Article

T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can

Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma
Graphical Abstract

Authors
Ingunn M. Stromnes,
Thomas M. Schmitt, Ayaka Hulbert, ...,
Jennifer L. Hotes, Philip D. Greenberg,
Sunil R. Hingorani

Correspondence
[email protected] (P.D.G.),
[email protected] (S.R.H.)

In Brief
Stromnes et al. show in preclinical
models that T cells engineered to express
affinity-enhanced T cell receptors against
mesothelin overcome physical and
immunologic barriers to treat pancreatic
ductal adenocarcinoma. Serial adoptive
transfers of these cells are safe and
significantly increase overall survival.

Highlights
d

CD8 T cells with an enhanced affinity TCR readily infiltrate and

accumulate in PDA

Mesothelin-targeted T cells induce tumor cell lysis and

stromal involution

T cell therapy increases survival in KPC mice without

chemotherapy or radiation
Analogously engineered T cells with mesothelin-specific TCR
lyse human PDA cells

Stromnes et al., 2015, Cancer Cell 28, 115

November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

Cancer Cell

Article
T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can
Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers
to Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma
Ingunn M. Stromnes,1,3 Thomas M. Schmitt,1 Ayaka Hulbert,1 J. Scott Brockenbrough,1 Hieu N. Nguyen,1 Carlos Cuevas,4
Ashley M. Dotson,1 Xiaoxia Tan,3 Jennifer L. Hotes,1 Philip D. Greenberg,1,3,5,6,* and Sunil R. Hingorani1,2,5,6,*
1Clinical

Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
3Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
4Department of Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
5Division of Medical Oncology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
6Co-senior author
*Correspondence: [email protected] (P.D.G.), [email protected] (S.R.H.)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022
2Public

SUMMARY

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDAs) erect physical barriers to chemotherapy and induce multiple
mechanisms of immune suppression, creating a sanctuary for unimpeded growth. We tested the ability of
T cells engineered to express an affinity-enhanced T cell receptor (TCR) against a native antigen to overcome
these barriers in a genetically engineered model of autochthonous PDA. Engineered T cells preferentially
accumulate in PDA and induce tumor cell death and stromal remodeling. However, tumor-infiltrating T cells
become progressively dysfunctional, a limitation successfully overcome by serial T cell infusions that resulted
in a near-doubling of survival without overt toxicities. Similarly engineered human T cells lyse PDA cells in vitro,
further supporting clinical advancement of this TCR-based strategy for the treatment of PDA.

INTRODUCTION
The rising incidence and unparalleled lethality of pancreatic
ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) continue to outstrip advances in
treatment (Siegel et al., 2012). Despite significant genomic instability, PDA has relatively few coding mutations compared to
more immunogenic cancers (Lawrence et al., 2013). The robust
desmoplastic response characteristic of PDA includes multiple
mechanisms of immunosuppression that impede endogenous
CD8 T cell infiltration and activity (Bayne et al., 2012; Clark
et al., 2007; Feig et al., 2013; Stromnes et al., 2014a, 2014b).
The limited neo-antigenic landscape together with the suppressive tumor environment likely contribute to the failure to
engender effective immunity with checkpoint blockade (Brahmer
et al., 2012; Le et al., 2013; Royal et al., 2010).

Pancreas cancers impose multiple constraints against immunity, including physical barriers that compromise perfusion (Jacobetz et al., 2013; Olive et al., 2009; Provenzano et al., 2012)
and may also impede T cell infiltration of the tumor bed. As a
result, many conventional immune strategies have had limited
effect on patient survival, suggesting that targeting multiple
forms of immune suppression concurrently may be necessary.
Nevertheless, some clinical and preclinical data suggest it is
possible to engender endogenous T cell activity, however transient. For example, vaccines designed to induce mesothelin
(MSLN)-specific T cells prolonged survival in patients with
advanced PDA (Le et al., 2015) and targeted depletion of myeloid
derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) evoked endogenous T cell
activity against autochthonous PDA (Stromnes et al., 2014a).
Modulating other stromal elements in PDA may increase the

Significance
Immune therapies hold considerable promise for the treatment of cancer. Although notable successes have been achieved
in hematologic malignancies, progress in solid tumors has been more elusive. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas present
an especially formidable challenge given the robust desmoplasia that accompanies disease progression, creating barriers
to both drug perfusion and anti-tumor immunity. We show here that T cells engineered to express affinity-enhanced T cell
receptors reactive to mesothelin, a native tumor antigen, can transiently overcome both the inordinately elevated interstitial
pressures and the multiple modes of immune suppression to specifically infiltrate PDA and induce tumor cell death. Serial
adoptive transfers of such engineered T cells can be given safely and significantly increase overall survival.
Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc. 1

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

Figure 1. Tumor Antigen Expression in Murine and Human PDA

(A) Immunohistochemical analyses of target antigens in murine and human (hPDA) tissues (duct, d; acini, ac; islets, i; arrows, high expression; arrowheads,
low-moderate expression; and *, tumor epithelial cells). The scale bar represents 25 mm.
(B) Immunofluorescence for Msln and CK in indicated KPC tissues (arrows, Msln+CK+ cells). The scale bar represents 25 mm.
(C) FACs plot of Msln, MHC I, and p53 in early passage (<33) primary KPC PDA cells.
(D) Relative expression of indicated mRNAs in primary KPC PDA cells. Each point represents an independent cell preparation (mean SEM).
(legend continued on next page)

2 Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc.

