CURENT Course

Power System Toolbox

Prof. Joe H. Chow

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

ECSE Department
August 25, 2014

Power System Toolbox

Developers: Joe Chow, Kwok Cheung, and Graham Rogers
(Ontario Hydro and Cherry Tree Scientific Software)
Power System Toolbox uses MATLAB code to perform (1) power
flow computation, (2) dynamic simulation, and (3) linear model
generation
In a power network, generators are supplying power to the loads.
A power flow program uses the power network to compute the flow
of power from generation to load
In dynamic simulation, the impact of a disturbance on a power
system, such as stability, is simulated. In the simulation part,
dynamic models of generators, excitation systems, and governors
of various details are used.
Linearization uses small perturbations from equilibrium point to
generate (A, B, C, D) matrices. (not covered in this lecture)
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

2 / 63

Power Flow Computation

Area 1

10

Area 2
20

101

13

120 110

Gen 1

11

Gen 11

Gen 12

Gen 2

14

Load 4

12

Load 14

We need the following:

1

Active and reactive power flow on transmission lines and

transformers

Network admittance matrix

Summation of flow at each node (bus)

Forming a Jacobian matrix for using the Newton-Raphson method

Others such as sparse factorization

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

3 / 63

Power Network Admittance Matrix

A power network admittance matrix to relate bus voltages and line
currents can be developed iteratively.
1. Buses i and j connected via a transmission line with 3 parameters:
resistance Rij , reactance Xij = Lij = (2f )Lij , and line charging
(susceptance) Bij = Cij (that is why the value of B is positive)
Vi

Ii

Rij

Bij
2

jXij

Ij V
j

Bij
2

The current Ii is given by, with Yij = 1/Zij = 1/(Rij + jXij )

Ii = current in series reactance + current in shunt susceptance


Bij
Bij

= Yij + j
= Yij (Vi Vj ) + Vi j
Vi Yij Vj
2
2
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

4 / 63

Similarly, the current Ij is given by



Bij
Ij = Yij + j
Vj Yij Vi
2
In matrix form
"
B
Yij + j 2ij
Yij

Yij
Yij + j

Bij
2

#"

Vi
Vj

"

Ii
Ij

Y V = I

where Y is generically known as the admittance matrix, V is the vector

of voltage phasors, and I is the (injected) current vector.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

5 / 63

2. Buses i and j connected via a transformer with parameters:

reactance XT = (2f )LT , and tap ratio a for a regular transformer or
tap ratio a and phase for a phase-shifting transformer.
Circuit diagram (modified from an earlier diagram)
Ii

jXT

a"

:1

Ij

Vi

Vj

The voltage and current expression is

# "
#"
"
YT

aYT
Vi
=

a Y T a2 Y T
Vj

Ii
Ij

Y V = I

where YT = 1/(jXT ).
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

6 / 63

Admittance Matrix Example

Consider a radial 5-bus system example
V1

Y12

V2

I1

V3

Y23

a :1

B23
2

B23

V4

Y45

V5

Y34

I5

There are no injections (loads) at Buses 2, 3, and 4.

Line 1-2 is a generator step-up transformer, Line 2-3 has line charging,
Line 3-4 is a series capacitor compensation, Line 4-5 is a line without
charging, and Bus 5 is connected to other buses (not shown).

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

7 / 63

The network voltage-current equation Y V = I (I is the current

injection into the bus) is given by

V1
I1
Y11
aY12
0
0
0

Y22
Y23
0
0 V2 I 2
aY12

0
Y23
Y33 Y34
0

V3 = I 3 =

0
0
Y34 Y44 Y45 V4 I4

0
0
0
Y45 Y55
V5
I5

I1

0
I5

The direction of current injection is into the node (bus).

