the air throttle (9).
5. On the computer desktop, click on the P.A. Hilton Data Loggers HDL icon.
6. On the System Configuration screen, click Load to be offered the pre-configured file
and then open the HC111B file.
7. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
8. Click OK. The Main Menu is the next screen when communication with data logger
is successful.
9. Click on Channel Configuration to see the pre-configured active channels. Then click
OK to get back to the Main Menu.

58

10. Select Collect Data and then OK, and then click NO in the offered box.
11. Choose data display method (e.g., Multiple Graph Display) and click OK.
12. Select the channel to view by use of the numbered tabs below the graph.
13. Rotate the voltage controller on Heat Transfer Service Unit (H111) to increase the
voltage to 200 V. Ensure that the surface temperature (T1) does not exceed 100 oC.
14. Set the air velocity at 5 m/s by opening the air throttle.
15. Click on Start Recording and examine the on-screen values to verify all channels are
functioning.
16. Monitor development of the plate temperature to steady state.
17. Record steady-state surface temperature (T1), pin temperatures (T3, T4, T5) for the
pinned plate or fin temperatures (T6, T7, T8) for the finned plate, the air temperature
(T9), the air velocity, the heater voltage and the heater current in your lab datasheet by
reading them on the computer monitor.
18. Click on End Recording to get back to the Main Menu and then exit the program.
19. When the experiment procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to
the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool
before turning off the fan.
20. Turn off the main switch.

59

RESULTS
Part A: Forced Convection over a Flat Plate
1. Data file name: run#1:

run #2:

2. Steady-state values:

Run #

Air Velocity
(m/s)

Voltage
(V)

Current
(A)

T1
(oC)

T9
(oC)

1
2

Part B: Forced Convection over Extended Surfaces (finned or pinned plate)

1. Data file name:
2. Steady-state values:
Plate

Air velocity
(m/s)

Voltage
(V)

Current
(A)

T1
(oC)

T3
(oC)

T4
(oC)

T5
(oC)

Pinned
Finned

60

T6
(oC)
_

T7
(oC)
_

T8
(oC)
_

T9
(oC)

CALCULATIONS
Part A: Forced Convection over a Flat Plate
1. Plot plate surface temperature (T1) versus time to illustrate the unsteady-state
behavior of the system.
2. Calculate the forced convection heat transfer coefficients and compare the results
with the published correlations.
3. Construct a graph of the steady state temperature difference, Ts - T= T1 - T9, as a
function of velocity.
4. Discuss the effect of air velocity on the surface temperature and the heat transfer
coefficient.

Part B: Forced Convection over Extended Surfaces

1. On the same graph, plot temperature versus time for each thermocouple to
illustrate the unsteady-state behavior of the system.
2. Plot steady state temperature profile along the fin (or pin).
3. Compare the values of the heat transfer coefficient for both the flat plate (Part A)
and the finned (or pinned) surface.
4. Comment on your results.

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed.,
Wiley, New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

61

Experiment # 7
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the heat transfer capabilities of a shell and tube heat exchanger.
2. To investigate the effect of flow rate on the overall heat transfer coefficient
3. To investigate the differences and similarities between co-current and counter-current
operation.
4. To investigate the effect of heat losses on the performance of a heat exchanger.

INTRODUCTION
In many parts of the chemical process industry it is essential to add or remove heat from a
process stream. In these it is necessary to alter the amount of energy in the system in a rapid,
controllable and reliable way. A great deal of attention has been paid to practical methods for
adding or removing heat and to the design of practical heat exchangers.
A wide range of heat exchangers are used in industrial processes. The actual type being a
function of what specific function is required e.g. air-cooling, liquid-cooling etc. The most
common type of heat exchanger used in industry contains a number of parallel tubes enclosed in
a shell and is thus called a shell and tube heat exchanger. These heat exchangers are employed
when a process requires large quantities of fluid to be heated or cooled. Due to their compact
design, these heat exchangers contain a large amount of heat transfer area and also provide a
high degree of heat transfer efficiency.