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

therapeutic activity of more conventional immunotherapies such

as checkpoint blockade (Feig et al., 2013; Winograd et al., 2015).
These studies highlight both the potential and the challenges to
effectively engage cancer immunity. Moreover, should an immunotherapy be sufficiently robust to alter the clinical course of a
carcinoma, safety becomes a counterbalancing concern, lest
autoimmunity and organ dysfunction ensue.
Mutated proteins that are obligate for tumor survival represent
ideal antigens for immune targeting. Attempts to generate
T cells specific for common cancer mutations in PDA, such as
KRASG12D, have rarely proven successful, presumably due to
limited processing or weak binding to HLA alleles (Chaft et al.,
2014). The most reliably present and targetable cancer antigens
are aberrantly expressed, non-mutated self-antigens (Argani
et al., 2001). However, effectively targeting these antigens is
compromised by the fact that high affinity T cells specific to
self/tumor antigens undergo deletion during development,
sculpting a T cell repertoire with low affinity (Hogquist et al.,
2005). To overcome this otherwise adaptive limitation in the
natural repertoire, T cells can be genetically engineered with
extremely high affinity against selected antigens (June et al.,
2012; Stromnes et al., 2014c). Current strategies incorporate
either synthetic chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) or cloned
T cell receptors (TCRs) and it remains to be determined which
approach will be safest and best suited to treat solid malignancies (June et al., 2012; Kalos et al., 2011; Schmitt et al.,
2013; Stromnes et al., 2014c).
The rigorous evaluation of the potency, safety, and limitations
of T cells engineered to target naturally occurring tumor antigens
can be accomplished in models that faithfully recapitulate the
human disease from inception to invasion. Among a panel of
candidate tumor antigens that are aberrantly expressed in both
human PDA and the genetically engineered KrasLSL-G12D/+;
Trp53LSL-R172H/+;p48Cre/+ (KPC) mouse model of the disease
(Hingorani et al., 2003, 2005), MSLN/Msln emerged as the
most attractive target. We engineered lymphocytes to express
a Msln-specific TCR with an affinity beyond that obtainable in
the normal repertoire and tested their safety and ability to overcome considerable physiologic barriers to treat invasive PDA.
RESULTS
Candidate Tumor Antigen Expression in Normal Tissues
and Murine and Human PDA
To generate pure inbred KPC mice, each of the three requisite
alleles, KrasLSL-G12D, Trp53LSL-R172H, and p48Cre, were sequentially backcrossed to C57Bl/6 (hereafter B6) and the progress
informed by detailed SNP allelotyping. The engineered loci
were the only distinguishing genetic differences in the final
strains, otherwise representing 100% purity. Pure B6 KPC
mice stochastically developed pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasms (PanIN) that spontaneously progressed to invasive and
metastatic PDA, as seen with the original model on a mixed
129Sv/C57Bl/6 background (Hingorani et al., 2003, 2005). The

histopathology of the primary tumors revealed the glandular

architecture expected of an adenocarcinoma, together with an
abundant inflammatory infiltrate, dense extracellular matrix
(ECM), and scattered compressed blood vessels, hallmarks of
human PDA and the original KPC model (Figure 1A and see
below). B6 KPC mice also developed liver, lung, and diaphragm
metastases characterized by a complex stromal response
(Figure S1A).
To inform the rational design of a T cell therapy, we first
performed specific immunohistochemistry to assess a variety
of potential antigenic targets overexpressed by both murine
and human tumor epithelial cells in preinvasive, invasive, and
metastatic PDA (Figure 1A). Marked intratumoral and intertumoral heterogeneity in both preinvasive and invasive disease
was observed across a number of antigens that are immunological targets in PDA including the Wilms tumor antigen (WT1/Wt1)
(Koido et al., 2014; Oji et al., 2004), Mucin 1 (MUC1/Muc1)
(Shindo et al., 2014), and Annexin A2 (ANXA2/Anxa2) (Zheng
and Jaffee, 2012). WT1/Wt1 was absent from normal pancreas
and expressed primarily in stromal cells of preinvasive and invasive PDA. MUC1/Muc1 was expressed in normal pancreas
and PanIN and was heterogeneous in PDA and metastases.
ANXA2/Anxa2 was expressed at low levels in normal pancreatic
ducts and to a higher degree in PanIN, PDA, and metastases.
Other antigens, such as Cox2, are either highly expressed in tumor cells as well as normal tissues, precluding safe immunological targeting; or, as with Egfr and Her2/Neu, are expressed more
heterogeneously (Hingorani et al., 2005). In comparison, despite
some variation in intensity, MSLN/Msln was reliably expressed in
all preinvasive, invasive, and metastatic PDA specimens examined (Figure 1A). Msln staining also identified micrometastases
(Figure S1B). Msln-expressing cells were positive for cytokeratin
(CK) (Figure 1B), consistent with a ductal phenotype, and negative for the activated fibroblast marker, aSMA (Figure S1C).
Msln+ cells in PDA were positive for Trp53 (Figures 1C and
S1C), reflecting expression of stabilized point mutant Trp53,
and also expressed low levels of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I could be induced by interferon (IFN)g (data
not shown) as seen in studies of human PDA (Pandha et al.,
2007). Msln mRNA isolated from primary tumor epithelial cells
was highly expressed (comparable to the ductal marker Ck19)
and significantly higher than Wt1 (Figure 1D), consistent with
the immunohistochemical analyses.
Mesothelin is expressed in some normal tissues in the adult
(Chang and Pastan, 1996), but it is not an essential gene, and
mice that lack it have no discernable phenotype (Bera and Pastan, 2000). We detected Msln in the normal pleura and pericardium, as well as in rare cells in the thymus, raising the possibility
of central and peripheral tolerance to this self-antigen (Figures
S1DS1F). Human and murine MSLN share 55% amino acid
identity and have similar expression profiles in normal tissues
(Bera and Pastan, 2000; Chang and Pastan, 1996). There are
also no known species differences in the regulation or function
of MSLN. In summary, the absence of detectable Msln in normal

(E) Immunoblot analyses of primary murine pancreatic ductal cells, primary preinvasive KC cells (Pre), and two independent invasive KPC PDA primary cell
preparations.
See also Figure S1.

Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc. 3

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

E
F

Figure 2. Cloning and Expression of the Enhanced-Affinity TCR1045 Msln406414-Specific TCR

(A) Epitope mapping of Msln-specific T cells derived from WT and Msln / mice.
(B) CDR3 sequences of Va4 and Vb9 chains cloned from the highest avidity MSLN406414-specific T cell clones isolated from WT and Msln / mice.
(C) Expression of Msln406414-specific TCR derived from WT (TCR7431) or Msln / (TCR1045) mice in P14 T cells after two in vitro stimulations.
(D) Functional avidity of engineered T cells assessed by intracellular IFNg (normalized to maximum response).
(E) Dissociation kinetics of tetramer binding.
(F) Tetramer binding by 58a b cells expressing TCR7431 or TCR1045 with or without CD8 co-receptor.
(legend continued on next page)

4 Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc.

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

pancreas, increase in expression with disease progression (Figure 1E), high expression in invasive PDA and metastases, and
the suggestion that Msln may promote tumor invasion (Chen
et al., 2013) all contribute to its attractiveness as an immune
target (see also Pastan and Hassan, 2014).
Generation and Safety of Affinity-Enhanced TCR Cell
Therapy
We immunized B6 Msln / and wild-type (WT) mice with a
recombinant adenovirus expressing murine Msln (Ad-Msln) to
elicit reactive T cells. T cells specific for epitopes Msln343351,
Msln484492, Msln544552, and Msln583591 were isolated from
Msln / mice, but not WT mice, consistent with central tolerance
(Figure 2A). However, both Msln / and WT mice generated responses to Msln406414, previously shown to be processed and
presented by a B6 ovarian cancer cell line (Hung et al., 2007).
Msln406414-specific T cells isolated from WT mice uniformly expressed the Vb9 TCR chain, as did the majority of Msln406414specific T cells from Msln / mice (Figure S2A). Despite
expressing similar levels of Vb9, Msln406414-specific T cell lines
from Msln / mice stained brighter with tetramer, consistent
with higher affinity (Figures S2A and S2B). Msln / Msln406414specific T cell clones also responded to lower antigen concentrations than the corresponding WT clones (Figure S2C).
We therefore focused on the isolation and study of these
Msln406414 T cells as the murine surrogate for the potential isolation and subsequent genetic modification of a naturally occurring
human TCR for clinical applications (June et al., 2012; Schmitt
et al., 2009; Stromnes et al., 2014c).
Most T cell clones isolated from WT and Msln / mice used
the same germline Va4 and Vb9 TCR chains, restricting any
sequence differences between the highest affinity clones from
the respective strains to CDR3 (Figure 2B), the region that
directly contacts peptides (Jorgensen et al., 1992; Kelly et al.,
1993). These results suggest a similar preferential docking geometry of TCR chains for recognition of this epitope. We inserted
codon-optimized TCR chains into retroviral vectors for expression in transgenic P14 T cells that endogenously express a
TCR specific for the LCMV gp33 epitope (Pircher et al., 1989).
As expected, T cells expressing the highest affinity TCR isolated
from Msln / mice (TCR1045) stained brighter with tetramer
and responded to 10-fold lower antigen concentration than the
highest affinity cells (TCR7431) from WT mice (Figures 2C and
2D). Tetramer decay kinetics confirmed the higher affinity of
TCR1045 (Figure 2E).
The contribution of CD8 binding to MHC class I on target cells
or tetramers can minimize differences in TCR affinities for peptide in MHC complexes (Daniels and Jameson, 2000; Denkberg
et al., 2001; Garcia et al., 1996). To better assess affinity differences, we transduced the CD8 58 TCRab / cell line (Letourneur and Malissen, 1989) with CD8a and b and expressed
TCR7431 or TCR1045 in both CD8+ and CD8 cells. TCR1045
bound tetramer independently of CD8, whereas TCR7431 binding

required CD8 (Figure 2F), suggesting TCR1045 might also be useful in CD4+ T cells. TCR1045 T cells lysed KPC MHC class I+ tumor
cells more effectively than TCR7431 T cells (Figures 2G2I).
TCR1045 therefore represents an affinity-enhanced TCR and
models what may be achieved by engineering CDR3 to optimize
human TCR (Schmitt et al., 2009).
The value of an affinity-enhanced TCR depends upon
improved function without prohibitive toxicity. Extensive experiments were performed to verify the safety and activity of engineered T cells in mice. Adoptively transferred TCR1045 T cells
were detected in normal tissues at low frequency (%1% of
CD45+ cells) and did not express activation markers (Figures
S2D and S2E). Conditioning with cyclophosphamide, but not
gemcitabine, increased the expansion and memory formation
of engineered T cells (Figures S2FS2I), perhaps reflecting a
more complete depletion of endogenous immune cells (data
not shown). Persisting donor T cells expanded and downregulated CD62L following vaccination (Figure S2J). Basal levels of
Msln expression in normal organs did not elicit self-reactivity
even in the context of vaccine- and lymphopenia-induced activation/expansion and IL-2 administration (Figure S2K), as reflected by the lack of infiltration, accumulation, or tissue injury.
Tumor-Specific Accumulation, Activity, and
Suppression of TCR1045 Engineered T Cells
We transduced P14 T cells with either TCR1045 or a control TCR
(TCRgag) specific to a retrovirus gag epitope (Dossett et al., 2009)
to formally assess activity. After two in vitro stimulations, transduced T cells uniformly exhibited an effector phenotype (Figure S3A). In vitro-expanded T cells also transiently expressed
inhibitory receptors PD1, Tim3, and 2B4, which reflect activation,
but can be associated with dysfunction. However, the transduced T cells secreted IFNg after antigen encounter (Figure 2D)
and were therefore clearly functional, suggesting that the post
stimulation receptor profile reflected a transient response from
TCR signaling rather than T cell exhaustion.
A series of pilot studies was performed to evaluate the in vivo
efficacy of this therapy in KPC mice with a defined pancreatic tumor. Donor TCR1045 cells were detected in the lungs at 2 hr post
transfusion (presumably in vascular capillary beds) and redistributed to the pancreas by 4 days (Figure 3A). Preferential accumulation in pancreatic tumors of TCR1045- versus TCRgag-transduced T cells was observed (Figure 3B). Similar percentages
and numbers of donor T cells were detected in the spleen irrespective of TCR specificity, whereas the frequency and number
of intratumoral TCR1045 T cells were significantly higher than that
of TCRgag T cells (Figures 3C and 3D). TCR1045 T cells were
distributed throughout the tumor bed, interspersed within the
stroma as well as adjacent to epithelial cells (Figure 3E). Trp53+
CK cells in the stroma could be found in close contact with
TCR1045 cells (Figure 3F) and may reflect tumor cells that had undergone EMT: CK+ cells in glandular structures co-expressed
the prototypic epithelial marker E-cadherin, but Trp53+CK cells