Rules for building the Y matrix:
1 If Buses i and j are not connected, then the (i, j) entry of Y is
zero.
2 The (i, j) terms are the sum of admittances of all the direct
connections between Buses i and j.
3 The self (i, i) terms of Y are the sum of the admittances of
connections of Bus i to all the other buses, and all the shunt
components representable as linear, passive circuit elements.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

8 / 63

For example, the entry

Y22 = aY12 + Y23 + j

B23
2

Building the Y matrix: Y is built sequentially by adding one branch

(transformer, transmission line) at a time, in the order of reading the
branch input data file.
If a branch between Bus i and Bus j is read, then the (i, i), (i, j), and
(j, j) entries of Y are updated.
Storing the (complex) Y matrix:
1 as a full N
B NB matrix, where NB is the number of buses: not
practical for large power networks
2 as a sparse matrix, in which each non-zero (i, j) entry of Y is
stored as a three-tuple (i, j, yij ): practical for large systems. A
1,000-bus system with an average of 4 connections per bus will
result in a sparse matrix with approximately 5,000 non-zero
entries, instead of a million entries. The 5-bus example has only
13 nonzero entries.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

9 / 63


Using the network equation Y V = I:
If the bus voltage V at each of the bus is known, then I can be
directly computed.
This is indeed the case in dynamic simulation when V is the
internal voltage of a generator. For non-source buses, the load is
converted into an admittance (for a constant-impedance load) and
folded into a diagonal entry of the overall admittance matrix.
More on this aspect later when we discuss dynamic simulation.
One cannot use Y V = I directly for loadflow (steady-state
dispatch) calculations, because loads are specified as
P + jQ = V I (note negative sign as load is positive (power
consumed) if P > 0 and Q > 0), resulting in


Pi + jQi
(Pi + jQi )
Y V = vec
= vec
= I
Vi
Vi
Note that the right-hand-side of the equation carries a negative sign,
because P and Q are power consumptions by the load, and I is current
injection leaving the bus.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

10 / 63

Loadflow Formulation
Loadflow calculates the bus voltage and line current phasors in a power
network to satisfy a given set of generation, load, and voltage
conditions.
Each bus is defined by 4 quantities:
Bus voltage magnitude and angle: V = V ej and
Bus generation and/or load: P + jQ (or zero injection P = Q = 0)
3 main types of buses:
Bus type
V

P
Q
PV (generator)
specified computed specified computed
PQ (load bus)
computed computed specified
specified
Swing (slack) bus specified
= 0
computed computed
The phase of the swing bus is set to zero (or any fixed value), which is
known as the reference.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

11 / 63

Note that:
1

A swing bus is a generator bus whose active power generation

accounts for the losses in a power network.

The angle of the swing bus is set to zero so that the angles of all
the other buses are in reference to the swing bus.

The reactive power output Q of a generator bus is computed to

support the specified voltage on the generator bus.

At a generator bus, if Q > Qmax or Q < Qmin , then Q is set to the

appropriate Q-limit Q and the PV bus becomes a PQ bus with
Q = Q .

Other types of buses such as HVDC (DC line) and voltage-source

converters, need additional modeling capability.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

12 / 63

Newton-Raphson (NR) Method

The NR method is an iterative method for solving a set of nonlinear
equations
f (x) = b
where x RN is the vector of unknowns, f RN is the nonlinear
vector function, and b RN is a constant vector:

x1
f1
b1
.
.
.
.
.
.
x=
. , f = . , b = .
xN
fN
bN

That is, this is a system of N nonlinear equations in N unknowns.

Suppose we have an initial guess x(0) and the true solution is
x(0) + x, where

x1
.

x =
..
xN

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

13 / 63

We consider x as a perturbation and expand f (x) around x(0)


f 
1
(0)
(0)
f (x + x) = b = f (x ) +
x + xT F |x=x(0) x

x x=x(0)
2
+ higher order terms

where

J11 J12 J1N

.
f
..
..
..

..
=J =
.
.
. ,

x
JN 1 JN 2 JN N

Jij =

fi
xj

is the first derivative of f with respect to x and is known as the

Jacobian, and F is the second derivative.
If x1 , x2 , ..., xN are small, then xi xj and higher order terms
are negligible.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

14 / 63

Thus
b = f (x(0) ) + J(x(0) )x

Jx = b f (x(0) ) = e(x(0) )

where e is the error.

