General considerations[edit]

On Earth, the lightning frequency is approximately 4050 times a second or nearly

1.4 billion flashes per year[1] and the average duration is 0.2 seconds made up from a
number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 30 microseconds.[2]
Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a "typical"
lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground
elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity, proximity to warm and cold
bodies of water, etc. To a certain degree, the ratio between IC, CC and CG lightning may
also vary by season in middle latitudes. Because human beings are terrestrial and most of
their possessions are on the Earth, where lightning can damage or destroy them, CG
lightning is the most studied and best understood of the three types, even though IC and
CC are more common types of lightning. Lightning's relative unpredictability limits a
complete explanation of how or why it occurs, even after hundreds of years of scientific
investigation.
A typical cloud to ground lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically
conducting plasma channel through the air in excess of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) tall, from within
the cloud to the ground's surface. The actual discharge is the final stage of a very complex
process.[3] At its peak, a typical thunderstorm produces three or more strikes to the Earth per
minute.[4] Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses, resulting
in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarizing the atmosphere. [citation needed] However, it
can also occur during dust storms, forest fires, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and even in
the cold of winter, where the lightning is known asthundersnow.[5][6] Hurricanes typically
generate some lightning, mainly in the rainbands as much as 160 kilometres (99 mi) from
the center.[7][8][9]
The science of lightning is called fulminology, and the fear of lightning is called astraphobia.

Frequency of lightning[edit]
Main article: Distribution of lightning

World map showing frequency of lightning strikes, in flashes per km per year (equal-area
projection), from combined 19952003 data from the Optical Transient Detector and 19982003
data from the Lightning Imaging Sensor.

Lightning is not distributed evenly around the planet, as shown in the map.
About 70% of lightning occurs over land in the tropics where atmospheric convection is the
greatest. This occurs from both the mixture of warmer and colder air masses, as well as
differences in moisture concentrations, and it generally happens at theboundaries between
them. The flow of warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the Gulf Stream,
partially explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the Southeast United States.
Because the influence of small or absent land masses in the vast stretches of the world's
oceans limits the differences between these variants in the atmosphere, lightning is notably
less frequent there than over larger landforms. The North and South Poles are limited in
their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least amount of
lightning.
In general, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning
flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is
where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation
where freezing occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and
water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process.
During wind-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier,
slushy mixture of ice and water (called graupel) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within
a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top
region of the cloud to accumulate a positive space charge while the lower level accumulates
a negative space charge.

Lightning in Belfort, France

Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating properties of
air, and this increases proportionally to the distance between the cloud and the ground, the
proportion of CG strikes (versus cloud-to-cloud (CC) or in-cloud (IC) discharges) becomes
greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics, where the freezing level is
generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of
Norway (around 60 North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning
is CG.[10][11]
Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically
12 km (0.6-1.25 miles) above the ground and tops up to 15 km (9.3 mi) in height.
On Earth, the place where lightning occurs most often is near the small village of Kifuka in
the mountains of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,[12] where the elevation is
around 975 m (3,200 ft). On average, this region receives 158 lightning strikes per 1 square
kilometer (0.39 sq mi) per year.[13]Other lightning hotspots
include Catatumbo in Venezuela, Singapore,[14] Teresina in northern Brazil,[15] and "Lightning
Alley" in Central Florida.[16][17]

Establishing conditions necessary for lightning[edit]

Main article: thunderstorm
In order for an electrostatic discharge to occur, two preconditions are necessary: (1) a
sufficiently high electric potential between two regions of space must exist; and (2) a highresistance medium must obstruct the free, unimpeded equalization of the opposite charges.
It is well understood that during a thunderstorm there is charge separation and aggregation
in certain regions of the cloud; however the exact processes by which this occurs are not
fully understood;[18]

The atmosphere provides the electrical insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization
between charged regions of opposite polarity. This is overcome by "lightning", a complex
process referred to as the lightning "flash".

Establishing the electric field in CG lightning[edit]

View of lightning from an airplane flying above a system.

