Mechanical Properties and Micro Structural Characterization of Friction

Stir Welding applied to Marine Steels and Comparing it with

Conventional TIG Welding.
Abstract
With the impending development of FSW tools for steel with useful lifetimes,
attention has turned to the mechanical properties of the welds that can be made in a range
of industrially significant steels. Comparative study will be undertaken to examine the
use of friction stir welding on shipbuilding steels. This study will help us to make an
assessment of the distortion induced in fabricating plates by the FSW welding technique
and will provides initial comparative data on weld tensile strength, toughness and fatigue
life of Friction Stir Welding to Tungsten Inert Gas welding.
INTRODUCTION
What is friction stir welding?
Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (the metal is not melted) that uses a
third body tool to join two facing surfaces. Heat is generated between the tool and material which
leads to a very soft region near the FSW tool. It then mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal
at the place of the joint, then the softened metal (due to the elevated temperature) can be joined
using mechanical pressure (which is applied by the tool), much like joining clay, or dough. It is
primarily used on aluminium and most often on extruded aluminium (non-heat treatable alloys), and
on structures which need superior weld strength without a post weld heat treatment.
It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute UK in December 1991. TWI
holds patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive.[1]

Principle of operation
A constantly rotated non consumable cylindrical-shouldered tool with a profiled probe is transversely
fed at a constant rate into a butt joint between two clamped pieces of butted material. The probe is
slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the tool shoulder riding atop the work surface. [2]

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding components and the work pieces.
This heat, along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within
the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without melting. As the pin is moved forward, a
special profile on its leading face forces plasticised material to the rear where clamping force assists
in a forged consolidation of the weld.
This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal results in
severe solid statedeformation involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material. [3]

Why friction stir welding is preferred?

The solid-state nature of FSW leads to several advantages over fusion welding methods as
problems associated with cooling from the liquid phase are avoided. Issues such
asporosity, solute redistribution, solidification cracking and liquation cracking do not arise during
FSW. In general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is very tolerant
of variations in parameters and materials.

Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition

Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten material.

No consumables A threaded pin made of conventional tool steel, e.g., hardened H13, can
weld over 1 km (0.62 mi) of aluminium, and no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium.

Easily automated on simple milling machines lower setup costs and less training.

Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.

Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching, thus reducing
the need for expensive machining after welding.

Low environmental impact

Microstructural Features :
The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined with its unusual tool and asymmetric nature,
results in a highly characteristic microstructure. The microstructure can be broken up into the
following zones:

The stir zone (also nugget, dynamically recrystallised zone) is a region of heavily deformed
material that roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during welding. The grains within the
stir zone are roughly equiaxed and often an order of magnitude smaller than the grains in the
parent material.[4] A unique feature of the stir zone is the common occurrence of several
concentric rings which has been referred to as an "onion-ring" structure. [5] The precise origin of
these rings has not been firmly established, although variations in particle number density, grain
size and texture have all been suggested.

The flow arm zone is on the upper surface of the weld and consists of material that is
dragged by the shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around the rear of the tool, and
deposited on the advancing side.[citation needed]

The thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) occurs on either side of the stir zone. In this
region the strain and temperature are lower and the effect of welding on the microstructure is
correspondingly smaller. Unlike the stir zone the microstructure is recognizably that of the parent
material, albeit significantly deformed and rotated. Although the term TMAZ technically refers to
the entire deformed region it is often used to describe any region not already covered by the
terms stir zone and flow arm.[citation needed]

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is common to all welding processes. As indicated by the
name, this region is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deformed during welding. The
temperatures are lower than those in the TMAZ but may still have a significant effect if the
microstructure is thermally unstable. In fact, in age-hardened aluminium alloys this region
commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical properties.[6]

Important welding parameters

Tool design
The design of the tool[8] is a critical factor as a good tool can improve both the quality of the weld and
the maximum possible welding speed.
It is desirable that the tool material is sufficiently strong, tough, and hard wearing at the welding
temperature. Further it should have a good oxidation resistance and a low thermal conductivity to
minimise heat loss and thermal damage to the machinery further up the drive train. Hot-worked tool
steel such as AISI H13 has proven perfectly acceptable for welding aluminium alloys within thickness
ranges of 0.5 50 mm [9] but more advanced tool materials are necessary for more demanding
applications such as highly abrasive metal matrix composites[10] or higher melting point materials
such as steel or titanium.

Improvements in tool design have been shown to cause substantial improvements in productivity
and quality. TWI has developed tools specifically designed to increase the penetration depth and
thus increasing the plate thicknesses that can be successfully welded. An example is the "whorl"
design that uses a tapered pin with re-entrant features or a variable pitch thread to improve the
downwards flow of material. Additional designs include the Triflute and Trivex series. The Triflute
design has a complex system of three tapering, threaded re-entrant flutes that appear to increase
material movement around the tool. The Trivex tools use a simpler, non-cylindrical, pin and have
been found to reduce the forces acting on the tool during welding.
The majority of tools have a concave shoulder profile which acts as an escape volume for the
material displaced by the pin, prevents material from extruding out of the sides of the shoulder and
maintains downwards pressure and hence good forging of the material behind the tool. The Triflute
tool uses an alternative system with a series of concentric grooves machined into the surface which
are intended to produce additional movement of material in the upper layers of the weld.

Properties of pcbn and why pcbn??

