Robots and Robotic Technology

Sravani Hanumansetty Deepthi Boddana

Al-Ameer College of Engineering and Technology Al-Ameer College of Engineering and Technology
Flat #104,Vasavi Towers, MVP Double Road, 1-114-16/2, Plot#201, Sector 12, MVP Colony
Visakhapatnam, AP-530017, India Visakhapatnam, AP-530017, India
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Abstract - Robot can be defined as : 1. INTRODUCTION

"A re-programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or Robotics is the study and technology of robots.
specialized devices through various programmed It enables us to design automated mechanisms capable
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks." A of replacing people in certain jobs. Robotics brings
robot consists of two main parts: the robot body and together a very broad range of human activities. More
some form of artificial intelligence (AI) system. than 700,000 robots are working today in industry
The word "robot" originates from the Czech worldwide and thousands more are being used in
word for forced labor, or serf. It was introduced by ethology, medicine and space research.
playwright Karel Capek, whose fictional robotic The word "robot" originates from the Czech
inventions were much like Dr. Frankenstein's monster. word for forced labor, or serf. It was introduced by
The essential characteristics of robots are: playwright Karel Capek, whose fictional robotic
s Sensing, inventions were much like Dr. Frankenstein's monster --
s Movement, creatures created by chemical and biological, rather than
s Energy, mechanical, methods. But the current mechanical robots
s Intelligence of popular culture are not much different from these
Sensors are the perceptual system of a robot fictional biological creations.
Basically a robot consists of:
and measure physical quantities like contact, distance,
light, sound, strain, rotation, magnetism, smell, Ø A mechanical device, such as a wheeled
platform, arm, or other construction, capable of
temperature, inclination, pressure, or altitude. In the
manufacturing field, robot development has focused on interacting with its environment
Ø Sensors on or around the device that are able to
engineering robotic arms that perform manufacturing
processes. In the space industry, robotics focuses on sense the environment and give useful feedback
to the device.
highly specialized, one-of-kind planetary rovers .In
industries, robots can be used for welding, painting and Ø Systems that process sensory input in the
context of the device's current situation and
assembly. From military technology and space
exploration to the health industry and commerce, the instruct the device to perform actions in
response to the situation
advantages of using robots have been realized to the
point that they are becoming a part of our collective In the manufacturing field, robot development
has focused on engineering robotic arms that perform
experience and every day lives.
manufacturing processes. In the space industry, robotics
Today, we find most robots working for people focuses on highly specialized, one-of-kind planetary
in factories, warehouses, and laboratories. Robots have rovers. Unlike a highly automated manufacturing plant, a
the potential to change our economy, our health, our planetary rover operating on the dark side of the moon --
standard of living, our knowledge and the world in which without radio communication -- might run into
we live. As the technology progresses, we are finding unexpected situations. At a minimum, a planetary rover
new ways to use robots. Each new use brings new hope
and possibilities, but also potential dangers and risks.
must have some source of sensory input, some living things, robots have a very long way to go.
way of interpreting that input, and a way of The sensor sends information, in the form of
modifying its actions to respond to a changing electronic signals back to the controller.
world. Furthermore, the need to sense and adapt Sensors also give the robot controller
to a partially unknown environment requires information about its surroundings and let it
intelligence (in other words, artificial intelligence). know the exact position of the arm, or the state of
In industries, robots can be used for welding, the world around it.
painting, assembly etc. From military technology Sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell are
and space exploration to the health industry and the kinds of information we get from our world.
commerce, the advantages of using robots have Robots can be designed and programmed to get
been realized to the point that they are becoming specific information that is beyond what our 5
a part of our collective experience and every day senses can tell us. For instance, a robot sensor
lives. might "see" in the dark, detect tiny amounts of
The science of Robotics is barely fifty invisible radiation or measure movement that is
years old, but is taking advantage of rapid too small or fast for the human eye to see. The
advances in micro technology and control of a manipulator or an industrial robot is
nanotechnology to evolve into a form of artificial based on the correct interpretation of sensory
intelligence that is beyond the imagination of the information. This information can be obtained
most prolific science fiction writers. And yet we either internally to the robot or externally using a
owe the term robotics to a science fiction writer, wide range of sensors.
Isaac Asimov (1926-1996), who also conceived Since sensors are any device that
the Three Laws that must govern the provides input of data to the robot controller a
manufacture of robots and he later added a wide variety of sensors exist. Some basic types of
'zeroeth law'. sensors are shown:
Law Zero: A robot may not injure humanity, or, Ø Touch sensors which tell the robot
through inaction, allow humanity to come to when it bumps into something.
harm. Ø Light sensors which measure the light
Law One: A robot may not injure a human being, intensity.
or, through inaction, allow a human being to Ø Heat sensors which measure the
come to harm, unless this would violate a higher temperature.
order law. Ø Ultra sonic sensors which tell the robot
Law Two: A robot must obey orders given it by how far away objects are.
human beings, except where such orders would Ø And gyroscopes which tell the robot
conflict with a higher order law. which direction is up.
Law Three: A robot must protect its own
existence as long as such protection does not 2.1. Pressure sensors
conflict with a higher order law. “In recent years, lots of efforts have
been made to give robots the ability to hear and
2. SENSORS see. But what about the sense of touch? Unlike
us, robots don’t have sensitive skin .But this is
about to change. By using organic, or plastic,
field-effect transistors as pressure sensors
deposited on a flexible material, researches have
created an artificial skin which will give the sense
of touch. The prototype has a density of 16
sensors per square centimeter, far from the 1500
Sensors provide some limited feedback of our fingertips.
to the robot so that it can do its job. Compared to
the senses and abilities of even the simplest
Pressure sensing allows a robot to tell when it collides with something, or when something pushes against
it. Pressure sensors can be used to measure force, and in some cases, to determine the contour of an
applied force.