As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge, but of
opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The induced
positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as the
thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping as the
thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be roughly
represented as a bell curve.
The oppositely charged regions create an electric field within the air between them. This
electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge on the base of the
thundercloud the greater the accumulated charge, the higher the electrical field.

Lightning flashes and strikes[edit]

The best studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG). Although more
common, intracloud (IC) and cloud to cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given
there are no "physical" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very low
probability lightning will strike the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is
difficult at best even in the areas of high CG frequency. As such, knowing flash propagation
is similar amongst all forms of lightning, the best means to describe the process is through
an examination of the most studied form, cloud to ground.

A lightning strike from cloud to ground in the California, Mojave Desert

An intracloud flash. A lightning flash within the cloud, illuminates the entire blanket.

Downward leader formation for negative CG lightning[edit]

A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.

Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red

In a process not well understood, a channel of ionized air, called a "leader", is initiated from
a charged region in the thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of
partially ionized gas that travel away from a region of dense charge. Negative leaders
propagate away from densely charged regions of negative charge, and positive leaders
propagate from positively charged regions.
The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive
upwards within the cloud and negative towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in
their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader "pools" ions at the
leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to
concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader.
Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree-like pattern. [19] In addition, negative leaders
travel in a discontinuous fashion. The resulting jerky movement of these "stepped leader(s)"
can be readily observed in slow-motion videos of negative leaders as they head toward
ground prior to a negative CG lightning strike. The negative leaders continue to propagate
and split as they head downward, often speeding up as they get closer to the Earth's
surface.
About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately 45 m (148 ft) in
length.[20] The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time
(hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to resulting discharge which occurs within a few
microseconds. The electric current needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens
or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.
Initiation of the outward leaders is not well understood. The electric field strength within the
thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself. [21] Many
hypotheses have been proposed. One theory postulates that showers of relativistic
electrons are created by cosmic rays and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a
process called runaway breakdown. As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral
air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another theory invokes locally enhanced
electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals. [22] Percolation
theory, especially for the case of biased percolation, [23] [clarification needed] describes random
connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that
of lightning strikes.

Upward streamers[edit]

When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the
ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on
grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and
tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called
a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by
Heinz Kasemir.[24][25]
As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength,
grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge exceed a threshold and form
upward streamers.

Attachment[edit]
Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as
attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have
been taken on which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward
leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth,
although it may appear they are.[26]

Discharge[edit]
Return stroke[edit]

High-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as
seen inToulouse, France.

Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the
cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, a massive electrical discharge follows.
This is the 'return stroke' and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning
discharge.
A large electron current flows along the plasma channel from the cloud to the ground,
neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the
surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along

the surface of the ground. Called step potentials, they are responsible for more injuries and
deaths than the strike itself.[citation needed] Electricity follows the path of least resistance. A portion
of the return stroke current will often preferentially flow through one leg and out another,
electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning
strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG
flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a positive ground to cloud
(GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a
storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as
communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been
found to be around 1108 m/s.[27]
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the
rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly superheats the completed leader
channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of
the plasma during the return stroke may exceed 50,000 K, causing it to brilliantly radiate
with a blue-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and
dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches
of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to
explosively expand, producing a powerful shock wave that is heard as thunder.
Re-strike[edit]
High-speed videos (examined frame-by-frame) show that most negative CG lightning
flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30. [28]
Each re-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50
milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes.
Re-strikes often cause a noticeable "strobe light" effect.[29]
Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster
rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually
re-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset
from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel. [30]
Transient currents during the flash[edit]
The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its
peak value in 110 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50200 microseconds.

The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that
need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground-based structures. Rapidly
changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor. This is called skin effect,
unlike direct currents "flowing through" the entire conductor like water through a hose.
Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi-stranded small wires
woven together, that increases the surface area inversely in proportion to cross-sectional
area.
The rapidly changing currents also create electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) that radiate
outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical sparks. The radiated
pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass
over conductive elements, for instance electrical wires, communication lines or metallic
pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. This is the "surge"
that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate electronics, electrical
appliances or electric motors. Devices known as surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage
surge suppressors (TVSS) attached in series with these conductors can detect the lightning
flash's transient [irregular] current, and through an alteration of its physical properties, route
the spike to an attached earthing ground, thereby protecting the equipment from damage.