For numerical stability, it is not recommended to solve for
x = J 1 e(x(0) ) by computing J 1 , the inverse of J. In addition J 1
is in general a full matrix, even though J is sparse, that is, with many
zero entries.
Instead, the proper way is to first to perform an LU decomposition of
J = LU , where L is a lower triangular matrix, and U is an upper
triangular matrix. Furthermore, the diagonal elements of L can be set
to unity.
More on LU decomposition and sparse factorization later.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

15 / 63

The update equation

LU x = Ly = e(x(0) )
is solved in 2 stages:
1 Forward elimination: solve for y from Ly = e(x(0) )
2 Back substitution: solve for x from U x = y
At iteration k + 1, update the solution as
x(k+1) = x(k) + x
where x is the latest update. Continue the iteration until
|x(k+1) x(k) | <
where is a specified tolerance.
Near the solution point, the convergence of the NR method is
quadratic.
Sometimes if the initial condition is poorly selected, then NR method
may not converge.
Normally one can select sensible initial values.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

16 / 63

NR Solution of Power Flow Equation

First we need to write the nonlinear power flow equations in terms of
the unknown voltage variables:
Vi eji
Vi eji

VN ej0

P Q bus
P V bus
Swing bus

2 unknowns: Vi , i
1 unknown: i
no unknowns

Total number of unknowns

(N 1) + (N Ng ) = 2N Ng 1
where N is the total number of buses, and Ng is the total number of
generator buses.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

17 / 63

For each bus i, except for the swing bus, the power injection from the
node into the system is
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii
we obtain
From Y V = I,
N
X

Yij Vj = Ii

j=1

N
X
Si = Vi
Yij Vj
j=1

Thus

N
N
X
X
Pi +jQi = Vi eji
|Yij |ejij Vj ejj = Vi
|Yij |Vj ej(i j ij )
j=1

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

j=1

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

18 / 63

that is,
Pi = Vi

N
X

|Yij |Vj cos(i j ij ),

i = 1, 2, ..., N 1

j=1

Q i = Vi

N
X

|Yij |Vj sin(i j ij ),

i = 1, 2, ..., N Ng

j=1

which are specified.

NR iteration: the unknown vector is

T
x = 1 2 N 1 V1 V2 VN Ng

with an initial value x(0) .

Cold start: set all voltage magnitude values equal to 1, and all angle
values equal to zero.
Warm start: use an existing solution to a problem with similar load
conditions.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

19 / 63

At iteration k + 1, compute
x(k+1) = x(k) + x
where x is solved from
J(x(k) )x = e(x(k) )
where there are 2N Ng 1 rows in both

P
P1 V1 N
j=1 |Yij |Vj cos(i j ij )

PN
P2 V2
j=1 |Yij |Vj cos(i j ij )

..

.
e(x) =

P
N
Q 1 V1
j=1 |Yij |Vj sin(i j ij )

..
.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

20 / 63

where

J(x) =

P1
1
P2
1

P1
2
P2
2

Q1
1

Q1
2

P1
N1
P2
N1

P1
V1
P2
V1

Q1
N1

Q1
V1

..
.
..
.

P1
VNNg
P2
VNNg

Q1
VNNg

X
P1
|Y1j |Vj sin(1 j 1j )
= V1
1
j=1

P1
= V1 |Y12 |V2 sin(1 2 12 )
2
N
P1 X
|Y1j |Vj cos(1 j 1j ) V1 |Y11 | cos(11 )
=
V1
j=1

c H. Chow
J.

P1
= V1 |Y12 | sin(1 2 12 )
Power System Toolbox
August 25, 2014
(RPI-ECSEV
) 2

21 / 63

Similar expressions can be obtained for the partial derivatives of Qi .