62

EQUIPMENT
The heat exchange unit (Figure 1) consists of three different types of heat exchangers: (i) plate
(HE1), (ii) coil in shell (HE2) and (iii) shell and tube (HE3), all processing a heat transfer area of
0.5 m2. All the exchangers are arranged for independent operation and evaluation using either
hot water or low pressure steam on one side of the heat exchanger and cold water on the other
side. Additionally, when operating with hot water and cold water, the direction of flow of the
cold water can be reversed to permit study of both co-current and countercurrent operation in any
of the heat exchangers. In this experiment the shell and tube heat exchanger is used.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (HE 3) Specifications:

Diameter
Tube length
Tube diameter, internal
Tube wall thickness
Number of tubes
Number of baffles
Baffle spacing
Internal heat transfer area (Ain)
External heat transfer area, (Aex)

80 mm
1000 mm
12 mm
1.0 mm
7
3
236 mm
0.5 m2
0.254 m2

Data Acquisition and Instrumentation:

The analog signals for various thermocouples and pressure transducers are acquired by a data
acquisition system connected to a personal computer for digitized data gathering. The data
acquisition system consists of a data logger (Pico Technology) and Pico software package for
data acquisition and monitoring.

63

Figure 1: Schematic of the Heat Exchangers

64

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Choose the shell and tube heat exchanger (HE3) and complete the pre-start up checks.
2. Ensure that the shell and tube heat exchanger has been connected to the computerized
data acquisition system.
3. Start up cold water circuit for co-current operation with a flow rate of 2 L/min.
4. Start up the hot water circuit with a suitable flow rate assigned by the lab. Instructor.
5. Using the data acquisition software, monitor development of temperature readings to
steady state.
6. Record steady-state temperature and flow rate readings in your experiment datasheet by
reading them on the computer monitor.
7. Repeat for increased cold water flow rates up to 10 L/min. Take 5 sets of readings in
total.
8. Change the cold water flow direction to have a counter-current operation with a flow rate
of 2 L/min.
9. Repeat steps 4 to 7.
10. Shut down the heat exchanger.

65

RESULTS
I. Co-current Operation:
1. Data file name:
2. Steady-state values:
Ambient air temperature, T =

Flow rate, L/min

Tin, oC
Tout, oC

C.

COLD WATER
4
6

10

10

HOT WATER
Flow rate, L/min
Tin, oC
Tout, oC

II. Counter-current Operation:

1. Data file name:
2. Steady-state values:
Ambient air temperature, T =

Flow rate, L/min

Tin, oC
Tout, oC

C.

COLD WATER
4
6

HOT WATER
Flow rate, L/min
Tin, oC
Tout, oC

66

CALCULATIONS
At a minimum, your report should include at least the following information for both co-current and
counter-current operations:

1. Calculate the rate of heat transferred into the cold fluid, Qc and the rate of heat transferred
out from the hot fluid, Qh for each experimental result.

c Cpc Tco Tci

Qc m
hCph Thi Tho
Qh m
2. Draw a graph of Qc against Qh.
3. Draw the temperature profile and calculate the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
4. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Theoretically, Qc should equal Qh, but for various reasons (what are they?) they may be
slightly different, and we choose to define a mean rate of heat transfer as

Q Qc Qh / 2
and note that this obeys the relation

Q UATLM
U
=
A
=
TLM =

overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2C)

total surface area for heat transfer = 0.5 m2
log mean temperature difference (oC)

5. Draw a graph of U against cold water flowrate for both co- and countercurrent operations.
Comment on your results.
6. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient between shell-side fluid and surrounding air
using:
Q h Q c UA ex TLM

Aex
= the heat exchanger external surface area = 0.254 m2
TLM = the log mean temperature difference between shell-side fluid and air.
7. Prepare two graphs that illustrate the unsteady-state behavior of the system for both cocurrent and counter-current operations (i.e., plot temperature vs. time using data from all
thermocouples). Comment on the graphs.

67

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., Wiley,
New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 7 th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

68

Experiment # 8
Boiling and Condensation Heat Transfer

OBJECTIVES
1. To observe the different pool boiling regimes.
2. To determine the boiling heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient as functions of the
excess temperature.
3. To demonstrate the two modes of surface condensation: film condensation and dropwise
condensation.

4. To study the effect of dropwise verses film condensation on the heat transfer coefficient.
5. To compare the experimental results with published relationships.

