Anlisis del Discurso Cientfico y Tcnico

Profesorado Superior de Lenguas Vivas

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Elements of a research proposal and report by David S. Walonick,

Ph.D.
Taken from: http://www.statpac.com/research-papers/research-proposal.htm
All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether
you've done a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a
health care survey, or a marketing research survey. All have the same basic
structure and format. The rationale is that readers of research reports (i.e.,
decision makers, funders, etc.) will know exactly where to find the information
they are looking for, regardless of the individual report.
Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing,
you can apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing
a proposal, a thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.
General considerations
Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in
each chapter. Readers of the paper will be looking for these chapters and
sections so you should not deviate from the standard format unless you are
specifically requested to do so by the research sponsor.
Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals
follow the same format. In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three
chapters of the final paper except that it's written in future tense. In the
proposal, you might say something like "the researchers will secure the sample
from ...", while in the final paper, it would be changed to "the researchers
secured the sample from ...". Once again, with the exception of tense, the
proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper.
The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and
the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style
guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper
will cover the most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in
third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The
researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis,
dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft,
will be interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal
modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA or MLA format
before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be
perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Style, layout, and page formatting
Title page
All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page
has no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.
Page layout
Left margin: 1"
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Right margin: 1"

Top margin: 1"
Bottom margin: 1"
Page numbering
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from
the top of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering
begins with the first page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed
on page 1).
Spacing and justification
All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations
and the bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line
between a section heading and the text that follows it. Do not right-justify text.
Use ragged-right.
Font face and size
Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 10 points or larger.
Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1)
tables and graphs may use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section
headings may use a different font.
References
APA or MLA format should be used to cite references within the paper. If you
name the author in your sentence, then follow the authors name with the year
in parentheses. For example:
Jones (2004) found that...
If you do not include the authors name as part of the text, then both the
author's name and year are enclosed in parentheses. For example:
One researcher (Jones, 2004) found that...
A complete bibliography is attached at the end of the paper. It is double spaced
except single-spacing is used for a multiple-line reference. The first line of each
reference is indented.
Examples:
Bradburn, N. M., & Mason, W. M. (1964). The effect of question order on
response. Journal of Marketing Research 1 (4), 57-61.
Bradburn, N. M., & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers. Public Opinion
Quarterly 43 (1), 92-101.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Outline of chapters and sections
TITLE PAGE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Statement of the problem
Purpose
Significance of the study
Research questions and/or hypotheses
CHAPTER II - Background
Literature review
Definition of terms
CHAPTER III - Methodology
Restate purpose and research questions or null hypotheses
Population and sampling
Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)
Procedure and time frame
Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests)
Validity and reliability
Assumptions
Scope and limitations
CHAPTER IV - Results
CHAPTER V - Conclusions and recommendations
Summary (of what you did and found)
Discussion (explanation of findings - why do you think you found what you
did?)
Recommendations (based on your findings)
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Chapter I begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (a couple of pages at
most). The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention
of the readers and to get them "turned on" about the subject. It sets the stage
for the paper and puts your topic in perspective. The introduction often
contains dramatic and general statements about the need for the study. It uses
dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When writing the introduction,
put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue reading?
Statement of the Problem

Anlisis del Discurso Cientfico y Tcnico

Profesorado Superior de Lenguas Vivas

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The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one
sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration).
You are looking for something wrong.
....or something that needs close attention
....or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.
Example of a problem statement:
"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity
in middle management workers."
While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always
accompanied by several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present
persuasive arguments why the problem is important enough to study. Include
the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how
the problem relates to business, social or political trends by presenting data
that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try to give dramatic
and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section, make sure
you can easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.
Purpose
The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study
intends to accomplish. A few typical statements are:
The goal of this study is to...
... overcome the difficulty with ...
... discover what ...
... understand the causes or effects of ...
... refine our current understanding of ...
... provide a new interpretation of ...
... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful
Significance of the Study
This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how
your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify
the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The
significance of the study answers the questions:
Why is your study important?
To whom is it important?
What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses and/or Null Hypotheses
Chapter I lists the research questions (although it is equally acceptable to
present the hypotheses or null hypotheses). No elaboration is included in this
section. An example would be:
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The research questions for this study will be:

1. What are the attitudes of...
2. Is there a significant difference between...
3. Is there a significant relationship between...
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter II - Background
Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what
previous researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily
depends upon how much research has previously been done in the area you
are planning to investigate. If you are planning to explore a relatively new area,
the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead up to
the current research. Never say that your area is so new that no research
exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when
deciding whether or not to approve a proposal.
Chapter II should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate.
Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of
inquiry or that might not be understood by the general reader. "Operational
definitions" (definitions that you have formulated for the study) should also be
included. An example of an operational definition is: "For the purpose of this
research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest score minus pretest
score".
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter III - Methodology
The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins
with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research
questions. The phraseology should be identical to that used in Chapter I. Keep
the wording of your research questions consistent throughout the document.
Population and sampling
The basic research paradigm is:
1) Define the population
2) Draw a representative sample from the population
3) Do the research on the sample
4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population
As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The
whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire
population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When
you've finished your research and you make statements based on the results,
who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the
population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined as all adult
customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame",
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or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential consumers

of our product".
While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the
sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are
numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail,
how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't
omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper
must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.
Instrumentation
If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source
of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting
to measure. Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that
a copy of the survey is in the appendix.
Procedure and time frame
State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any
special procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to
participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).
Analysis plan
The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will
usually require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be
addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests
that will be performed to answer that research question. Be specific. State what
variables will be included in the analyses and identify the dependent and
independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision making criteria
(e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as the computer
software that will be used.
Validity and reliability
If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the
previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing
instrument, you'll want to perform the same reliability measurement as the
author of the instrument. If you've developed your own survey, then you must
describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of how you
will measure its reliability.
Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we
measuring what we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure
validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the
judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of
validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took to
assess validity.
Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or
misinterpreted. Pretesting a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of
face validity. One method of establishing face validity is described here. How to
make sure your survey is valid.
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Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage

of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended
questions help to establish content validity.
Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular
scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that
explain a phenomena. In other words, if you are using several survey items to
measure a more global construct (e.g., a subscale of a survey), then you should
describe why you believe the items comprise a construct. If a construct has
been identified by previous researchers, then describe the criteria they used to
validate the construct. A technique known as confirmatory factor analysis is
often used to explore how individual survey items contribute to an overall
construct measurement.
Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that
yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement
is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.
There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-retest, equivalent form,
and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency.
When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct,
then we would expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer
those items. Various statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence.
Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different
wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the items is a
measure of their reliability. See: How to test the reliability of a survey.
Assumptions
All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample
represents the population. Another common assumptions are that an
instrument has validity and is measuring the desired constructs. Still another is
that respondents will answer a survey truthfully. The important point is for the
researcher to state specifically what assumptions are being made.
Scope and limitations
All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are
often imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of
the study. Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the
quality of the research.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter IV - Results
Description of the sample
Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important to
report the descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader decide
if the sample is truly representative of the population.
Analyses
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The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid
out in Chapter III. Each research question addressed individually. For each
research question:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Restate the research question using the exact wording as in Chapter I

If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis
State the type of statistical test(s) performed
Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any appropriate table(s)

Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer to
them in the text and explain what they say. An example is: "Table 4 shows a
strong negative relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction
(r=-.72, p=.03)". All tables and figures have a number and a descriptive
heading. For example:
Table 4
The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.
Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new
information (i.e., information not explained in the text), then don't include it.
Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter V - Conclusions and recommendations
Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and
found (i.e., the conclusions from Chapter IV).
Discussion
Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why
you think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results
might have turned out the way they did.
Recommendations
Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to
present recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not
specifically supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two categories.
The first is recommendations to the study sponsor. What actions do you
recommend they take based upon the data. The second is recommendations to
other researchers. There are almost always ways that a study could be
improved or refined. What would you change if you were to do your study over
again? These are the recommendations to other researchers.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------References
List references in APA or MLA format alphabetically by author's last name
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Appendix
Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used, include a copy of the
informed consent form.