Some general observations on the NR method:
1 The NR method is efficient. Convergence is quadratic near the
solution.
2 The NR method allows a user to decelerate the algorithm by using
a stepsize < 1, such that x(k+1) = x(k) + x, mostly to prevent
divergence at the initial iterations.
3 Most loadflow programs display a squared error mismatch
(e(x(p) ))T e(x(p) ) where e is in pu. For example, the error history
may look like 1 102 , 2.5 104 , 1.2 108 , etc.
4 If the error history looks like 1 102 , 2.5 103 , 1.2 104 , etc,
the solution seems to be converging, but the Jacobian may not be
correct. Also such less-than-quadratic convergence rate is to be
expected with dishonest NR or decoupled power flow methods
(explanations later).
5 Q limits at generator buses: if Q is outside the specified range, set
Q equal to the upper or lower limit and change the generator bus
to a P Q bus. Then resolve the loadflow.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

22 / 63

Flow chart for loadflow solution

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

23 / 63

Dishonest NR Method
In the iterative solution of
"
# "
#
(k)
(k)

P
J (k)
=
= e(x(k) )
V (k)
Q(k)
where e(x) is the mismatch vector, instead of updating J at every
iteration, J is updated every two or three iterations. However, the
mismatch e(x) is updated at every iteration. Note that the LU
decomposition of J can be saved, and thus no refactorization is needed.
Fast Decoupled Loadflow (FDLF)
Consider the NR method
#
# "
#"
# "
"
P (k)
P (k)
(k)
(k)
(k)
P

V
=
=
J (k)
Q(k)
Q(k)
Q(k)
V (k)
V (k)

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

24 / 63

Because P is largely determined by and Q is largely determined by

V , J is block-diagonally dominant. Thus neglecting the off-diagonal
blocks of J results in
#
# "
#"
"
P (k)
(k)
(k)
0
P

=
Q(k)
Q(k)
V (k)
0
V
Note that even though the search direction
P (k)
(k) = P (k) ,

Q(k)
V (k) = Q(k)
V

may not be as good as the fully coupled NR method, FDLP will still
converge to the right solution, because the mismatch is computed
correctly. FDLF will achieve a quadratic convergence rate, as long as
the off-diagonal blocks are sufficiently small. Also, FDLF works well
when R/X < 0.1.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

25 / 63

Further simplification:
From the P/ and Q/V expressions, if we neglect line resistances
and assume |i j | small (sin(i j ) = 0 and cos(i j ) = 1), then
P
= diag(V ) B diag(V ),

Q
= diag(V ) B
V

where B = Im(Y ) is the susceptance matrix.

Thus we solve for
B diag(V ) = (diag(V ))1 P,

BV = (diag(V ))1 Q

for which the LU decomposition for B has to be computed only once.

Convergence of this method is linear, but each iteration is very fast.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

26 / 63

DC loadflow
In a DC loadflow, we assume that
1

all the bus voltage magnitudes equal to unity

line resistances are neglected

|i j | is small

Then the loadflow equation simplifies to

B = P
DC loadflow has 2 major uses:
1

to initialize solution for the NR method

used in unit commitment program in which the generators are

assumed to be able to provide adequate reactive power support

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

27 / 63

Power Flow Data for PST

% npcc 48 machine system data
% loadflow data
% bus data % col 1 -- bus number
% col 2 -- bus voltage V
% col 3 -- bus angle in degrees
% col 4, 5 -- active and reactive power
% col 6, 7 -- active and reactive power
% col 8, 9 -- G and B shunt pu
% col 10 -- bus type: 1 is swing, 2 is
bus = [ ...
1 1.0000 0.
0.000
0.000
0.0
20 1.0418 0.
0.000
0.000 2.840
21 1.0000 0.
6.500
2.165
0.0
45 1.0409 0.
0.000
0.000 2.560
78 1.0200 0.
46.321
0.719 60.000

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

generation pu
load pu
PV, 3 is PQ
0.00
0.27
0.00
0.42
6.00

Power System Toolbox

0.
0.
0.
0.
0.

0.
0.
0.
0.25
0.