A capacitive pressure sensor employs 2 voltage. When pressure appears at some point
metal plates separated by a layer of on the pad, the material compresses at and near
nonconductive foam. This forms a capacitive that point, reducing the resistance between
transducer. The transducer is connected in series certain electrode pairs. This causes a current
or parallel with an inductor. The resulting increase in a particular region in the pad. The
inductance-capacitance (LC) combination location of the pressure can be determined
determines the frequency of an oscillator. If an according to which electrode pairs experience the
object strikes or presses against the transducer, increase in current. The extent of the pressure
the plate spacing decreases, causing the can be determined by how much the current
capacitance to increase. This lowers the oscillator increase. If the electrode matrix is fine enough,
frequency. When the pressure is removed, the the contour of the pressure -producing object can
foam springs back, the plates return to their be determined by a microprocessor that evaluates
original spacing, and the oscillator returns to its the electrode curre nt profile.
original frequency. A capacitive pressure sensor The output of a pressure sensor is
can be fooled by metallic objects. fI a good analog, but it can be converted to digital data
electrical conductor comes very close to the using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This
plates, the capacitance might change even if signal can be used by a robot controller. Pressure
physical contact is not made. If this occurs, the on a transducer in the front of a robot might
sensor will interpret this proximity as pressure. cause the machine to back up; pressure on the
An elastomer pressure sensor solves right side might make the machine turn left. The
the proximity problem inherent in the capacitive presence of pressure might be used to actuate an
device. The elastomer is a foam pad with alarm, or to switch a device on or off. Calibrated
resistance that varies depending on how much it pressure sensors can be used to measure applied
is compressed. An array of electrodes is force, mass, weight, or acceleration.
connected to the top of the pad; an identical Proximity sensing: Proximity sensing is
array is connected to the bottom. Each electrode the ability of a robot to tell when it is near an
in the top matrix receives a negative voltage, and object, or when something is near it. This sense
its mate in the bottom matrix receives a positive keeps a robot from running into things. It can
also be used to measure the distance from a robot force limiter can also reduce the chance of injury
to personnel working around the robot.

2.2. Sensors in space robotics applications

The space environment represents one

of the most challenging applications of robotics.
to some object. Indeed, there is a widely-held but contentious
The simplest proximity sensors do not view-point that space application represents a
measure distance. A bumper can be passive, natural and inevitable arena for the advancement
simply making the robot bounce away from of robotics by imposing the requirement for high
things it hits. More often, a bumper has a switch autonomy in space robotic systems. A minority
that closes when it makes contact, sending a extension of this viewpoint is that robotics is a
signal to the controller causing the robot to back discipline that has been stultified by its
away. When whiskers hit something, they association with manufacturing, and space
vibrate. This can be detected, and a signal sent to exploration provides an essential application in
the robot controller. order to advance robotics as a discipline further
towards it s goal of developing human-like
Back Pressure Sensor: A back-pressure sensor capabilities in the machine. Regardless of
is a transducer that detects and measures the whether this may be so, or not, space application
instantaneous torque that a robot motor applies. of robotics imposes unique drivers on robotics
The sensor produces a variable signal, usually a technology. The metric for success in space
voltage that changes in a linear manner as the systems is the same as that for biological
torque varies. organisms – survival in a hostile and unrelenting
environment.

