Methicillin

Resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus
MRSA
Last Updated: February 2011

An additional version of
this factsheet, with citations
is available at
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/
Factsheets/pdfs/mrsacitations.pdf

Importance
Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen often carried
asymptomatically on the human body. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains
have acquired a gene that makes them resistant to all beta-lactam antibiotics.
Hospital-associated strains of this organism are serious nosocomial pathogens that
have become resistant to most common antibiotics, and treatment can be
challenging. Community-associated MRSA strains occur in people who have not
been hospitalized or recently had invasive procedures. They first appeared in highrisk populations (e.g., intravenous drug users, people with chronic illnesses), but are
now found even in healthy children. Until recently, community-associated strains
were susceptible to many antibiotics other than beta-lactams; however, resistance
seems to be increasing, and multiple antibiotic resistant strains have started to
emerge. Human-adapted MRSA can be transmitted to animals in close contact,
which can sometimes act as carriers and re-infect people.
Animal-adapted MRSA strains also exist. The pig-associated lineage MRSA
CC398 is a particular concern. This lineage, which apparently emerged between 2003
and 2005, has spread widely among swine in some locations. Colonization with
CC398 has also been reported in other species, including veal calves and poultry.
Asymptomatic carriage is common among people who work with colonized swine or
other livestock, and these organisms can cause opportunistic infections. Other MRSA
strains can also affect animals. Outbreaks in horses suggest that MRSA might be an
emerging problem in this species. Dogs and cats seem to be infected infrequently, and
mainly by human-adapted strains; however, carriage rates can be higher during
outbreaks in veterinary hospitals and other facilities. While colonization of pets is
often transient, it might contribute to maintaining MRSA within a household or
facility.

Etiology
Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram positive, coagulase positive coccus in the family
Staphylococcaceae. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains have acquired the mecA
gene, which is carried on a large mobile genetic element called the staphylococcal
chromosomal cassette mec (SCCmec). This gene codes for a penicillin binding
protein, PBP2a, which interferes with the effects of beta lactam antibiotics (e.g.
penicillins and cephalosporins) on cell walls. It confers virtually complete resistance
to all beta-lactam antibiotics including the semi-synthetic penicillins.
Acquisition of mecA seems to have occurred independently in a number of S.
aureus strains. Some clonal lineages of S. aureus have a tendency to colonize specific
species, and may be adapted to either humans or animals. Other lineages (extended
host spectrum genotypes) are less host-specific, and can infect a wide variety of
species. Some MRSA strains, called epidemic strains, are more prevalent and tend to
spread within or between hospitals and countries. Other sporadic strains are isolated
less frequently and do not usually spread widely. There are also MRSA strains that
produce various exotoxins (e.g., toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, exfoliative toxins A or
B, and enterotoxins) associated with specific syndromes, such as toxic shock
syndrome. Community-associated MRSA strains that express a toxin called PantonValentine leucocidin (PVL) have been linked to skin and soft tissue infections and
severe necrotizing pneumonia. It is possible that PVL are associated with increased
virulence in general, although this remains to be proven.
Phenotypic methicillin resistance and/or the mecA gene has been reported
occasionally in various animal-adapted Staphylococcus species. Some of these
organisms can cause zoonotic infections or colonize people asymptomatically. There
are also concerns that they may transfer mecA to human-adapted staphylococci.
Naming conventions for S. aureus strains
There are at least three different genetic techniques currently used for the
classification of S. aureus strains, including pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE),
multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and DNA sequencing of the X region of the
protein A gene (spa typing). Additional methods were used in the past. Consequently,
2014

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Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

a single S. aureus isolate can have more than one valid
name, depending on the test used for typing. Examples of
strain names are USA100, CMRSA1 or EMRSA1, based on
PFGE typing, ST followed by a number (e.g., ST398) based
on MLST typing, or t followed by a number (e.g., t011) in
spa typing. MRSA are also grouped, by MLST, into clonal
complexes (e.g., CC398), which contain genetically related
ST types. Naming conventions are complex, and strains
given a single name in one system are sometimes separated
into more than one strain in another system. Although
names such as ST9 or CC398 are used for both methicillinresistant and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus of that
genetic type, the isolates referred to in this factsheet are all
MRSA unless otherwise noted.