3;
3;
2;
3;
1 ]

August 25, 2014

28 / 63

Power Flow Data for PST

% line data
% col 1 -- from bus
% col 2 -- to bus
% col 3 -- R pu
% col 4 -- X pu
% col 5 -- B pu % col 6 -- tap ratio
% col 7 -- phase shifter angle deg
line = [...
1 21 0.
0.0200 0.
1.07 0;
2 1 0.0004 0.0043 0.07 0.
0;
2 33 0.0007 0.0082 0.14 0.
0;
3 2 0.0016 0.0435 0.
1.06 0;
3 4 0.0016 0.0435 0.
1.06 0]

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

29 / 63

Power Flow Function in PST

loadflow(bus,line,tol,iter max,vmin,vmax,acc,display,flag)
% Syntax: [bus sol,line flow] =
% loadflow(bus,line,tol,iter max,vmin,vmax,acc,display,flag)
% Purpose: solve the load-flow equations of power systems
% Input: bus - bus data
%
line - line data
%
tol - tolerance for convergence
%
iter max - maximum number of iterations
%
vmin - voltage minimum limit
%
vmax - voltage maximum limit
%
acc - acceleration factor
%
display - y, generate load-flow study report
%
else, no load-flow study report
%
flag - 1, form new Jacobian every iteration
%
2, form new Jacobian every other iteration
% Output: bus sol - bus solution
%
line flow - line flow solution
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

30 / 63

Power Flow Solution in PST

mismatch
mismatch
mismatch
mismatch
mismatch
mismatch

is
is
is
is
is
is

4.34711.
2.13662.
0.495287.
0.00246548.
0.000033704.
8.84984e-012.
LOAD-FLOW STUDY
REPORT OF POWER FLOW CALCULATIONS

13-Jul-94
SWING BUS
:
NUMBER OF ITERATIONS
:
SOLUTION TIME
:
TOTAL TIME
:
TOTAL REAL POWER LOSSES
:
TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOSSES:

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

BUS 50
5
1.92 sec.
5.44 sec.
6.59692 pu.
45.2356 pu.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

31 / 63

Power Flow Solution - Bus Voltages

BUS
10.0000
11.0000
12.0000
30.0000
31.0000
32.0000
50.0000
123.0000
124.0000

VOLTS
0.9988
0.9940
1.0326
0.9800
0.9900
1.0066
1.0500
1.0000
1.0200

GENERATION
ANGLE
REAL REACTIVE
24.4449
0
0
23.7896
0
0
23.4777
0
0
33.6919 7.3500 2.8746
29.5526 6.9500 1.6171
27.6191 5.1400 1.9541
8.6500 -17.824 7.2011
79.0885 6.0000 0.9563
77.0888 7.7000 0.3405

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

LOAD
REAL
REACTIVE
0.0000 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000
0.0900 0.8800
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7.5000 2.0000
9.4600 -0.4000

August 25, 2014

32 / 63

Power Flow Solution - Line Flows

LINE
1.0000
1.0000
2.0000
2.0000

LINE FLOWS
FROM BUS TO BUS
REAL
REACTIVE
10.0000
30.0000 -7.3500 -1.5775
30.0000
10.0000 7.3500 2.8746
11.0000
10.0000 -2.7184 -0.8690
10.0000
11.0000 2.7217 0.8347

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

33 / 63

Dynamic Simulation
Area 1

10

20

Area 2
101

13

120 110

Gen 1

Gen 11

Gen 12

Gen 2

14

Load 4
1
2

3
4
5

11

12

Load 14

Starts with a solution of the power network in steady state

Apply the appropriate dynamic models for the synchronous
machines, excitation systems, turbine governors, and power system
stabilizers, and other control equipment
Initialize the dynamic models from the power flow solution
Apply a disturbance to the system
Simulate the system dynamics using an appropriate integration
routine until either the trajectories converge to a (new) steady
state or become unstable

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

34 / 63

Synchronous Machine Dynamic Models

Electromechanical model - 2 states, ,

Transient model - 4 states, , , Eq , Ed
Subtransient model - 6 states, , , Eq , Ed , kd , kq (shown on
next page)

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

35 / 63

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

36 / 63

Synchronous Machine Vector Diagram

For initialization
' )
Xd

""

Eq

""

"$

I t Ra

id

"$

Xq )

jI t Xq

!"

""

jI t Xd'

It

ed

'

q -axis

""

eq
Et

EI

jid (Xd

eq '

iq

!"