INTRODUCTION
Boiling and condensation are special convection processes associated with a phase change of a
fluid. Like the standard convection processes, boiling and condensation occur at the boundary
between a solid and a fluid. Unlike standard convection processes which rely on sensible heat,
however, the primary driving force for heat transfer in phase-change processes is not a
temperature difference across a boundary layer but rather the latent heat, often as heat of
vaporization, or enthalpy of vaporization, is the amount of thermal energy required to vaporize a
unit mass of liquid at a given temperature and pressure. Likewise, latent heat is also the amount
of energy required to condense a unit mass of vapor. Since the latent heat is relatively large,
particularly for water (~ 2.5 106 J/kg), the associated heat transfer rates and hence the
associated heat transfer coefficients are also usually high. Moreover, because the primary heat
transfer mechanism in boiling and condensation is a phase change, high heat transfer rates may
be achieved in the absence of large temperature differences. Condensation processes require that
the latent heat be a removed by a coolant, and boiling processes require that this latent heat be
supplied from an energy source. In most industrial processes, the vapor and liquid phases both
flow through the heat exchanger. Thus, the heat transfer to the phase interface is essentially a
convective process.
Condensation occurs when the surface temperature of the solid is lower than the saturation
temperature of the fluid at a specified pressure, resulting in the formation of condensate on the
surface and heat transfer from the vapor to the solid surface. Conversely, boiling occurs when the
surface temperature of a solid is higher than the saturation temperature of a fluid at specified
69

pressure, resulting in heat transfer from the surface to the fluid. Two parameters of particular
importance in phase-change processes are the difference in densities of the liquid and vapor
phases and surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface. Density differences in the liquid and
vapor phases are responsible for buoyancy forces that drive convection currents, whereas surface
tension affects the formation and development of bubbles.
Boiling and condensation occur in a variety of heat transfer systems. For example, liquid water
is vaporized in boilers to provide steam for heating buildings, driving turbines or processing
materials. Refrigeration systems utilize special heat exchangers, called condensers and
evaporators, for condensing and vaporizing refrigerant. In an oil refinery, oil is evaporated in a
distillation column to give a variety of vapor products, which are eventually condensed into
liquid fuels such as gasoline and kerosene.

I. Boiling Heat Transfer [1]

Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process just like evaporation, but there are significant
differences between the two. Evaporation occurs at the liquidvapor interface when the vapor
pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature. Boiling, on the
other hand, occurs at the solidliquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a
surface maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the saturation temperature Tsat of the
liquid. At 1 atm, for example, liquid water in contact with a solid surface at 110C boils since the
saturation temperature of water at 1 atm is 100C. The boiling process is characterized by the
rapid formation of vapor bubbles at the solidliquid interface that detach from the surface when
they reach a certain size and attempt to rise to the free surface of the liquid.
As a form of convection heat transfer, the boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid is
expressed from Newtons law of cooling as:

q h T T
hT
s
sat
excess

(1)

Where Texcess = Ts - Tsat is called the excess temperature, which represents the temperature
excess of the surface above the saturation temperature of the fluid.
Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling, depending on the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow and flow boiling (or
forced convection boiling) in the presence of it. In pool boiling, the fluid body is stationary, and
any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion of the bubbles under
the influence of buoyancy. The boiling of water in a pan on top of a stove is an example of pool
boiling. Pool boiling of a fluid can also be achieved by placing a heating coil in the fluid. In flow
boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means such as a
pump. Therefore, flow boiling is always accompanied by other convection effects.

70

Pool Boiling Regimes and the Boiling Curve

Boiling takes in different forms, depending on the value of the excess temperature Texcess. Four
different boiling regimes are observed: natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition
boiling, and film boiling. These regimes are illustrated on the boiling curve in boiling (Figure 1)
which is a plot of boiling heat flux versus the excess temperature.

Figure 1: Typical Boiling Curve for Water at 1 atm Pressure.

Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)

We know from thermodynamics that a pure substance at a specified pressure starts boiling when
it reaches the saturation temperature at that pressure. But in practice we do not see any bubbles
forming on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature (about 2 to 6C for water). Therefore, the liquid is slightly superheated in this case
(a metastable condition) and evaporates when it rises to the free surface. The fluid motion in this
mode of boiling is governed by natural convection currents, and heat transfer from the heating
surface to the fluid is by natural convection.