Species Affected
Colonization or infection with MRSA has been
reported in many species including domesticated ruminants,
pigs, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, rodents, captive marine
mammals, a captive elephant, a bat, birds (including
poultry, pigeons and psittacine birds) and turtles.
Pigs seem to be true reservoir hosts for MRSA CC398,
which is also called non-typeable MRSA (NT-MRSA)
because most isolates cannot be typed by PFGE (although
they can be typed by other methods), or livestock-associated
MRSA (LA-MRSA). CC398 does not seem to be particularly
host specific, and it has been detected in other species
including horses, cattle, poultry and dogs, as well as rats
living on pig farms. Other strains may be common among
pigs in some areas (e.g., CMRSA2 [EMRSA3] in Canada,
or ST9 in parts of Asia). In cattle, many MRSA strains that
cause mastitis seem to be of human origin, although bovineassociated strains have been suggested and CC398 has been
identified. Poultry infected with either CC398 or ST9 have
been found in Europe. MRSA strains in horses are varied
and their origin is largely unknown. Many of the common
strains in this species (e.g., CMRSA5 [USA500; MRSA
ST8 SCCmecIV]) belong to older human lineages that were
common in the past, but have been superceded by other
strains, or to less common groups. Equine-adapted strains
may exist, and may be spreading in horse populations. Cats
and dogs seem to be colonized only sporadically, mainly by
human hospital-associated or community-associated
strains. Most infections in these species are thought to be
acquired from people, and carriage is often transient.
There is little information about MRSA in exotic animals. In
case reports, humans seemed to be the source of the organism
for an elephant calf with skin disease, and for captive
dolphins and walruses at a marine park.
Zoonotic potential
A number of MRSA strains predominantly colonize
people and circulate in human populations. They include a
the common hospital-associated clones CC5, CC8, CC22,
CC30 and CC45, and additional community-associated
strains. There is evidence that these organisms can be
Last Updated: February 2011

2014

transferred to animals, and most likely re-transmitted from

this source to humans. People can also be infected or
colonized with MRSA clonal complexes maintained in
animals, such as CC398. How long such colonization
persists, in the absence of continued contact with the
animal, is still uncertain.

Geographic Distribution
MRSA can be found worldwide, although the
prevalence varies between regions. CC398 is the
predominant MRSA among pigs in Europe, but it has also
been recognized in North America and Singapore. ST9
appears to be the prevalent MRSA strain among pigs in
China, Hong Kong and Malaysia, and CC398 may be
uncommon or absent in these regions. The most common
strains in dogs and cats are those found in humans, which
differ between geographic regions. Equine MRSA isolates
also appear to vary with the location.

Transmission
Humans
In humans, S. aureus is an opportunistic pathogen. Both
methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant strains can be
found as normal commensals on the skin (especially the
axillae and perineum), the nasopharynx and anterior nares of
some of the population. Most people who develop
symptomatic infections with hospital-associated MRSA
carry the organism in the nares, but community-associated
MRSA may colonize sites other than the nares, and clinical
cases often occur in patients who are not colonized.
Colonization with S. aureus can occur any time after birth,
and carriage may be transient or persistent.
MRSA are usually transmitted by direct contact, often
via the hands, with colonized or infected people. Humans
remain infectious as long as the carrier state persists or the
clinical lesions remain active. MRSA can also be
disseminated on fomites (including food that has been
contaminated by human carriers) and in aerosols. S. aureus
(and presumably MRSA) can be transmitted from the
mother to her infant during delivery.
Person-to-person spread of the pig-adapted MRSA
strain CC398 seems to be infrequent and limited, and to
occur mainly within families or in hospitals and institutions.
However, a recent outbreak in a hospital in the Netherlands
suggests that more extensive person-to-person transmission
can be seen under some conditions. People can also
transmit CC398 to animals such as dogs.
Animals
Asymptomatic colonization with MRSA, including both
nasal and rectal carriage, has been reported in animals. The
organisms can colonize more than one site. Carrier animals
may serve as reservoirs for disease in themselves, and they
may transmit MRSA to other animals or people. Infection or
colonization has been observed in people after as little as 4
hours of close contact with a sick, MRSA colonized foal.