(X d
ji d

d -axis

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

37 / 63

Excitation System Dynamic Models

Type DC 1A

Vref (! 0)

"
Vc

Exciter

Voltage regulator
KA

VR

1 " sTA

Vf

1
K E'

" sTE

E fd

sK F
1 " sTF

Rate feedback (transient-gain reduction)

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

38 / 63

Type ST 1A

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

39 / 63

Turbine Dynamic Model

Steam turbine model with reheat

FHP
Main Steam
pressure PT

FIP

!G

"
Control valve

1
sTCH

1
sTRH

IV

"

1
sTCO

FLP

position

Inlet steam chest

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Reheater

!Tm

Crossover
1 - fully open
0 - bypass

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

40 / 63

Governor Dynamic Model

Governor model for steam turbine model

!

1
R

ref

"

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

FHPTRHs !Pm

1
1

TRHs

Power System Toolbox

1
2Hs

August 25, 2014

41 / 63

Power System Dynamic Simulation

Step-by-step integration of power system dynamic models
represented as first-order differential equations (DE)
The second-order swing equation
d2

=
(Pm Pe )
dt2
2H
is written as a system of 2 first-order DEs


d
1
E V sin
d
= ,
=
Pm
dt
dt
2H
Xeq
where = 2fo ( = 377 for a 60 Hz system and 314 for a 50 Hz
system). Units: is in radians and is in pu.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

42 / 63

In general, a power system consisting of an electrical network,

generators, and controls (such as voltage regulators) can be
modeled as a system of first-order equations
x = f (x, u, t),

x, f Rn , u Rm

where x is the state vector of dimension n and u is the input (like

Pm ) vector of dimension m.
Reference: C. W. Gear, Numerical Initial Value Problems in Ordinary
Differential Equations, Prentice-Hall, 1971.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

43 / 63

Eulers Method Integrate a nonlinear DE from t = to to t = tf using

fixed stepsize h.
Suppose the value of x at t = tk is x(tk ) = xk . Then
x(tk+1 ) = x(tk ) + h x(t
k ),

xk

that is, xk+1 = xk + h x k

} = error
true x

slope is x (tk )

xk

to
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

tk

tk

Power System Toolbox

t
August 25, 2014

44 / 63

Taylor Series Expansion to (n + 1)st Order

xk+1 = xk + hx k +

h2
hn (n)
hn+1 (n+1)
x
k + +
xk +
x
()
2
n!
(n + 1)! k

where tk tk+1 . (Recall the midpoint theorem from advanced

calculus. This is a higher order version.)
If x = f (x, u, t), then
x
=

f
f
f
+
x +
u
t
x
u

and so on.
If one only takes the first n terms, then the (n + 1)st term becomes the
local truncation error .

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

45 / 63

Runge-Kutta (RK) Methods for Integration of Differential

Equations
One-step method: to find xk+1 , one only needs information at the
preceding point (xk , tk , uk ).
Order n: agrees with Taylor series through hn .
Evaluation of f (x, u, t) only: does not require any derivatives of
f (x, u, t).
Eulers method is a first-order RK. The local truncation error is
=

h2
h2
h2 (x k+1 x k )
h
x
()
x
k
= (x k+1 x k )
2
2
2
h
2

To keep the error small, one needs a small stepsize h. For power system
dynamic simulation, we want to see about 100 points per second,
taking into account time constants and control actions. For Eulers
method a stepsize of h = 10 ms may not provide an accurate solution.
One can improve on the accuracy by modifying the Eulers method.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

46 / 63

Euler Full-Step Modification: used in PST

Predictor:
x
k+1 = xk + h x k = xk + h f (xk , uk , tk )
Corrector:
x
k+1 = f (
xk+1 , uk+1 , tk+1 ),
xk
xk
xk

xk+1 = xk +
1
2

(x k

xk 1

1
1

xk

to

tk

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

tk

h
(x k + x
k+1 )
2

xk 1 )

Euler full-step modification is 2nd-order

RK, as the local truncation error
...
(h3 /6) x k . The corrector equation can
be used repeatedly.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

47 / 63

Adams-Bashforth Second-Order Method (1883)