(G) Apoptosis of MHC class I+ KPC tumor cells following incubation with engineered T cells.
(H) Residual adherent tumor cells following incubation (5 hr) with specified T cells.
(I) Number of live adherent tumor cells in (H) (assessed by trypan blue exclusion).
The data are shown as mean SEM. See also Figure S2.

Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc. 5

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

Figure 3. Biodistribution and In Vivo Effects of Genetically Engineered TCR1045 T Cells

(A) Biodistribution of TCR1045 T cells 2 hr and 4 days post transfer into KPC mouse.
(B) Distribution of donor TCR1045 or TCRgag cells in tissues ex vivo 8 days post transfer.
(C) Donor T cell frequency 8 days post transfer. The plots are gated on CD45+CD8+ cells.
(D) Number of donor T cells isolated from spleen (top) and tumor (bottom) 8 days post transfer.
(E) Immunofluorescence for CD8 and CK in primary tumors 8 days post transfer. The scale bar represents 50 mm (arrows, CD8 T cells adjacent to epithelium).
(F) Immunofluorescence for indicated molecules in primary tumors 8 days post TCR1045 cell transfer (arrows, CD8 T cells adjacent to p53+CK+ tumor cells and
arrowheads, p53+CK cells in the stroma). The scale bar represents 10 mm.
(G) IHC for cleaved-caspase 3 (CC3) in PDA at day 8 (arrows, CC3+ cells). The scale bar represents 10 mm.
(legend continued on next page)

6 Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc.

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
Treat Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Cancer Cell (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2015.09.022

in the stroma did not (Figure S3B). As expected, Trp53+CK cells

also did not express the myeloid marker, CD11b, or the endothelial marker, CD31 (Figures S3C and S3D).
Increased tumor cell apoptosis was observed 8 days following
TCR1045 T cell infusion, but not at day 28, indicative of a specific,
albeit transient anti-tumor effect (Figures 3G and 3H). TCR1045
T cells also caused marked stromal involution (Figures 3I and
3J), as seen after anti-CD40 administration (Beatty et al., 2011)
or targeted depletion of myeloid cells (Stromnes et al., 2014a).
The failure to sustain target cell apoptosis suggested that the
donor T cells either did not persist in the tumor and/or lost function. At day 28, TCR1045 cells were rare in the spleen, thymus,
bone marrow, blood, salivary gland, and draining lymph node
(dLN), yet remained enriched in PDA (Figures 4A and 4B, and
data not shown). Nevertheless, TCR1045 T cell numbers
decreased 6-fold in the spleen, but 18-fold in PDA between
8 and 28 days (Figure 4C), revealing a selective disadvantage
for T cell survival in the tumor and consistent with the short-lived
fate of differentiated effector T cells (Berger et al., 2008; Kaech
et al., 2003). Intratumoral and splenic TCR1045 T cells bound
tetramer with similar affinity, indicating the tumor does not
modulate TCR expression (Figure 4D). In contrast to either
splenic TCR1045 or intratumoral TCRgag cells, intratumoral
TCR1045 cells expressed Ki67, CD25, 41BB, and CD69, reflecting TCR signaling from specific antigen recognition (Figures
4E and 4F). In contrast, downregulation of CD27, CXCR3, and
CD44 on intratumoral donor T cells was independent of antigen
specificity (Figures 4E, 4F, S4A, and S4B). Intratumoral TCR1045
cells also progressively and selectively upregulated PD1, Tim3,
Lag3, and 2B4, which were not expressed on splenic TCR1045
cells (Figures 4G and 4H) or intratumoral TCRgag cells (Figure S4B) and such PD1high cells can be refractory to PD-L1
blockade (Blackburn et al., 2009).
A significantly lower fraction of intratumoral versus splenic
TCR1045 T cells secreted IFNg and TNFa in response to antigen
(Figures 4I and 4J), consistent with chronic TCR signaling and
subsequent inhibitory receptor expression. However, non-specific TCRgag T cells isolated from tumors also had decreased
function compared to their splenic counterparts (Figures 4I and
4J), revealing that T cell dysfunction in PDA is also, in part,
independent of these inhibitory receptors and persistent TCR
signaling. CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), MDSCs, and
numerous suppressive factors are enriched in PDA (Figures
S4C and S4D) and may contribute to T cell suppression in the
tumor microenvironment independent of TCR signaling.
A Second Infusion of TCR1045 Engineered Cells Readily
Infiltrates PDA
We next examined whether PDA remain susceptible to a second
infusion of TCR1045 cells, providing a ready clinical strategy to
circumvent the observed loss of function over time. The serial infusions were distinguished by injecting Thy1.2+/1.2+ KPC hosts
first with Thy1.1+/1.2+ TCR1045 T cells and then with Thy1.1+/