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Some MRSA strains, such as CC398, are readily
transmitted within the host species to which they are
adapted. The transmission of human-adapted MRSA
lineages between animals is poorly understood. One study
conducted at a canine rescue facility suggested that these
strains might not be transmitted readily between healthy
dogs. In a few case reports, family pets seem to have acted
as one reservoir for the bacteria, and decolonization of
humans was unsuccessful when carriage in these animals
was not addressed. The frequency with which this occurs
is still poorly understood.
Environmental sources and food products
S. aureus are reported to remain viable for 46 hours on
glass, 17 hours in sunlight, and less than 7 days on floors
under laboratory conditions. Environmental contamination
with MRSA has been reported in some veterinary practices,
even at times when MRSA patients were not detected. On
pig farms, these organisms have been found in various
samples, such as dust, and possibly even in air. In abattoirs
that slaughter CC398 carrier pigs, MRSA could be detected
in a number of areas by the end of the day, but only limited
locations were still contaminated by the next morning.
Both animal-associated and human-associated MRSA
strains have been found in meat. MRSA can also occur in
raw milk and cheese. S. aureus is not ordinarily invasive
when eaten, except under rare and unusual circumstances,
and these organisms are mainly of concern in contributing
to carriage or infection by direct contact.

Disinfection
S. aureus is susceptible to various disinfectants
including sodium hypochlorite, alcohols, quaternary
ammonium
compounds,
iodophors,
phenolics,
glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and a combination of iodine
and alcohol. This organism can also be destroyed by moist
heat (121C for a minimum of 15 minutes) or dry heat
(160-170C for at least 1 hour).

Infections in Animals
Incubation Period
The incubation period varies with the syndrome.
Animals can be colonized for prolonged periods without
developing clinical signs.

Clinical Signs
Infection with MRSA results in the same syndromes as
S. aureus, which can cause a wide variety of suppurative
infections. MRSA has been specifically isolated from
various skin and wound infections including abscesses,
dermatitis including severe pyoderma, exudative dermatitis
in pigs, postoperative wound infections, fistulas, and
intravenous catheter or surgical implant infections. The
presence of suture material or orthopedic implants seems to
be linked to persistent infections in dogs and cats. MRSA
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has also been found in other conditions including

pneumonia, rhinitis, sinusitis, otitis, bacteremia, septic
arthritis, osteomyelitis, omphalophlebitis, metritis, mastitis
(including gangrenous mastitis) and urinary tract infections.
Both Bordetella bronchiseptica and MRSA were isolated
from the nasal and oropharyngeal tract of puppies after an
outbreak of fatal respiratory disease; the role of MRSA in
the outbreak was uncertain.

Post Mortem Lesions

Click to view images

The post-mortem lesions of MRSA infections are those

seen with any purulent bacterial infection, and vary with the
organ system or tissue involved.