71

Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)

The first bubbles start forming at point A of the boiling curve at various preferential sites on the
heating surface. The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation
sites as we move along the boiling curve toward point C. The nucleate boiling regime can be
separated into two distinct regions. In region AB, isolated bubbles are formed at various
preferential nucleation sites on the heated surface. But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid
shortly after they separate from the surface. The space vacated by the rising bubbles is filled by
the liquid in the vicinity of the heater surface, and the process is repeated. The stirring and
agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is primarily responsible for
the increased heat transfer coefficient and heat flux in this region of nucleate boiling.
In region BC, the heater temperature is further increased, and bubbles form at such great rates at
such a large number of nucleation sites that they form numerous continuous columns of vapor in
the liquid. These bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they break up and
release their vapor content. The large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the
combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
At large values of Texcess, the rate of evaporation at the heater surface reaches such high values
that a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by bubbles, making it difficult for the liquid
to reach the heater surface and wet it. Consequently, the heat flux increases at a lower rate with
increasing, Texcess, and reaches a maximum at point C. The heat flux at this point is called the
critical (or maximum) heat flux, q max . For water, the critical heat flux exceeds 1 MW/m2. This
point is often called the burn out point. This term is used because after the burnout point, the
element temperature increases rapidly, by several hundred degrees or more. This will often
damage the element. Nucleate boiling is the most desirable boiling regime in practice because
high heat transfer rates can be achieved in this regime with relatively small values of Texcess,
typically under 30C for water.
In the design of boiling heat transfer equipment, it is extremely important for the designer to
have knowledge of the maximum heat flux in order to avoid the danger of burnout. The
maximum (or critical) heat flux in nucleate pool boiling is expressed as:

q max Ccr h fg g v2 l v

14

(2)

Where
Ccr
hfg
l
v

a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally it is about 0.15.
enthalpy of vaporization, J/kg
density of the liquid, kg/m3
density of the vapor, kg/m3
surface tension of liquidvapor interface = 0.0589 N/m for water @ Tsat = 100 oC.

72

Transition Boiling (between Points C and D)

As the heater temperature and thus the Texcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases,.
This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an
insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapor relative to that of the liquid. In the
transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur. Nucleate boiling at point
C is completely replaced by film boiling at point D. Operation in the transition boiling regime,
which is also called the unstable film boiling regime, is avoided in practice. For water, transition
boiling occurs over the excess temperature range from about 30C to about 120C.

Film Boiling (beyond Point D)

In this region the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor film. Point
D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leidenfrost point, in honor of J. C.
Leidenfrost, who observed that liquid droplets on a very hot surface jump around and slowly boil
away. The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface and the liquid is responsible for
the low heat transfer rates in the film boiling region. The heat transfer rate increases with
increasing excess temperature as a result of heat transfer from the heated surface to the liquid
through the vapor film by radiation, which becomes significant at high temperatures.
A typical boiling process does not follow the boiling curve beyond point C. When the power
applied to the heated surface exceeded the value at point C even slightly, the surface temperature
increased suddenly to point E. When the power is reduced gradually starting from point E the
cooling curve follows Figure 2 with a sudden drop in excess temperature when point D is
reached. Note that the boiling process cannot follow the transition boiling part of the boiling
curve past point C unless the power applied is reduced suddenly.

E
C

Figure 2: The actual boiling curve obtained as the heat flux is increased and then decreased.
73