The Siemens-PTI PSS/E program and the GE PSLF program both use
the Adams-Bashforth Second-Order (AB2) Method to perform
numerical integration. Given a system of nonlinear different equations
with initial condition x0
x(t)

= f (x(t)),

x(t0 ) = x0

the AB2 method performs the integration as

xk+1 = xk + h[1.5f (xk ) 0.5f (xk1 )]
where h is the stepsize. The Euler method is used to go from x0 to x1 .
Such a method is known as an explicit multi-step method because (1)
there is no corrector part, and (2) the new value depends on more than
just the previous value. The AB2 method depends on two previous
values f (xk ) and f (xk1 ).
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

48 / 63

Stability boundaries of integration methods

Explicit integration methods can be unstable if h is too large. In the

figure, j are the largest eigenvalues of the linearized model.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

49 / 63

Power System Computation Variable Flow Diagram

(W. W. Price)

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

50 / 63

Dynamic Simulation Flowchart

Initialization

Select system
configuration
Network solution
Corrector step
or increment
time

Dynamics
calculation

From loadflow, back calculate to' the

machine internal node to find E ,
Pre-fault, fault-on, post-fault

YV

I , with appropriate Y

Compute !, !! , etc

Integration
Yes

t switch

Note: for 3-phase short circuit at Bus k, YLk = , that is, set YLk to a
very large number, like 9999 pu.
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

51 / 63

As a general-purpose software code, need to accommodate as

many buses and machines as needed.
YN is built using bus and line data
Generators and other dynamic equipment are called from
subroutines. A convenient way is to divide the code into 3 parts:
1
2

Initialization code, used only once at the start.

Network solution - setting up E . In classical model E is fixed.
Detailed machine models require flux computation to determine
machine voltages.
,
(a) Dynamics (or time-derivative) computation - ,
flux linkage
states, etc.
(b) Integration - modified Euler or higher-order methods

Steps 2 and 3 are used repeatedly. Note that the dynamics code is
usable in both the predictor and corrector parts.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

52 / 63

Functions for Models

% synchronous machine subtransient model
function [f] = mac sub(i,k,bus,flag) ...
if flag == 0; % initialization
...
fldcur(i,1) = E Isat + mac pot(i,6)*(eqprime(i,1)-...
psikd(i,1))+mac pot(i,7)*curdg(i,1);
if flag == 1 % network interface computation
...
psi re(i,k) = sin(mac ang(i,k))*(-psiqpp) + ...
cos(mac ang(i,k))*psidpp; % real part of psi
...
if flag == 2 | flag == 3 % generator dynamics calculation
...
dmac spd(i,k) = (pmech(i,k)+pm sig(i,k)-Te...
mac con(i,17)*(mac spd(i,k)-1)...
-mac con(i,18)*(mac spd(i,k)-sys freq(k)))...
/(2*mac con(i,16));
...
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

53 / 63

Generator data
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Column
1. machine number
2. bus number
3. base mva
4. leakage reactance x l(pu)
5. resistance r a(pu)
6. d-axis sychronous reactance x d(pu)
7. d-axis transient reactance x d(pu)
8. d-axis subtransient reactance x" d(pu)
9. d-axis open-circuit time constant T do(sec)
10. d-axis open-circuit subtransient time
constant T" do(sec)
11. q-axis synchronous reactance x q(pu)
12. q-axis transient reactance x q(pu)
13. q-axis subtransient reactance x" q(pu)
14. q-axis open-circuit time constant T qo(sec)
15. q-axis open circuit subtransient time
constant T" qo(sec)

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

54 / 63

% 16. inertia constant H(sec)

% 17. damping coefficient d o(pu)
% 18. dampling coefficient d 1(pu)
% 19. bus number
% 20. S(1.0) - saturation factor
% 21. S(1.2) - saturation factor
%
mac con = [
1 1 991 0.15 0 2.0 0.245 0.2 5.0 0.031 1.91 0.42 0.2 ...
0.66 0.061 2.8756 0.0 0 1 0 0;
2 2 100000 0.00 0 0. 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
0 0 3.0 2.0 0 2 0 0];