Diagnostic Tests
Infection with MRSA, including colonization, can be
diagnosed by culture and identification of the organism.
MRSA can colonize more than one site, and in many
species including dogs and cats, the best sampling site to
detect carriers is uncertain. Nasal and rectal sampling
should both be done whenever possible. One study reported
that nasal swabs detected most colonized pigs, but some
animals carried MRSA in both locations, and a few carrier
pigs (all weanlings) could only be found using rectal swabs.
S. aureus grows on a number of media. On blood agar,
colonies are usually beta-hemolytic. Enrichment media, as
well as selective plates for MRSA, are available. On
microscopic examination, S. aurues is a Gram positive,
non-spore forming coccus, which may be found singly, in
pairs, in short chains or in irregular clusters. Biochemical
tests such as the coagulase test are used to differentiate it
from other staphylococci. S. aureus can also be identified
with the API Staph Ident system.
If S. aureus is isolated from an infection, genetic testing
or antibiotic susceptibility testing can identify methicillin
resistant strains. The presence of the mecA gene defines
MRSA, and tests to detect this gene, such as PCR, are the
gold standard for identification. A latex agglutination test can
detect PBP2a, the product of mecA. Phenotypic antibiotic
susceptibility tests (e.g., disk diffusion or MIC
determination) can also be used to identify MRSA, but have
some drawbacks compared to detecting mecA or PBP2a.
Methicillin-susceptible and resistant subpopulations can coexist in vitro; although the entire colony carries the resistance
genes, only a small number of bacteria may express
resistance in culture. The expression of resistance in
phenotypic tests can also vary with growth conditions such as
temperature. In addition, some susceptibility tests can
overestimate methicillin resistance; isolates that do not carry
mecA (and thus, are not MRSA) can appear to be
phenotypically resistant to methicillin.
MRSA clones or strains can be identified with
molecular tests such as PFGE, MLST, SCCmec typing, spa
typing and other assays. This is usually done mainly for
epidemiological purposes, such as tracing outbreaks. A
combination of methods may be needed to identify a strain.

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Treatment
Antibiotics, topical treatments and other measures have
been used successfully to treat clinical cases. In some cases,
surgical implants were also removed. Antibiotic therapy
should be based on susceptibility testing; however, all
MRSA strains are considered to be resistant to penicillins,
cephalosporins, cephems and other -lactam antibiotics,
regardless of susceptibility testing results. Most CC398
MRSA are resistant to tetracyclines, and many are also
resistant to trimethoprim. Susceptibility to fluoroquinolones
and resistance to tetracycline seems to be typical of the
epidemic MRSA strain CMRSA5 (CC8 lineage; USA500),
found among horses especially in Canada. Some MRSA
can appear sensitive to clindamycin during routine
sensitivity testing, but carry a gene that allows them to
become resistant during treatment. In one study, inducible
clindamycin resistance was very common among
erythromycin-resistant, clindamycin-susceptible MRSA
isolates from dogs and cats in Canada. Local treatment with
antiseptic compounds such as chlorhexidine or povidone
iodine may be helpful in some types of infections.
Meticulous wound management without antimicrobials was
successful in one dog. Animals treated with topical therapy
alone must be monitored closely for signs of localized
progression or systemic spread.
Certain antimicrobials, such as vancomycin and
tigecycline, are critically important for treating human
illnesses caused by MRSA. In some cases, they may the
drugs of last resort. The use of these drugs in animals may
place selection pressure on isolates that can infect humans.
Thus, they are controversial for treating MRSA-infected
animals, and should be avoided if at all possible. Recent
publications should be consulted for the current list of
critically important drugs.

Prevention
Veterinary hospitals should establish guidelines to
minimize cross-contamination by MRSA and other
methicillin-resistant staphylococci. In addition to hand
hygiene, infection control measures (with particular
attention to invasive devices such as intravenous catheters
and urinary catheters), and environmental disinfection,
barrier precautions should be used when there is a risk of
contact with body fluids or when an animal has a
recognized MRSA infection. These animals should be
isolated. MRSA-infected wounds should be covered
whenever possible. Although colonized people can transmit
MRSA to animals, one study suggests that there may be
only a small risk of transmission from colonized surgical
personnel if infection control protocols are followed.
Researchers have recommended that veterinary
hospitals initiate surveillance programs for MRSA,
particularly in horses. Screening at admission allows
isolation of carriers, the establishment of barrier precautions
to prevent transmission to other animals, and prompt
recognition of opportunistic infections caused by these
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organisms. However, screening all animals can be costly