Types[edit]
There are three primary types of lightning, defined by what is at the "ends" of a flash
channel. They are intracloud (IC), which occurs within a single thundercloud unit; cloud to
cloud (CC), which starts and ends between two different "functional" thundercloud units; and
cloud to ground (CG), that primarily originates in the thundercloud and terminates on an
Earth surface, but may also occur in the reverse direction, that is ground to cloud. There are
variations of each type, such as "positive" versus "negative" CG flashes, that have different
physical characteristics common to each which can be measured. Different common
names used to describe a particular lightning event may be attributed to the same or
different events.

Cloud to ground (CG)[edit]

Cloud-to-ground is the best known and third most common type of lightning. It is the best
understood of all forms because it allows for scientific study given it terminates on a
physical object, namely the Earth, and lends itself to being measured by instruments. Of the
three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property since it

terminates or "strikes" the Earth. Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge

between a thundercloud and the ground. It is usually negative in polarity and is usually
initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud.
Positive and negative lightning[edit]
CG lightning can occur with both positive and negative polarity. The polarity is that of the
charge in the region that originated the lightning leaders. An average bolt
of negativelightning carries an electric current of 30,000 amperes (30 kA), and transfers
15 coulombs of electric charge and 500 megajoules of energy. Large bolts of lightning can
carry up to 120 kA and 350 coulombs.[31]

Anvil-to-ground (Bolt from the blue)lightning strike initiates from the clear sky above the cloud, then
drives an anvil through the cloud directly to the ground.

Unlike the far more common "negative" lightning, positive lightning originates from the
positively charged top of the clouds (generally anvil clouds) rather than the lower portion of
the storm. Leaders form in the anvil of the cumulonimbus and may travel horizontally for
several miles before veering towards the ground. A positive lightning bolt can strike
anywhere within several miles of the anvil of the thunderstorm, often in areas experiencing
clear or only slightly cloudy skies; they are also known as "bolts from the blue" for this
reason. Positive lightning typically makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes. [32]
Because of the much greater distance to ground, the positively charged region can develop
considerably larger levels of charge and voltages than the negative charge regions in the
lower part of the cloud. Positive lightning bolts are considerably hotter and longer than
negative lightning. They can develop six to ten times the amount of charge and voltage of a
negative bolt and the discharge current may last ten times longer.[33] A bolt of positive
lightning may carry an electric current of 300 kA and the potential at the top of the cloud

may exceed a billion volts about 10 times that of negative lightning. [34] During a positive
lightning strike, huge quantities of extremely low frequency (ELF) and very low
frequency (VLF) radio waves are generated.[35]
As a result of their greater power, as well as lack of warning, positive lightning strikes are
considerably more dangerous. At the present time, aircraft are not designed to withstand
such strikes, since their existence was unknown at the time standards were set, and the
dangers unappreciated until the destruction of a glider in 1999.[36] The standard in force at
the time of the crash, Advisory Circular AC 20-53A, was replaced by Advisory Circular AC
20-53B in 2006,[37] however it is unclear whether adequate protection against positive
lightning was incorporated.[38][39]
Aircraft operating in U.S. airspace have been required to be equipped with static discharge
wicks. Although their primary function is to mitigate radio interference due to static buildup
through friction with the air, in the event of a lightning strike, a plane is designed to conduct
the excess electricity through its skin and structure to the wicks to be safely discharged
back into the atmosphere. These measures, however, may be insufficient for positive
lightning.[40]
Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of Upper-atmospheric
lightning between the tops of clouds and the ionosphere. Positive lightning tends to occur
more frequently in winter storms, as with thundersnow, and in the dissipation stage of
a thunderstorm.[41]

Cloud to cloud (CC) and Intra-Cloud (IC)[edit]

Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, New Delhi, India

Multiple paths of cloud-to-cloud lightning, Swifts Creek, Australia.

Cloud-to-cloud lightning, Victoria, Australia.