II. Condensation Heat Transfer [1]:

Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation pressure.
The condensation process of most practical importance is the type that involves direct contact of
a warm vapor with a cool surface, commonly referred to as surface condensation. In surface
condensation, the cool surface extracts latent heat from the vapor, resulting in a vapor-to-liquid
phase change and the formation of condensate on the surface. The mode of condensate
formation on a surface is classified as either filmwise or dropwise. In either condensation, the
condensate tends to form in droplets on the surface, but in film condensation, however, the
droplets readily spread, forming a layer or film that covers the entire surface and the film
thickness will grow as it flows down the surface under the action of gravity. In dropwise
condensation, however, the condensate does not spread but remains as droplets on the surface.
In both film and dropwise condensation, the condensate presents a thermal resistance to heat
transfer between the vapor and the surface. Dropwise condensation yields higher heat transfer
coefficients than film condensation because there are areas of the surface that are not covered
with condensate. To achieve drop condensation in practice requires special surface treatment or
coatings that inhibit wetting. Teflon, silicones, waxes, silver, gold, and a variety of other
materials have been employed to obtain dropwise condensation conditions. Such surface
modifications are usually costly and cannot be effectively sustained over the life time of the
equipment due to corrosion, erosion, or other processes. Consequently, dropwise condensation
eventually reverts to film condensation. Film condensation is generally assumed in the design of
condensers and other heat transfer equipment; because the associated heat transfer coefficients
are smaller than those associated with dropwise condensation, thereby yielding conservative
results.
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on vertical wall or on the
inside or outside surfaces of vertical cylinders is given by:
1
3 4
kl

g l v
hL 0.943 l

l LTsat Tw

(3)

Where:

hL : the average heat transfer coefficient, w/m2.K

Tsat: the saturation temperature, K
Tw: the surface temperature, K
l: the liquid density, kg/m3
v: the vapor density, kg/m3

74

l : the liquid dynamic viscosity, Pa.s

kl: the liquid thermal conductivity, w/m.K
L: The height of the surface, m
: the latent heat, J/kg

Liquid properties are evaluated at the film temperature, Tf = (Tw + Tsat)/2, whereas and v are
evaluated at Tsat.

The heat transfer rate is given by:

Q hL ATsat Tw

(4)

The Nussel number is given by:

Nu L

hL L
kl

(5)

The condensation rate is equivalent to the mass flow rate of the condensate film and may found
using the relation

(6)

75

EQUIPMENT
The TecQuipment boiling and condensing heat transfer apparatus (TE78) consists of a special
heat-resistance glass vessel (Figure 3). It contains a heater coil and two high current insulated
supports for the wire specimens. The cover of the vessel holds two cylinder specimens each with
thermocouples. It also has a filling plug, a split clamp for the connecting wires for the wire
specimens, and water pipe connections. A hole in the center of the cover allows vapor to leave
the vessel and down a temperature-resistant pipe into the water tank. The glass vessel holds dionized water, separate from the circulating water for the condensing heat transfer experiment.
For safety, to the side of the vessel, a capacitive water level sensor switches off the heater coil if
the water level in the vessel becomes low. Also, a bund (drip tray) surrounds the bottom of the
vessel, to hold any escaping water, in the unlikely event of someone accidently damaging the
glass vessel.
A water tank on the main unit holds the circulating water for the condensation heat transfer
experiments. A peristaltic pump circulates water around either of the cylinder specimens,
selected by two-way valve. A flow meter inside the main unit measures the circulating water
flow regulated with a pump speed control, so a small overflow pipe at the back of the water tank
allows excess water to drain away. For condensing heat transfer experiments, two K-type
thermocouples measure the temperature of the cooling water going into (Tin) and out (Tout) of
each specimen cylinder. Two thermocouples at a time connect to K-type sockets on the front of
the control and instrumentation unit. Two drain taps at the side of the main unit allow draining
away the water from the glass vessel and the water tank after each experiment. The display on
the front of the control and instrumentation unit shows:
-

The wire specimen voltage and current (for the boiling heat transfer experiments).
The cooling water flow rate.
The thermocouple temperatures and difference between them (for the condensation
experiments).

Switches on the front of the control cabinet allow the user to turn on the pump, the heater and the
power to the wire specimen. Anther control allows the user to vary the voltage supplied to the
wire specimen. The control and instrumentation unit has a connection socket for connection to
TecQuipmens Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS) (Figure 4).

76

Figure 3: Boiling and Condensation Heat Transfer Apparatus

Figure 4: Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS)

77

Wire Specimens:
For boiling heat transfer experiments the equipment includes two wire specimens made of
Nickel, fitted with two copper sleeves (Figure 5). One is fore nucleate boiling experiment and
the other is for the film boiling experiment. The specimens fit on the top of the high current
supports inside the glass vessel. The specimens are identical except for the wires that connect
them. The resistance of the copper sleeves affect the accuracy of the voltage readings in the
lower temperature and power of nucleate boiling, so this specimen uses the inner voltage
measurement connection points. At the higher temperature and voltages of film boiling the
resistance of the copper sleeves is not significant and can be ignored.