and may not be practical in some practices. An alternative
is to screen targeted populations, such as animals with nonantibiotic responsive, non-healing or nosocomial infections,
and animals belonging to healthcare workers or known
MRSA-positive households. Animals that have been in
contact with either MRSA cases or infected/ colonized staff
should be tested.
On farms, MRSA may sometimes be introduced when
buying new stock, and spread during livestock movements.
Biosecurity measures, including dedicated clothing and
showering in, may decrease the risk of MRSA introduction
to a farm by human visitors, or reduce transmission
between units. Because CC398 has been detected in rats
living on pig farms, rats should be considered in control
programs. Whether MRSA in manure poses a risk when
used as fertilizer, and the effectiveness of measures such as
composting or heat treatment, are unknown. Avoiding
routine antimicrobial use in food animals might reduce
selection pressures, and lower the prevalence of these
organisms in livestock. .
The best method to eliminate MRSA carriage in animals
in poorly understood, and may vary with the species. Dogs,
cats and some other animals have been known to
spontaneously eliminate MRSA when the environment is
regularly cleaned and disinfected, and re-infection is
prevented. Kenneling a colonized pet, preferably in isolation,
might be considered in some situations. The efficacy of
decolonization with antimicrobials is uncertain. It is not
recommended for routine use in pets, but may be considered
in individual cases to control transmission, e.g., when an
animal remains a persistent carrier or infection control
measures are impossible. Successful treatments used in three
colonized dogs were oral doxycycline and rifampin, rifampin
and ciprofloxacin, and fusidic acid and chlorhexidine.
Topical treatment with mupirocin or other drugs to eliminate
nasal carriage has been considered impractical in pets. On
two colonized horse farms, MRSA was eliminated with
infection control measures, screening and segregation of
animal carriers, and decolonization of human personnel,
together with antibiotics in two horses that remained longterm carriers.

Morbidity and Mortality

Outbreaks or clusters of clinical cases have been
reported occasionally among horses at veterinary hospitals,
and some studies suggest that MRSA may be an emerging
pathogen in this species. Reports of infections in
companion animals, mainly as postoperative complications
and wound infections, also appear to be increasing. In
addition to MRSA carriage or contact with carriers, risk
factors include repeated courses of antibiotics,
hospitalizations, intravenous catheterization and surgery.
The mortality rate is expected to vary with the syndrome,
e.g., lower mortality in superficial infections and higher
case fatality rates in septicemia and other serious invasive

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diseases. At several veterinary referral hospitals, 92% of
dogs with infections mainly affecting the skin and ears were
discharged, with no significant differences in the survival
rate compared to methicillin-sensitive S. aureus. In another
study, 84% of horses with MRSA infections at 6 veterinary
hospitals in Canada survived to discharge. The mortality
rate was 20% in an outbreak of exudative dermatitis caused
by CC398 in young pigs.
Prevalence of MRSA carriage in animals
Colonization with MRSA seems to be uncommon in
healthy dogs and cats not linked to a source of MRSA.
Studies from North America, Europe, Hong Kong and
Brazil reported carriage rates of 0-2% among healthy dogs
and cats in the community, although one U.S. study found
that up to 4% were colonized. Elevated rates of MRSA
carriage have been reported in some animal facilities such
as veterinary clinics or kennels, especially during
outbreaks. In a household or institution (e.g., assisted living
facility) where humans are MRSA carriers, individual
animals may be persistent carriers, sporadically colonized,
or unaffected. The colonization status can differ for each
animal in a multi-pet household or institution.
Overall MRSA carriage may also be low among
healthy horses in the community, and colonization seems to
be transient in many animals. Some North American and
European surveys reported that MRSA was isolated from 0%
to less than 2% of horses surveyed. Carriage rates varying
from less than 0.5% to 11% were found on presentation at
equine clinics and veterinary hospitals. One Canadian study
reported that infections were clustered, with 13% or 5% of
the horses colonized on two farms, and no MRSA detected
on eight other farms.
Colonization with CC398 is very common among pigs
in some parts of Europe. The reported prevalence ranges
from approximately 1% to 40% in different countries, and
up to 81% of the farms in some countries may be affected.
One study also found MRSA (mainly CC398) in 88% of the
veal calf rearing units and 28% of the veal calves tested in
the Netherlands. In Belgium, MRSA was detected on
almost 10% of farms with mastitis problems, and in 4-7%
of the cattle on infected farms. Information on livestockassociated MRSA strains in other parts of the world is
limited. In Canada, a study found that 25% of swine, and
45% of farms were colonized with MRSA, mainly CC398
but also CMRSA2 (US100; EMRSA3; in CC5). In Iowa
and Illinois, 11% of tested swine carried MRSA.
Approximately 11% of pigs on Chinese farms and 16% of
pigs from Hong Kong markets were colonized with MRSA
ST9, with apparently lower ST9 colonization rates in
surveys from Malaysia. In South Korea, where MRSA is
common among people, the quarter-level prevalence of
MRSA in milk was reported to be less than 0.5%. Some
studies found that colonization in pigs varies with their age,
while others detected no significant difference.