Cloud-to-cloud lightning seen inGresham, Oregon.

Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground.
When it occurs between two separate clouds it is known as inter-cloud lightning, and when
it occurs between areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud it is known
as intra-cloud lightning. Intra-cloud lightning is the most frequently occurring type. [41]
Intra-cloud lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower
reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great
distances at night as so-called "heat lightning". In such instances, the observer may see
only a flash of light without hearing any thunder. The "heat" portion of the term is a folk
association between locally experienced warmth and the distant lightning flashes.

Anvil Crawler over Lake Wright Patman south of Redwater, Texas on the backside of a large area of
rain associated with a cold-front

Another term used for cloudcloud or cloudcloudground lightning is "Anvil Crawler", due
to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling
through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch
strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to
decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature
extensive rear anvil shearing.

Observational variations[edit]

Ball lightning may be an atmospheric electrical phenomenon, the physical nature of

which is still controversial. The term refers to reports of luminous,
usually spherical objects which vary from pea-sized to several meters in diameter.[42] It is
sometimes associated with thunderstorms, but unlike lightning flashes, which last only a
fraction of a second, ball lightning reportedly lasts many seconds. Ball lightning has
been described by eyewitnesses but rarely recorded by meteorologists.[43][44] Scientific
data on natural ball lightning is scarce owing to its infrequency and unpredictability. The
presumption of its existence is based on reported public sightings, and has therefore
produced somewhat inconsistent findings.

Bead lightning is the decaying stage of a lightning channel in which

the luminosity of the channel breaks up into segments. Nearly every lightning discharge
will exhibit beading as the channel cools immediately after a return stroke, sometimes
referred to as the lightning's 'bead-out' stage. 'Bead lightning' is more properly a stage of
a normal lightning discharge rather than a type of lightning in itself. Beading of a
lightning channel is usually a small-scale feature, and therefore is often only apparent
when the observer/camera is close to the lightning. [45]

Dry lightning is used in Australia, Canada and the United States for lightning that
occurs with no precipitation at the surface. This type of lightning is the most common
natural cause of wildfires.[46] Pyrocumulus clouds produce lightning for the same reason
that it is produced by cumulonimbus clouds [citation needed].

Forked lightning is cloud-to-ground lightning that exhibits branching of its path.

Heat lightning is a lightning flash that appears to produce no

discernible thunder because it occurs too far away for the thunder to be heard. The
sound waves dissipate before they reach the observer.[47]

Ribbon lightning occurs in thunderstorms with high cross winds and multiple return
strokes. The wind will blow each successive return stroke slightly to one side of the
previous return stroke, causing a ribbon effect. [citation needed]

Rocket lightning is a form of cloud discharge, generally horizontal and at cloud

base, with a luminous channel appearing to advance through the air with visually
resolvable speed, often intermittently.[48]

Sheet lightning is cloud-to-cloud lightning that exhibits a diffuse brightening of the

surface of a cloud, caused by the actual discharge path being hidden or too far away.
The lightning itself cannot be seen by the spectator, so it appears as only a flash, or a
sheet of light. The lightning may be too far away to discern individual flashes.

Smooth Channel lightning are positive cloud to ground lightning strikes where the
forward stroke originates from the ground upwards to the cloud. The smooth channel is
in the lower section of the lightning channel but should branch higher up (not visible as
the "branching" is inside the cloud). [citation needed] Large supercells generate tremendous
areas of positively charged cloud material (thick anvil) and wind shear prevents
excessive negative strokes as with "normal" thunderstorms. Downdrafts, such as the
forward flank downdraft (FFD), bring the positively charged cloud material closer to the
ground, where such lightning occurs.[citation needed]

Staccato lightning is a cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) strike which is a shortduration stroke that (often but not always) appears as a single very bright flash and
often has considerable branching.[49] These are often found in the visual vault area near
the mesocycloneof rotating thunderstorms and coincides with intensification of
thunderstorm updrafts. A similar cloud-to-cloud strike consisting of a brief flash over a
small area, appearing like a blip, also occurs in a similar area of rotating updrafts. [50]

This CG was of very short duration, exhibited highly branched channels and was very bright
indicating that it was staccato lightning near New Boston, Texas.