Figure 5: Details of the Wire Specimens

78

Cylinder Specimens:
For condensation heat transfer experiments, the cover of glass vessel has two cylinder specimens
(Figure 6). One has oxidized copper surface to help film condensation. The other specimen has
gold-plating, which lowers the surface tension and allows drops to form (dropwise
condensation).

Figure 6: Cross Section of a Cylinder Specimen

Specifications:

Nickel wire specimens

(Boiling heat transfer experiments)

1 mm nominal diameter 99.98% pure Nickel

Maximum current: 120 A
Maximum wire voltage: 5 V
1 gold plated (3 m thick)

Cylinder specimens
(Condensation heat transfer experiments)

1 oxidized copper
Outside diameter: 15 mm
Effective length: 100 mm

79

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
I. Boiling Heat Transfer:

1. Make sure that the apparatus has been drained, is cooled to the touch and is disconnected
from the electric supply.
2. On the computer desktop, click on the VDAS icon and select the boiling heat transfer
experiment.
2. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
3. Find the proper wire specimen (Figure 5).
4. Check that the copper sleeving is securely crimped to the wire.
5. Undo the thumbscrews at the top of the glass vessel and carefully remove the lid.
6. Using gloves carefully push the specimen in through the hole in the lid.

7. Use the hexagon tool to remove any used specimens and fit the new specimen into the
grooves in the tops of the pillars.
8. Fill the vessel with de-ionized water to about 20 mm above the level of the wire
specimen.

80

9. Fit the lid, tightening it in position with the thumbscrews. Fit the split clamp around the
voltage measurement cables, sliding it into its hole.

10. Plug the specimen voltage measuring cables into the sockets at the rear of the apparatus.
11. Make sure all switches on the control and instrumentation cabinet are off and the voltage
adjust knob is set to minimum.
12. Turn on the power to the control and instrumentation cabinet, then switch on the bulk
water heater.
13. Wait until the water boils then, switch off the water heater and switch on the specimen
heater.
14. Gradually increase the voltage drop across the resistance wire in steps of about 0.1 volts.
Leave for about 15 seconds after each step to stabilize, then switch on the heater for a few
seconds to make sure the water is at Tsat.
15. Record the specimen voltage and current in your results table as well as the VDAS.
16. At each step note what is physically happening at the wire specimen, in terms of the type
of boiling observed.
17. Continue increasing the current up to 140 A.

81

18. As you enter the nucleate region, increase the voltage carefully and gradually, watching
what happens to the wire. Wait at least 30 seconds before increasing the voltage to the
next step, allowing time for the wire temperature to stabilize.

19. You notice when unstable film boiling starts to occur, large bubbles of vapor start to
surround the wire.

20. If you are very careful, you may be able to create stable film boiling, where the
bubbles stabilize and a film surrounds the wire. When this happens, the current
will quickly drop as the resistance of the wire increases dramatically with
temperature. At this point you must quickly reduce the power or the ire will glow
bright orange and burn.

82

II. Condensation Heat Transfer:

1. Make sure the apparatus has been drained, is cool to touch and is disconnected from the
electric supply. Wipe out any water that has been collected in the bund. (drip tray).
2. Undo the two thumbscrews and carefully remove the cover.
3. Remove the wire specimen (if fitted). Clean the cylinder specimens with suitable
degreasing agent.
4. Fill the vessel with de-ionized water to just above the level maker of the level sensor on
the side of the glass vessel. Do not overfill otherwise when the water starts to boil, the
water will splash onto the specimen surfaces and effect the results.
5. Refit the cover and make sure the split clamp is firmly in its hole.
6. Half fill the water tank with de-ionized water. Ensure all the pipes are connected up
correctly.
7. Set the two way valve so that the water re-circulate through the chosen test specimen.
8. Connect all the power and signal cables to the control and instrumentation cabinet.
Switch off all switches on the cabinet and turn the specimen voltage o minimum (fully
anticlockwise). Connect the thermocouple wires to the specimen you are to test.
9. On the computer desktop, click on the VDAS icon and select the condensing heat transfer
experiment.
10. Choose the material (copper or gold-plated).
11. Select condensation type (filmwise for copper or dropwise for gold-plated specimen )
12. Rename the Data File Name. This enables retrieval of data for a specific experiment.
13. Turn on the control and instrumentation unit and switch on the water heater. Allow the
water to boil vigorously for at least two minutes so the vapor pushes out the air from the
vessel.
14. Switch on the circulating pump. For initial experiment, manually adjust the flow rate
control to give around 250 mL/min flow rate through the specimen.
15. As the cooling water heats up, record the specimen inlet water temperature, the specimen
outlet water temperature and the water flow rate.
16. Stop the experiment when the specimen inlet water temperature reaches 60 oC.
17. Drain the vessel and water tank.
18. Repeat the experiment for the other cylinder specimen, using fresh cooling water and
switching the two-way valve to the other cylinder specimen.