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MRSA has also been detected in poultry in several

countries, but its prevalence and importance are still poorly
understood. In Belgium, CC398 was isolated from healthy
poultry on 13% of the farms sampled. Another Belgian study
detected MRSA in 20% to 100% of broiler chickens but not
in laying hens. All of these isolates were CC398, but of a spa
type not usually detected in other livestock. In the
Netherlands, 0% to 24% of each broiler group entering
abattoirs carried MRSA, and 23% of their flocks of origin
were colonized.

Infections in Humans
Incubation Period
The incubation period for S. aureus infections in
humans is highly variable. In susceptible patients, clinical
cases may become apparent 4 to 10 days after exposure;
however, opportunistic infections can also occur after an
indefinite period of asymptomatic carriage.

Clinical Signs
MRSA is an opportunist, like other S. aureus, and can
cause the same types of infections. It may be involved in
various skin and soft tissue infections, as well as invasive
conditions such as pneumonia, endocarditis, septic arthritis,
osteomyelitis, meningitis and septicemia. Hospital-acquired
MRSA strains are major causes of nosocomial infections
associated with indwelling medical devices and surgical sites.
Human community-acquired-MRSA strains are mainly
associated with superficial skin or soft tissue disease,
although they have also caused sepsis, necrotizing fasciitis,
necrotizing pneumonia and other conditions. MRSA strains
that carry the exotoxin TSST-1 have been found in cases of
toxic shock syndrome, especially in Japan. Other toxinexpressing MRSA strains (exfoliative toxins A or B) can
cause staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, a disease
characterized by widespread blistering and loss of the outer
layers of the epidermis.
MRSA strains that produce enterotoxins while growing
in food can cause acute staphylococcal gastroenteritis (food
poisoning). However, antibiotic resistance is generally
irrelevant in this condition, because the preformed toxin is
eaten in food and the organism is not present in the body.
Invasive disease after ingesting S. aureus is very unusual,
although it was reported in a severely immunocompromised
patient who had received antacids, as well as antibiotics to
which the (methicillin-sensitive) strain was resistant.
Zoonotic MRSA can presumably cause the same types
of infections as human-associated MRSA strains. CC398
has mainly been found in superficial skin and soft tissue
infections, but some case reports have described aggressive
wound infection, destructive otomastoiditis, sinusitis,
endocarditis, nosocomial bacteremia, pneumonia, and
severe invasive infection with multiorgan failure.

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Diagnostic Tests
S. aureus infections in humans are diagnosed by
culture and identification of the organism, as in animals.
(Staphylococcal food poisoning is diagnosed by
examination of the food for the organisms and/or toxins.).

Treatment
Factors such as the location, severity and progression
of the infection, as well as the age and health of the patient,
can affect the type of treatment chosen. Skin infections are
sometimes treated by management techniques that do not
require systemic antibiotics (e.g., incision and drainage for
abscesses). Treatment may also require adjunct measures
such as the removal of catheters.
Antibiotics must be selected based on susceptibility
testing. It can be difficult to find an effective choice for
hospital-acquired MRSA, which are often resistant to most
common antibiotics. Agents used to treat serious infections
caused by multiple drug resistant MRSA strains include
vancomycin linezolid, tigecycline, quinupristin/dalfopristin
and daptomycin. Resistance has been reported to some of
these antibiotics. In particular, vancomycin resistance
seems to be increasing. Community-acquired MRSA strains
have often been resistant only to -lactam agents,
macrolides and azalides. However, resistance to other
antibiotics may be increasing, multiple antibiotic resistant
strains have started to emerge, and vancomycin-resistant
strains have been reported.