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

55 / 63

Excitation System Data

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Column
1. exciter type - 3 for ST3
2. machine number
3. input filter time constant T R
4. voltage regulator gain K A
5. voltage regulator time constant T A
6. voltage regulator time constant T B
7. voltage regulator time constant T C
8. maximum voltage regulator output V Rmax
9. minimum voltage regulator output V Rmin
10. maximum internal signal V Imax
11. minimum internal signal V Imin
12. first stage regulator gain K J
13. potential circuit gain coefficient K p
14. potential circuit phase angle theta p

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

56 / 63

% 15. current circuit gain coefficient K I

% 16. potential source reactance X L
% 17. rectifier loading factor K C
% 18. maximum field voltage E fdmax
% 19. inner loop feedback constant K G
% 20. maximum inner loop voltage feedback V Gmax
exc con = [
3 1 0 7.04 0.4 6.67 1.0 7.57 0 0.2 -0.2 200 4.365 20 ...
4.83 0.091 1.096 6.53 1 6.53];

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

57 / 63

Disturbance Script
% row 1 col1 simulation start time (s) (cols 2 to 6 zeros)
%
col7 initial time step (s)
% row 2 col1 fault application time (s)
%
col2 bus number at which fault is applied
%
col3 bus number defining far end of faulted line
%
col4 zero sequence impedance in pu on system base
%
col5 negative sequence impedance in pu on system base
%
col6 type of fault - 0 three phase
%
- 1 line to ground
%
- 2 line-to-line to ground
%
- 3 line-to-line
%
- 4 loss of line with no fault
%
- 5 loss of load at bus
%
col7 time step for fault period (s)
% row 3 col1 near end fault clearing time (s) (cols 2 to 6 zeros)
%
col7 time step for second part of fault (s)
c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

58 / 63

% row 4 col1 far end fault clearing time (s) (cols 2 to 6 zeros)
%
col7 time step for fault cleared simulation (s)
% row 5 col1 time to change step length (s)
%
col7 time step (s)
%
% row n col1 finishing time (s) (last row)
%
sw con = [...
0
0 0 0 0 0 0.01; % set initial time step
0.1
3 2 0 0 0 0.001; % apply 3-ph fault at bus 3 on line 3-2
0.167 0 0 0 0 0 0.001; % clear fault at bus 3
0.167 0 0 0 0 0 0.001; % clear remote end
0.50 0 0 0 0 0 0.01; % increase time step
1.0
0 0 0 0 0 0.01; % increase time step
5.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 ]; % end simulation

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

59 / 63

Simulation

PST command for simulation: s simu

Input appropriate MVA base (consistent with line data)
Simulation results on a single-machine infinite-bus system: 3-phase
short-circuit fault on the generator terminal bus, cleared by
removing one of the two parallel lines to the infinite bus; with a
high-gain excitation system but no PSS so the time response will
be oscillatory.
Two cases: fault cleared in 100 ms (about 6 cycles) - stable, and in
142 ms (8.5 cycles) - unstable.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

60 / 63

Simulation Results - Stable Case

machine speed deviations

machine angles

120

0.02

0.01

80
speed in pu

angle in degrees

100

60
40
20

0.01

0
20
2

0.02
2
5
4

1.5

5
4

1.5

2
internal generator number

1
0

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

time in seconds

internal generator number

Power System Toolbox

1
0

time in seconds

August 25, 2014

61 / 63

Simulation Results - Unstable Case

machine angles

machine speed deviations

x 10
3

0.8
0.6

2
speed in pu

angle in degrees

2.5

1.5
1
0.5

0.4
0.2
0

0
0.5
2

0.2
2
5
4

1.5

5
4

1.5

2
internal generator number

1
0

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

time in seconds

internal generator number

Power System Toolbox

1
0

time in seconds

August 25, 2014

62 / 63

Getting PST

From Joe Chows website

Directly to the url
http://www.eps.ee.kth.se/personal/vanfretti/pst/
No cost to users; password to decompress the MATLAB code will
be provided.

c H. Chow (RPI-ECSE)
J.

Power System Toolbox

August 25, 2014

63 / 63