83

RESULTS
I. Boiling Heat Transfer:
Data file name:

Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Observations

84

II. Condensation Heat Transfer:

A. Oxidized Copper Cylinder Specimen:

Data file name:

B. Gold Plated Cylinder Specimen:

Data file name:

Notes:

85

CALCULATIONS
I. Boiling Heat Transfer:
1. Calculate the heat flux (W/m2):

V I V I

As
dl

V: voltage.
I: current
As: surface area of the wire.
d: wire diameter; l: the effective length of the nickel wire (Figure 5).
2. Calculate the evaporation rate (kg/min).
3. Calculate the electrical resistance (Re) and the electrical resistivity (e) of the nickel wire:

V
I

Re

Re AC
l

()

Re d 2
4

( .m )

Ac: cross-sectional area

4. Estimate the surface temperature of the wire (Ts) using the following relationship
between nickel electrical resistivity and temperature:

e 6.99 108 1 0.0059 T-20

(.m)

5. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient h (kW/m2K) between liquid and metal:

q h T T
hT
s
sat
excess
6. Make a plot of heat flux verses excess temperature difference and compare qualitatively
this plot with Figure 1.
7. Make a plot of the heat transfer coefficient as a function of the excess temperature.

86

8. Use equation (2) to calculate the maximum (or critical) heat flux. Comment on your
result.
9. Discuss your results. Are they reasonable? Discuss any errors that might occur within the
equipment or methodology of the experiment.

II. Condensation Heat Transfer:

1. For each experiment calculate,

water

m
c p T
The heat transfer rate: Q

The heat transfer coefficient (equation 4)

The Nusselt number (equation 5)
The condensation rate (equation 6).

2. Discuss the effect of dropwise verses film condensation on the heat transfer coefficient
3. Use equation (3) to calculate the heat transfer coefficient and compare the results with the
experimental data for film condensation.

REFERENCES
1. engel, Y.A. Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, 2006.
2. Incropera, F. P.and Dewitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., Wiley,
New York, 2002.
3. D. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill (1965).
4. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill (2002).
5. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, NJ (2003).
6. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 7th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).

87

Experiment # 9
Convective Mass Transfer
(Wetted-Wall Gas Absorption)

OBJECTIVES
1. To estimate the liquid film mass transfer coefficient.
2. To determine the power-law relationship between the liquid film mass transfer coefficient
and the mass flow rate of water and to compare the results with published relationships.

INTRODUCTION
In view of the complexity of mass transfer in actual mass transfer devices such as packed towers,
sieve trays and bubble cap columns, fundamental equations for mass transfer are rarely available,
and empirical methods, guided by dimensional analysis, are relied upon to give workable
equations. This problem has been approached using experimental devices in which the area of
contact between phases is known and where boundary-layer separation does not take place. The
wetted wall column, which is sometimes used in practice, is one device of this type.
A wetted-wall gas absorption column is essentially a vertical tube in which a liquid flows down
the inner surface of the tube section while a gas flows upward. The liquid which comes in
contact with flowing gas partially diffuses into the gaseous stream by means of convective mass
transfer. This process is commonly used in examining the mass transfer between components in
two phases because the wetted wall column, unlike other mass transfer processes, has a well
defined interfacial between the two phases. The surface area is assumed to be that of the inner
tube surface area provided the liquid flows in a smooth, thin and laminar layer.