Tool rotation and traverse speeds[edit]

There are two tool speeds to be considered in friction-stir welding; how fast the tool rotates and how
quickly it traverses the interface. These two parameters have considerable importance and must be
chosen with care to ensure a successful and efficient welding cycle. The relationship between the
welding speeds and the heat input during welding is complex but, in general, it can be said that
increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse speed will result in a hotter weld. In order to
produce a successful weld it is necessary that the material surrounding the tool is hot enough to
enable the extensive plastic flow required and minimize the forces acting on the tool. If the material
is too cold then voids or other flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases the tool
may break.
Excessively high heat input, on the other hand may be detrimental to the final properties of the weld.
Theoretically, this could even result in defects due to the liquation of low-melting-point phases
(similar to liquation cracking in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the concept of a
"processing window": the range of processing parameters viz. tool rotation and traverse speed, that
will produce a good quality weld.[13] Within this window the resulting weld will have a sufficiently high
heat input to ensure adequate material plasticity but not so high that the weld properties are
excessively deteriorated.

Tool tilt and plunge depth

The plunge depth is defined as the depth of the lowest point of the shoulder below the
surface of the welded plate and has been found to be a critical parameter for ensuring weld quality.
[14]

Plunging the shoulder below the plate surface increases the pressure below the tool and helps

ensure adequate forging of the material at the rear of the tool. Tilting the tool by 24 degrees, such
that the rear of the tool is lower than the front, has been found to assist this forging process. The
plunge depth needs to be correctly set, both to ensure the necessary downward pressure is
achieved and to ensure that the tool fully penetrates the weld. Given the high loads required, the
welding machine may deflect and so reduce the plunge depth compared to the nominal setting,
which may result in flaws in the weld. On the other hand, an excessive plunge depth may result in
the pin rubbing on the backing plate surface or a significant undermatch of the weld thickness
compared to the base material. Variable load welders have been developed to automatically
compensate for changes in the tool displacement while TWI have demonstrated a roller system that
maintains the tool position above the weld plate.

Welding forces[edit]
During welding a number of forces will act on the tool:

A downwards force is necessary to maintain the position of the tool at or below the material
surface. Some friction-stir welding machines operate under load control but in many cases the
vertical position of the tool is preset and so the load will vary during welding.

The traverse force acts parallel to the tool motion and is positive in the traverse direction.
Since this force arises as a result of the resistance of the material to the motion of the tool it
might be expected that this force will decrease as the temperature of the material around the
tool is increased.

The lateral force may act perpendicular to the tool traverse direction and is defined here as
positive towards the advancing side of the weld.

Torque is required to rotate the tool, the amount of which will depend on the down force
and friction coefficient (sliding friction) and/or the flow strength of the material in the surrounding
region (stiction).

In order to prevent tool fracture and to minimize excessive wear and tear on the tool and associated
machinery, the welding cycle is modified so that the forces acting on the tool are as low as possible,
and abrupt changes are avoided. In order to find the best combination of welding parameters, it is
likely that a compromise must be reached, since the conditions that favour low forces (e.g. high heat

input, low travel speeds) may be undesirable from the point of view of productivity and weld
properties.

Generation and flow of heat[edit]

For any welding process it is, in general, desirable to increase the travel speed and minimise the
heat input as this will increase productivity and possibly reduce the impact of welding on the
mechanical properties of the weld. At the same time it is necessary to ensure that the temperature
around the tool is sufficiently high to permit adequate material flow and prevent flaws or tool
damage.
When the traverse speed is increased, for a given heat input, there is less time for heat to conduct
ahead of the tool and the thermal gradients are larger. At some point the speed will be so high that
the material ahead of the tool will be too cold, and the flow stress too high, to permit adequate
material movement, resulting in flaws or tool fracture. If the "hot zone" is too large then there is
scope to increase the traverse speed and hence productivity.
The welding cycle can be split into several stages during which the heat flow and thermal profile will
be different:[25]

Dwell. The material is preheated by a stationary, rotating tool to achieve a sufficient

temperature ahead of the tool to allow the traverse. This period may also include the plunge of
the tool into the workpiece.

Transient heating. When the tool begins to move there will be a transient period where the
heat production and temperature around the tool will alter in a complex manner until an
essentially steady-state is reached.

Pseudo steady-state. Although fluctuations in heat generation will occur the thermal field
around the tool remains effectively constant, at least on the macroscopic scale.

Post steady-state. Near the end of the weld heat may "reflect" from the end of the plate
leading to additional heating around the tool.

Heat generation during friction-stir welding arises from two main sources: friction at the surface of
the tool and the deformation of the material around the tool.[26] The heat generation is often assumed
to occur predominantly under the shoulder, due to its greater surface area, and to be equal to the
power required to overcome the contact forces between the tool and the workpiece. The contact
condition under the shoulder can be described by sliding friction, using a friction coefficient and
interfacial pressure P, or sticking friction, based on the interfacial shear strength at an appropriate

temperature and strain rate. Mathematical approximations for the total heat generated by the tool
shoulder Qtotal have been developed using both sliding and sticking friction models:[25]

(Sliding)

(Sticking)

where is the angular velocity of the tool, Rshoulder is the radius of the tool shoulder and Rpin that of the
pin. Several other equations have been proposed to account for factors such as the pin but the
general approach remains the same.
A major difficulty in applying these equations is determining suitable values for the friction coefficient
or the interfacial shear stress. The conditions under the tool are both extreme and very difficult to
measure. To date, these parameters have been used as "fitting parameters" where the model works
back from measured thermal data to obtain a reasonable simulated thermal field. While this
approach is useful for creating process models to predict, for example, residual stresses it is less
useful for providing insights into the process itself.

Work to be done
References