1.1+ TCR1045 T cells 20 days later (Figures 5A and 5B). The second infusion also preferentially accumulated in PDA compared to
other tissues (Figures 5C and 5D). At 8 days after transfer, the
second infusion of cells expressed less PD1, Tim3, and Lag3 in
PDA and dLN compared to cells persisting from the first infusion
(Figure 5C and data not shown). The second infusion increased
the total number of PDA-localized donor T cells 10-fold (data
not shown), and they were also more functional after 8 days
than cells persisting from the first infusion in the same tumor
(day 28) (Figure 5E).
Serial T Cell Infusions Promote the Survival of Mice with
Advanced PDA
Encouraged by the pilot studies, we conducted a randomized,
blinded, placebo-controlled trial with overall survival (OS) as
the primary endpoint in KPC mice with invasive PDA (Table
S1). Secondary endpoints included objective response and tumor cell apoptosis. Mice were enrolled based on a defined tumor
burden and randomized to receive either engineered TCR1045 or
TCRgag T cell infusions every 2 weeks. The majority (63%) of KPC
mice receiving TCR1045 cells showed objective responses. In
contrast, all of the TCRgag cell recipients imaged serially showed
progressive disease (Figures 6Aand 6B). At necropsy, TCR1045recipient mice had noticeably hemorrhagic tumors (Figure 6C);
an influx of mononuclear cells and loss of collagen were also
observed, even in regions deep within the tumor bed (Figures
6C and S5A). Intratumoral vascular density was similar between
control and TCR1045 cohorts, indicating that T cell therapy did
not induce angiogenesis (Figures 6C and S5B). However,
TCR1045 cell therapy did significantly increase vessel patency
(Figure 6D). Prolonged T cell therapy did not induce detectable
pleural or pericardial pathology (Figure S5C) and the number of
donor T cells, endogenous CD8+ T cells, and myeloid cells in
these locations were also similar between the two cohorts
(Figures S5DS5F), underscoring the safety profile of this
approach.
The intensity of Msln expression in primary PDA decreased in
the majority (6/10) of TCR1045 cell recipients evaluated, but remained high in all (6/6) TCRgag recipients examined, consistent
with selection for tumor cell variants expressing lower levels of
target antigen (Figures 6E and 6F). Regions of marked tumor
epithelial cell apoptosis in TCR1045 T cell recipients were also
observed (Figures 6G and 6H) and a higher frequency of intratumoral TCR1045 cells expressed activation markers 41BB, CD69,
and Ki67 (Figure 6I and data not shown). In comparison, we did
not detect significant differences in myeloid (CD11b+) or endothelial (CD31+) cell apoptosis between the cohorts (Figure S5G).
Endothelial cells were rare, however, in areas of high tumor cell
apoptosis in TCR1045 recipients (Figure S5H) and their loss
may have been secondary to tumor destruction. A modest,
but significant, increase in apoptosis of aSMA+ fibroblasts
was detected in TCR1045 cell recipients (Figures S5I and S5J),
which may contribute to the decreased collagen content. Since

(H) Tumor apoptosis 8 and 28 days post T cell transfer.

(I) Histology of pancreatic tumors 8 days post T cell transfer (*, absence of interstitial pink, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E); blue, Massons trichrome; and red,
Picrosirius, stain reflects a loss in ECM collagen content) (arrowhead, infiltrating mononuclear cells). The scale bar represents 50 mm.
(J) Quantification of collagen content in tumors from (I).
The data are shown as mean SEM. See also Figure S3.

Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc. 7

PDA

dLN
9.4

Thy1.1

77.5

80
60
40

10

20
0

Spleen

Endogenous
Spl CD8
Donor Spl
TCR1045
Donor PDA
TCR1045

10

D8 D28 D8 D28

CD8

10

Events

Spleen
3.6

# Donor T cells

%Donor T cells

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PDA

D8 D28 D8 D28

Spleen

Tetramer

PDA

E
Events

Endogenous
Spl CD8
Donor Spl
TCR1045
Donor PDA
TCR1045

80

Percentage

CD25

41BB

60

60

50

50
40

CD69

CD27

**

100

CXCR3

100

CXCR4

100

CD44

20

100

40

80

80

80

80

30

60

60

60

60

MFI (x103)

Ki67

30

40

20

40

40

40

40

10

10

20

20

20

20

20

20
0

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

Ki67

CD25

***

15
10
5
0

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

41BB

CD69

CD27

CXCR3

CXCR4

Spl PDA

CD44

Events

PD1

Percentage

80

**

80

Lag3

80

60

60

60

40

40

40

20

20

20

2B4

BTLA

60

80

50

60

40
40

30
20

20

10

Spl PDA

Spl PDA

PD1

Tim3

Spl PDA

Lag3

TCR1045

Spl

PDA

2B4

(-)

74

IFN

Spl

PDA

J
100

(+)
0

38

BTLA

TCRgag

(+)

2
TNF

TNF

Spleen

PDA

(-)

79

34

80
60
40
20
0

IFN

100

***
% IFN+ TNF+

Tim3

% IFN+ TNF+

D28

Endogenous
Spl CD8
Donor Spl
TCR1045
Donor PDA
TCR1045

Events

D8

Spl

PDA

TCR1045

80
60
40
20
0

Spl

PDA

TCRgag

Figure 4. Tumor-Infiltrating TCR1045 T Cells Have a Phenotypic Signature Consistent with Antigen Recognition and Are Dysfunctional
(A) Donor TCR1045 cell frequency 28 days post T cell transfer. The plots are gated on CD45+CD8+ T cells.
(B) Donor TCR1045 cell frequency in spleens (Spl) and tumors 8 (D8) or 28 (D28) days post T cell transfer.
(C) Number of donor TCR1045 cells 8 or 28 days post T cell transfer.
(D) Tetramer staining of splenic and intratumoral donor TCR1045 cells 28 days post transfer.
(E) Phenotype of donor (CD8+Thy1.1+) TCR1045 cells compared to concurrently isolated splenic host (CD8+Thy1.1 ) T cells 28 days post transfer.
(F) Frequency or mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of donor T cells positive for indicated antigens in spleen and PDA (mean SEM and n = 3 each).
(legend continued on next page)

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Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
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aSMA+ fibroblasts do not appear to express Msln (Figure S1C),

the stromal cell apoptosis could reflect ligation of death receptors, loss of paracrine signaling from tumor epithelial cells, or
Msln uptake and cross-presentation.