Prevention
Hand washing, avoidance of direct contact with nasal
secretions and wounds, barrier precautions when handling
animals with illnesses caused by MRSA, environmental
cleaning and other infection control measures are expected
to reduce the risk of acquiring MRSA from infected or
colonized animals. The best procedure to follow when a
resident animal becomes colonized in a healthcare facility is
still uncertain. In one recent outbreak, options presented to
the facility included removing the animal until it cleared the
bacterium, or allowing it to remain, with or without
antibiotic treatment, and with continued monitoring
(culture) and the encouragement of good hand hygiene
among human contacts.
Infection control measures, particularly hand washing,
are also important in preventing MRSA transmission from
humans. Outpatients with MRSA skin lesions should keep
them covered with clean, dry bandages. In some
circumstances, such as the inability to adequately cover a
MRSA-infected wound, close contact with other people (or
susceptible animals) should be avoided. The Netherlands and
Scandinavian counties have greatly reduced the incidence of
hospital-associated human MRSA by screening and
decolonization of hospital staff, and screening of patients on
admission. High risk patients, including people who work
with pigs or veal calves, are isolated until the screening test
demonstrates that they are MRSA-free. MRSA outbreaks are
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2014

investigated aggressively, and antibiotic use is restricted.

Opinions in other countries remain divided on the benefits of
screening on admission, compared to universal infection
control procedures alone.
Decolonization of humans can be controversial, and
may be recommended in some situations or groups of
patients, but not others. A variety of agents, including
various combinations of intranasal agents (e.g., mupirocin
and fusidic acid) and systemic antimicrobials have been
used in people. Other family members may need to be
decolonized concurrently, and in some cases, carriage in
pets may need to be considered. Decolonization is not
always successful; the organism may be reintroduced by
carriage in other parts of the body, and resistance to drugs,
including mupirocin, can occur. People who work with pigs
carrying CC398 often become recolonized from this source.

Morbidity and Mortality

Hospital-associated MRSA is one of the most
prevalent nosocomial pathogens worldwide. Most
infections occur in high risk patients, including the elderly
and people with open wounds. Infections caused by
community-acquired MRSA are also becoming more
common. As with many bacterial infections, the case
fatality rate differs with the syndrome. Mortality also
depends on success in finding an effective antibiotic for the
strain.
Some evidence suggests that CC398 might be less
virulent in people than traditional human-adapted strains,
although severe infections can occur. In one hospital in the
Netherlands, approximately 13% of the patients who carried
CC398 had symptomatic infections, while 42% of patients
colonized with other isolates were affected. In Belgium,
where 38% of humans who lived on swine farms were
colonized with CC398, skin infections occurred in 0.8%.
MRSA carriage
Carriage rates for human MRSA strains in the general
population range from less than 1% to 5%, but only some
people are persistently colonized. Human healthcare workers
are expected to be at an increased risk for colonization, due
to occupational exposure. A number of studies have also
reported elevated MRSA carriage among veterinary
personnel (including livestock, equine and small animal
veterinarians), even in people with no known link to a MRSA
case. Reported colonization rates among staff at veterinary
hospitals and referral clinics in Europe and North America
vary from 0% to 10%, and have occasionally been reported
to be as high as 27%. MRSA carriage is also elevated in farm
and abattoir workers who handle live swine, veal calves or
poultry infected with CC398, or pigs infected with ST9. In
the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium, reported
colonization with CC398 can be as high as 86% in some
populations. Some studies have suggested that human
colonization with animal-adapted MRSA strains might be
transient.

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Internet Resources
Association for Professionals in Infection Control and
Epidemiology. Guidelines for the Control of MRSA
http://goapic.org/MRSA.htm
British Small Animal Veterinary Association. MRSA
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