The absorption of pure CO2 into water eliminates the gas-film resistance, permitting study of the
liquid-film mass transfer coefficient. The following empirical equation has been used to
correlate mass transfer data in wetted wall towers:
1
2
L

1
6
L

ShL 0.433 Sc Ga Re

88

4
10
L

(1)

where
k z
Sh L L ,
DL

and

2L gz 3
L
4
4mL
, Ga L
, Re L

Sc L
2
L
L DL
L d L

liquid film mass transfer coefficient, m s-1

height of the column, m
diffusivity of CO2 in water, m2 s-1
viscosity of water, N s m-2
density of water, kg m-3
mass flow rate of water, kg s-1
column diameter, m
mass flow rate of water per unit wetted perimeter of the column, kg s-1m-1

kL:
z:
DL:
L:
L:
L:
m
d:
:

That is, for a given gas/liquid system:

Sh L Re nL

(2)

Thus, construction of a logarithmic graph ( Sh L vs Re L ) for various flow rates a power law can
be determined and compared to equation 1. This will require calculation of k L using the
following equation:
kL

j
A cLM

where j V cCO2out cCO2 ,int

A = area for mass transfer = d z

cLM = log mean concentration difference =

volumetric flow rate of water, m3 s-1

V
L

CO2 ,i

cCO2 ,in cCO2 ,i cCO2 ,out

cCO2 ,i cCO2 ,in

ln
cCO2 ,i cCO2 ,out

cCO2 ,i equilibrium concentration

= solubility of CO2 in water = 0.0336 kmol/m3 solution at 25 oC and 1 atm

89

EQUIPMENT
The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 1. The unit comprises glass wetted wall absorption
column, water tank, compressor, and a control console housing flow meters and pump controls.
Carbon dioxide is admitted to the column from a cylinder with regulator through a valve.

Equipment Specification:

Wetted wall column: height = 90.0 cm, internal diameter = 3.16 cm.

CHEMICALS/MATERIALS
1. Carbon dioxide gas.
2. 0.05 M sodium hydroxide solution
3. Phenolphthalein indicator solution.

90

Figure 1: The Wetted-Wall Gas Absorption Column

91

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Fill the water supply tank with ordinary tap water until the level is about 80 mm above
the pump suction connections.
2. Start the water feed pump (pump1).
3. Set the water flow rate to 150 cm3/min on the flow meter.
4. Feed CO2 to the wetted wall column and regulate its flow rate until it reads 1000 cm3/min
on the flow meter.
5. The water will gradually fill the top section of the wetted wall column and overflow
down the inside wall. A complete wetted wall around the whole perimeter can be
achieved by cleaning the inside of the tube with special long handled brush provided. At
this point, fine adjustments can be made in the positioning of the column to achieve the
required all round water film.

6. After 5 min of operation, collect a sample and determine its CO2 concentration following
the directions in the Analysis Procedure (Appendix A).
7. Repeat steps (7-9) for water flow rates of 200 and 250 cm3/min.
8. Repeat steps (6-10) for CO2 flow rates of 2000 and 3000 cm3/min.

92

RESULTS
I. Water flow rate = 150 cm3/min:
CO2 flow rate, cm3/min
1000
2000
3000

Titre of NaOH, ml

II. Water flow rate = 200 cm3/min:

CO2 flow rate, cm3/min
1000
2000
3000

Titre of NaOH, ml

III. Water flow rate = 250 cm3/min:

CO2 flow rate, cm3/min
1000
2000
3000

Titre of NaOH, ml

93

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate j, kL, ShL and ReL for each run.
2. Prepare log-log plots of Sh vs. ReL for various CO2 flow rates and determine the power
law relationship, i.e. the exponent n in equation (2).
3. Compare your results with the empirical equation (eqn.1).
4. Comment and on your results.

REFERENCES
1. C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Ed., Prentice
Hall, NJ (2003).
2. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 7 th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (2005).
3. R.E. Treybal, Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).

94

APPENDIX A
Analysis Procedure for CO2 in Water
1. Collect 25 mL with a graduated cylinder from the liquid outlet point.
2. Place the sample in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
3. Titrate the sample with 0.05 M NaOH solution. The end point is reached when a definite
pink color persists for about 30 seconds - record volume of the NaOH added.

95