Figure 5. A Second Infusion of Engineered

TCR1045 Cells Also Preferentially Accumulates
in PDA
(A) Schematic of congenically distinct T cell infusions
into same KPC recipients. The cyclophosphamide
(Cy) was administered prior to the first infusion only.
(B) Circulating CD8 T cells prior to transfer (D0),
20 days following first infusion of TCR1045 Thy1.1+/
cells (D20), and 6 days following second infusion of
TCR1045 Thy1.1+/+ cells (D26).
(C) Preferential accumulation and phenotype of the
second TCR1045 cell infusion in PDA (gated on CD8+
Thy1.1+ cells). The concurrent PD1 expression on
donor T cells from first (blue lines) and second (red
lines) infusions. The grey histograms represent
endogenous CD8+Thy1.1 T cells.
(D) Ratio of persisting cells 8 days after the second
infusion (thymus, Thy; and salivary gland, SG).
(E) Cytokine production by donor T cells at day 28
(see A). The cells were stimulated together and plots
gated on CD8+ Thy1.1+/ (first infusion) or CD8+
Thy1.1+/+ cells (second infusion).
The data are shown as mean SEM.

A significant and preferential increase

in intratumoral TCR1045 versus TCRgag cell
frequency was observed compared to the
spleen (Figure S5K). Fewer tumor-infiltrating TCR1045 cells persisted after the final
infusion than after the first infusion (data not
shown), but only the first infusion was preceded by lymphodepletion and this difference could reflect the absence of induced
cytokines that promote T cell proliferation
and survival.
Trends toward decreased numbers
of animals with metastatic disease (64%
in TCRgag versus 46% in TCR1045 cohort)
and malignant ascites (43% versus 15%)
were also observed (Table S1), consistent
with the observed specific TCR1045 cell
infiltration into metastases, expression of
markers induced by antigen recognition,
and increased apoptosis (Figures S5L
S5N). Median OS from time of enrollment
nearly doubled from 54 days for TCRgag
recipients to 96 days for the TCR1045 T cell
group (Figure 6J), on par with or exceeding
previous therapies tested in KPC mice, all
of which depended on cytotoxic chemotherapy (Olive et al., 2009; Provenzano et al., 2012; Winograd
et al., 2015). Thus, we demonstrate an effective T cell based therapy for invasive PDA that is safe and also circumvents the need
for non-specific and toxic chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

(G) Inhibitory receptor expression by donor TCR1045 cells and endogenous T cells.
(H) Frequency of donor TCR1045 cells expressing indicated molecules 28 days post T cell transfer.
(I) Ex vivo cytokine production by T cells in presence (+) or absence ( ) of antigen 8 days post T cell transfer.
(J) Donor T cell frequencies producing both IFNg and TNFa after 5 hr restimulation with antigen.
The data are shown as mean SEM. See also Figure S4.

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Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
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Figure 6. Serial Infusions of Engineered TCR1045 T Cells Significantly Prolong Survival of KPC Mice with Established PDA
(A) High-resolution ultrasound images of pancreatic head mass before ( ) and after (+) TCRgag or TCR1045 cell therapy (duodenum, D; portal vein, pv; kidney, K;
and inferior vena cava, ivc). Tumor outlined in yellow.
(B) Waterfall plots of best observed response by serial imaging (results confirmed by two investigators).
(C) Gross and immunohistochemical analyses of PDA following T cell therapy (arrows, blood flow and patent blood vessels and *, mononuclear cell infiltrate).
The scale bar represents 25 mm.
(D) Mean vessel diameter (MVD) in PDA.
(legend continued on next page)

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Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
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Figure 7. Isolation, Expression, and Characterization of Cloned Human TCR Specific to

MSLN Epitopes

(A) Tetramer staining intensities of independently

derived HLA-A2-restricted human T cell clones with
the indicated specificities. This is representative of
1012 clones analyzed per epitope.
(B) MSLN2028 and MSLN530538-specific T cell clone
lysis of HLA-A2+ T2 target cells loaded with titrating
concentrations of peptide.
(C) Tetramer staining of CD8 and CD8+ Jurkat cells
transduced with MSLN2028- or MSLN530538-specific TCR.
(D) Tetramer staining of primary human CD8
T cells transduced with highest affinity MSLN2028 or
MSLN530538-specific TCR.
(E) MSLN expression in human pancreatic ductal
epithelial (HPDE) and Panc-1 cell lines (normalized to
GAPDH).
(F) HLA-A2 expression by Panc-1 cells in the presence (+) or absence ( ) of IFNg.
(G) Lysis of HLA-A2+MSLN+ Panc-1 cell line by
human CD8 effector T cell clones at indicated
effector:target (E:T) ratios.
The data are shown as mean SD. See also
Table S2.