When a robot motor operates, it

encounters mechanical resistance. This
resistance might depend on lifted mass,
mechanical friction against a surface or within a
system, or the opposition to applied force caused
by electromagnetic interaction (as in an electric
generator). Torque is the turning force that a
robot motor delivers. It is important that a robot
motor provide enough torque to overcome the
resistance in external systems, but excessive
torque can be destructive.
A robot motor produces a measurable
back pressure that depends on the applied Every few years (the most recent
torque. The greater the torque, the greater the following the Shuttle disaster), the eternally-
back pressure, and greater is the output of the resurgent question of whether humans or robots
back-pressure sensor. This output, called the should be adopted for space exploration is
back signal or back voltage, can be used in a dusted off for regurgitation. This debate is
feedback loop to reduce the torque applied by misplaced – there is a well-defined distribution of
the motor. The loop configuration acts as a force tasks across the human and the machine, and this
limiter that minimizes the possibility of damage to distribution is of an evolutionary nature. There
objects handled by robotic end effectors. The are tasks that are suited to robotics, and, likewise,
there are tasks suited to humans. Robotics serves planetary deployment, the stresses of landing
to ease the burden of more manual and repetitive and the environment of the target planet. The
tasks from the human astronaut allowing his/her application of robotics to spacecraft engineering
deployment to tasks requiring the beyond the imposes its own demands on the spacecraft
state-of-the-art machine intelligence. There is engineer. All space missions are designed to
little doubt that human spaceflight provides a achieve the mission goals that traditionally have
degree of flexibility in space activities that is been telecommunications provision, Earth
unattainable in robotic missions. observation (including meteorological) data
As the capabilities of robotics become return, military expediency, navigation functions,
more sophisticated over time, so the role of or scientific data return. Most spacecraft to date
humans will shift exclusively to tasks of greater have thus been almost entirely designed as
complexity. However, human exploration platforms for sensors for the collection of data
missions will always require prior reconnaissance and its transmission from space to Earth without
by robotic missions – robots do not suffer the physical interaction with the space environment.
fragility of the human body and can reach further Most spacecraft actuation mechanisms have
into outer space than human beings. Human been associated with propulsion, attitude control
space missions and robotic space missions are or mechanical deployment of large structures
complementary. The human v robots debate is such as communications antennae and solar
thus futile at best and vacuous at worst. There is array panels. However, robotic actuation under
little doubt that robotics and automation has closed loop control is becoming increasingly
great potential in space activities. It is important for future space missions. The addition
uncontroversial that no space system in the of robotic actuation imposes an order of
foreseeable future will be entirely autonomous. magnitude increase in complexity to spacecraft
However, the space engineering community has a design in terms of the performance of tasks that
particular aversion to placing their trust in physically interact with their environments. For
machines, preferring to rely on the human being, robotic space and planetary exploration, these
be it ground operator or astronaut, to oversee, environments may be partially or totally priori
and often even manually control space activities unknown. Indeed, there is a peculiar
such as rendezvous and docking. This contradiction between the spacecraft engineer
emplacement of control on the human being can who tends to avoid mechanical actuation
be dangerous – human performance is limited by systems as potential single point failure modes,
strength, vigilance, fatigue and reaction speed. and the roboticist for whom actuation provides
Indeed, human error has been the root cause of the mode of interaction with the environment.
65-70% of civil airline accidents. The general Most spacecraft actuation mechanisms have
lesson is that if a procedure can be automated been associated with propulsion, attitude control
safely, then it should be. Automation is or mechanical deployment of large structures
commonly adopted for fault diagnosis, power such as communications antennae and solar
management and scheduling, and active thermal array panels. However, robotic actuation under
control of spacecraft. closed loop control is becoming increasingly
The another port of call is to define important for future space missions. The addition
terminology: “robotic spacecraft” is a generic of robotic actuation imposes an order of
term used to refer to deep space probes of all magnitude increase in complexity to spacecraft
types with an emphasis on planetary explorers, design in terms of the performance of tasks that
but often used also to refer to space telescopes. physically interact with their environments. For
The term emphasizes their unmanned nature with robotic space and planetary exploration, these
the implication of significant degrees of environments may be partially or totally priori
autonomy, particularly for deep space probes unknown. Indeed, there is a peculiar
that are characterized by deployment at great contradiction between the spacecraft engineer
distances. who tends to avoid mechanical actuation
The first constraint imposed on the systems as potential single point failure modes,
robotic spacecraft is the necessity of functioning and the roboticist for whom actuation provides
in a hostile, non-terrestrial environment. All the mode of interaction with the environment.
spacecraft must survive the stresses of launch, An additional constraint is the need for
the vacuum and radiation of space, and for high reliability to ensure that the spacecraft
survives until the end of its mission. This 3. CONCLUSION
constraint places high emphasis on validation
and testing of components and assemblies under However, robots of today are not
space-like conditions. Of particular significance is exactly the walking, talking intelligent machines
the requirement for high payload capacity as a of movies, stories and our dreams. Today, we
fraction of total mass as this defines the raison find most robots working for people in factories,
d’etre of the mission. warehouses, and laboratories. In the future,
The payload may include a robotic system robots may show up in other places: our schools,
comprising: our homes, even our bodies.
Ø Human-computer interfaces including
tele-robotic control and virtual reality Robots have the potential to change our
interfaces; economy, our health, our standard of living, our
Ø Real-time control system including knowledge and the world in which we live. As the
trajectory planning and generation, technology progresses, we are finding new ways
feedback servo-control laws, etc; to use robots. Each new use brings new hope
Ø Onboard computer (probably a and possibilities, but also potential dangers and
dedicated control computer) with fault risks.
tolerance;
Ø Sensors and sensor processing, One thing is certain: robots are here to stay.
including stereo-vision, etc;
Ø Actuation systems including 4. REFERENCES
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