Cloning and Evaluation of Human MSLN-Reactive TCR

Appropriate target epitope selection is critical for the successful
translation of T cell therapy (Chapuis et al., 2013; Stromnes
et al., 2014c). To isolate receptors for patient treatment, we attempted to expand human MSLN-reactive T cells from normal
donors to several peptides previously identified as HLA-A1 and
HLA-A2 restricted epitopes (Table S2). We were able to generate
T cell lines from two previously described, dominant HLA-A2restricted epitopes, MSLN2028 and MSLN530538 (Thomas et al.,
2004). MSLN2028 and MSLN530538-specific T cells are associated
with improved outcomes in vaccinated PDA patients (Le et al.,
2015; Thomas et al., 2004), suggesting that these epitopes are
endogenously processed and presented and that the corresponding T cells have therapeutic activity. We cloned these T cells and
measured tetramer binding (Figure 7A). The highest affinity
MSLN2028-specific T cell clone had 10-fold increased sensitivity
to antigen compared to the highest affinity MSLN530538-specific
clone (Figure 7B). The TCR that stained brightest with tetramer
and had the highest functional avidity were cloned, sequenced,

codon-optimized, inserted into lentiviral

vectors, and expressed in human T cells.
The MSLN2028-specific TCR bound
tetramer independently of CD8, whereas
MSLN530538-specific TCR required CD8
(Figure 7C). The MSLN2028 and the MSLN530538 TCR were also
expressed in primary human CD8 T cells, indicating successful
competition with the endogenous TCR for expression (Figure 7D).
The human Panc-1 PDA cell line expresses both MSLN (Figure 7E)
and HLA-A2, and the latter could be increased by IFNg (Figure 7F).
Human CD8 T cells transduced to express either the MSLN2028or MSLN530538-specific TCR specifically lysed HLA-A2+ MSLN+
Panc-1 cells, confirming their ability to recognize endogenously
processed and presented antigen and kill tumor cells (Figure 7G).
These receptors provide the essential substrate for genetic modifications of the CDR3 domains to produce an affinity enhanced
TCR and translate our findings to patients with MSLN+
malignancies.
DISCUSSION
The relative paucity of endogenous CD8 T cells in PDA has been
attributed to the presence of immunosuppressive cells (Clark
et al., 2007; Feig et al., 2013; Stromnes et al., 2014a) and

(E) Msln expression in PDA following serial T cell infusions. The scale bar represents 25 mm.
(F) Msln staining intensity in primary tumors and metastases following T cell therapy. Each dot in the image represents a primary tumor or metastasis.
(G) Dual immunofluorescence for apoptosis (CC3) in PDA epithelial cells (CK) following T cell therapy (arrows, CK+CC3+ cells). The scale bar represents 50 mm.
(H) Quantification of data in (G).
(I) Expression of 41BB by donor TCRgag and TCR1045 cells. The points in the image represent individual animals.
(J) Survival of KPC mice with invasive disease that received serial TCRgag (n = 16) or TCR1045 (n = 15) T cell therapy (54 days versus 96 days, respectively and
p < 0.0001).
The data are shown as mean SEM. See also Figure S5 and Table S1.

Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc. 11

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
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elevated interstitial pressures. We show here that affinityenhanced TCR T cells can nevertheless effectively infiltrate
PDA, modify the ECM, induce tumor cell death, and significantly
prolong the survival of KPC mice with established invasive disease. The preferential accumulation of engineered TCR1045 cells
in PDA indicates that energy-dependent T cell trafficking can
overcome biophysical barriers to the passive transport of small
molecules (Jacobetz et al., 2013; Provenzano et al., 2012) and
overcome immunosuppression sufficiently to kill tumor cells.
T cell-mediated tumor rejection has largely been studied with
transplantable tumor models or artificially overexpressed antigens; however, such systems may not accurately reflect the
breadth of obstacles to clinical translation, as evidenced by
SV40-driven models of gastric and prostate cancer in which adoptively transferred T cells induced regression of engrafted tumors
but not of the equivalent autochthonous disease (Bourquin
et al., 2010; Chou et al., 2012). In a retrovirally induced, Krasdriven lung cancer model engineered to overexpress ovalbumin,
endogenous (naive) ovalbumin-specific T cells delayed cancer
progression, but resistant tumors emerged that had lost the model
antigen, highlighting a potential problem with artificially introduced antigens (DuPage et al., 2011). Thus, previous studies in
transplantable or autochthonous solid tumor models have not
adequately illuminated how to incorporate effector T cells specific
to naturally expressed self/tumor antigens.
In contrast to the targeted ablation of stromal fibroblasts in
autochthonous PDA, which appeared to unleash a more aggressive disease (Ozdemir et al., 2014; Rhim et al., 2014), the T cell
therapy described here provided sustained clinical benefit
despite remodeling the stroma, including the death of fibroblasts. Moreover, the animals were treated for months without
apparent on- or off-target toxicities. Enzymatic degradation of
hyaluronan in combination with gemcitabine also significantly
increased survival in KPC mice and was accompanied by the
loss of both tumor epithelial cells and activated fibroblasts
(Provenzano et al., 2012). Thus, stromal remodeling in certain
contexts can be beneficial.
T cell-mediated remodeling of the matrix was antigen-dependent, raising the question of which cell type(s) present Msln to
donor T cells in PDA. The increased apoptosis of fibroblasts
with TCR1045 T cells suggests that Msln may be cross-presented
by stromal cells (Qin and Blankenstein, 2000; Spiotto et al., 2004;
Zhang, 2008). Alternatively, direct lysis of tumor epithelial cells
could have resulted in the loss of critical paracrine factors
that promote stromal cell survival and/or function, indirectly
decreasing collagen content. Understanding the precise mechanisms of antigen recognition and cell destruction in PDA has
clinical implications, particularly as MSLN is abundantly shed
from the cell surface (Pastan and Hassan, 2014) and could be
taken up by neighboring cells. In this regard, a TCR-based therapy may have an advantage over MSLN-targeting CAR currently
in clinical trials (Beatty et al., 2014), as the latter would not recognize cross-presented antigen and might also be inhibited by
shed soluble antigen. A greater understanding of stromal contributions to anti-tumor T cell activity will undoubtedly inform future
studies and refinements of this strategy.
Engineered T cells became progressively dysfunctional in PDA
and upregulated the inhibitory receptors PD1, Lag3, Tim3, and
2B4, reflecting chronic TCR signaling. They did not express
12 Cancer Cell 28, 115, November 9, 2015 2015 Elsevier Inc.

detectable levels of Foxp3, a transcriptional factor expressed

in Tregs, either prior to transfer or after PDA infiltration (data
not shown). Since the majority of the PD1+ T cells co-expressed
additional inhibitory receptors, determining if blockade of any of
these pathways alone or in concert increases intratumoral T cell
function is a cogent next step. We note that control TCRgag
T cells recovered from tumors also exhibited dysfunction.
Thus, a component of the observed diminished T cell activity
was independent of antigen recognition and the inhibitory receptor profile, highlighting a separate contributing role of the
immunosuppressive TME. Together with the limited neo-antigen
landscape in PDA (Lawrence et al., 2013), these results may help
explain why PD1/PDL1 pathway blockade has not been effective
in PDA patients, despite showing marked results against some
malignancies (Brahmer et al., 2012; Topalian et al., 2012).
Maximizing engineered T cell activity may require overcoming
inhibitory pathways downstream of persistent TCR signaling,
as well as relieving the generalized immunosuppression that is
independent of TCR specificity.
That affinity-enhanced TCR therapy selects for tumor cells expressing lower levels of Msln highlights both the selective pressure that can be achieved with such an approach and a potential
limitation of targeting only a single antigen. That T cells nevertheless continued to be activated in tumors despite decreased
Msln expression also underscores the potential value of a high
affinity TCR. Our murine data reveal that many epitopes within
Msln are poorly immunogenic, emphasizing the importance of
epitope selection when targeting antigens. The MSLN2028 and
MSLN530538 epitopes are both immunogenic in humans and
can elicit T cells that are associated with increased survival in
PDA patients. The human MSLN2028-specific TCR we describe
here also binds tetramer avidly and independently of CD8 and
therefore represents an excellent starting point for initial trials.
Understanding how to further refine TCR engineering to be
more effective and how best to combine engineered T cells
with agents that modulate the TME, including strategies to increase antigen presentation, may greatly expand their therapeutic potential. Targeting additional tumor antigens may also prove
valuable for achieving more complete and durable responses.
Nevertheless, the results reported here, including objective
response and increased survival with T cells aloneand in an
autochthonous model that may be incurable due to inherently
multifocal disease and continuous generation of new tumors
strongly support efforts to begin translating genetically engineered TCR-based cell therapy targeting known human tumor
antigens to patients with PDA and other solid tumors.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Mouse Strains
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of the Fred Hutchinson
Cancer Research Center and the University of Washington approved all animal
studies. KPC mice have been previously described (Hingorani et al., 2005). To
place the alleles on a pure defined background, each strain was independently
serially backcrossed to C57Bl/6 H-2b genetic background informed by SNP allelotyping (RADIL, IDEXX-Bioresearch). Final enrichment of the B6 genetic
backgrounds was assessed at 1,449 genomic SNPs using GoldenGate Genotyping Assays (Illumina) at the DartMouse Speed Congenic Core Facility (Dartmouth Medical School). Raw SNP data were analyzed with SNaPMAP and
Map-Synth software. Both female and male mice were included. Msln /

Please cite this article in press as: Stromnes et al., T Cells Engineered against a Native Antigen Can Surmount Immunologic and Physical Barriers to
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mice were generously provided by Ira Pastan (NCI) and previously described
(Bera and Pastan, 2000). P14 mice have been previously described (Pircher
et al., 1989).
Human Specimens
All studies using human specimens were approved by the Fred Hutchinson
Cancer Research Center Institutional Review Board and conducted according
to the principles expressed in the Declaration of Helsinki. Tumor tissues were
obtained from patients who provided written informed consent by NWBioTrust
(Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA).
Cloning Mouse Msln406414-Specific TCR and Generation of
Plasmids
The Va4 and Vb9 TCR chains from the highest affinity WT and Msln / T cell
clones were cloned using rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) PCR,
codon optimized (Invitrogen), linked by a porcine teschovirus-1 2A element,
and inserted into the Mig-R1 retroviral vector, as previously described (Schmitt
et al., 2013).

Received: March 21, 2015

Revised: August 18, 2015
Accepted: September 30, 2015
Published: October 29, 2015
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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Blackburn, S.D., Shin, H., Haining, W.N., Zou, T., Workman, C.J., Polley, A.,
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I.M.S., T.M.S., and H.N.N. performed experiments. A.H., J.S.B., A.M.D., X.T.,
and J.L.H. generated reagents and assisted with experiments. C.C. reviewed
ultrasound imaging. I.M.S., P.D.G., and S.R.H. designed the study and wrote
the manuscript.

Bourquin, C., von der Borch, P., Zoglmeier, C., Anz, D., Sandholzer, N.,
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W., and Endres, S. (2010). Efficient eradication of subcutaneous but not of
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CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
P.D.G. has an ownership interest (including patents) in and is a consultant/scientific advisory board member for Juno Therapeutics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Markus Carlson, Yen Ho, Fiona Pakiam, Joseph Ryan, Natalie Duerkopp, Megan Larmore, and the University of Washington Histology Core for
technical support. We are grateful to Shelley Thorsen, Nathan Lee, and
Deborah Banker for assistance with manuscript and figure preparation. We
thank Howard Crawford for generously providing partially backcrossed
p48Cre/+ mice. This work was supported by the Fred Hutchinson Cancer
Research Center/University of Washington Cancer Consortium Cancer Center
Support Grant CA015704 (S.R.H. and P.D.G.), Giles W. and Elise G. Mead
Foundation (S.R.H.), The Safeway Foundation (S.R.H.), a gift from Maryanne
Tagney and David Jones (S.R.H.), NIH National Cancer Institute (CA018029
and CA033084 to P.D.G. and CA161112 to S.R.H.), grants from the Korean
Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (P.D.G.), Juno Therapeutics (P.D.G.), and the Irvington Institute Fellowship Program of the Cancer
Research Institute and the Jack and Sylvia Paul Estate Fund to Support
Collaborative Immunotherapy Research (I.M.S.). P.D.G. has ownership interest (including patents) in and is a scientific consultant/advisory board member
for Juno Therapeutics. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors
and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH.

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