Superbolts are bolts of lightning around a hundred times brighter than normal. On
Earth, one in a million lightning strikes is a superbolt. [51][52]

Sympathetic lightning is the tendency of lightning to be loosely coordinated across

long distances. Discharges can appear in clusters when viewed from space.

Clear-air lightning describes lightning that occurs with no apparent cloud close
enough to have produced it. In the U.S. and CanadianRockies, a thunderstorm can be
in an adjacent valley and not observable from the valley where the lightning bolt strikes,
either visually or audibly. European and Asian mountainous areas experience similar
events. Also in areas such as sounds, large lakes or open plains, when the storm cell is
on the near horizon (within 26 kilometres (16 mi)) there may be some distant activity, a
strike can occur and as the storm is so far away, the strike is referred to as a bolt from
the blue.[53]

Effects[edit]
Lightning strike[edit]
Main article: Lightning strike
Objects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. The
heat created by lightning currents traveling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a
steam explosion that bursts the trunk. As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil
surrounding the plasma channel may melt, forming tubular structures called fulgurites. Even
though roughly 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive, [54] humans or animals struck
by lightning may suffer severe injury due to internal organ and nervous system damage.
Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks

unintended paths to ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to ground, a lightning

protection system can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage. Lightning
also oxidizes nitrogen in the air into nitrates which are deposited by rain and can fertilize
plant growth.[55][56]

Thunder[edit]
Main article: Thunder
Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma
temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic
theorydictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand
outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound
waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path,
the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling
effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the
irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoingfrom
terrain, and by the typically multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.
Light travels at about 300,000,000 m/s, and sound travels through air at about 340 m/s. An
observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the
visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder
by one second would be approximately 350 metres (0.22 mi) in distance; a delay of three
seconds would indicate a distance of about one kilometer (0.62 mi) (3340 m). A flash
preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of approximately one mile
(1.6 km) (5340 m). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will
be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse,
possibly accompanied by the smell of ozone (O3).

High-energy radiation[edit]
The production of X-rays by a bolt of lightning was theoretically predicted as early as
1925[57] but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,[58][59][60] when researchers at the New
Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology detected X-ray emissions from an induced
lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the
same year University of Florida and Florida Tech researchers used an array of electric field
and X-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural
lightning makes X-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The

cause of the X-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is
too low to account for the X-rays observed.[61][62]
A number of observations by space-based telescopes have revealed even higher
energy gamma ray emissions, the so-called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs). These
observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent
discovery of the clear signatures of antimatter produced in lightning.[63]

Volcanic[edit]

Volcanic material thrust high into the atmosphere can trigger lightning.

Volcanic activity produces lightning-friendly conditions in multiple ways. The enormous

quantity of pulverized material and gases ejected into the atmosphere with explosive power,
creates a dense plume of highly charged particles, which establishes the perfect conditions
for lightning. The ash density and constant motion within the volcanic plume continually
produces electrostatic ionization, resulting in very powerful and very frequent flashes
attempting to neutralize itself. Due to the extensive solid material (ash) content, unlike the
water rich charge generating zones of a normal thundercloud, it is often called a dirty
thunderstorm.

Powerful and frequent flashes have been witnessed in the volcanic plume as far
back as the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius by Pliny The Younger.[64]

Likewise, vapors and ash originating from vents on the volcano's flanks may produce
more localized and smaller flashes upwards of 2.9 km long.

Small, short duration sparks, recently documented near newly extruded magma,
attest to the material being highly charged prior to even entering the atmosphere. [65]

Extraterrestrial lightning[edit]

Lightning has been observed within the atmospheres of other planets, such
as Venus, Jupiter and Saturn. Although in the minority on Earth, superbolts appear to be
common on Jupiter.
Lightning on Venus has been a controversial subject after decades of study. During the
Soviet Venera and U.S. Pioneer missions of the 1970s and 1980s, signals suggesting
lightning may be present in the upper atmosphere were detected. [66] Although the Cassini
Huygens mission fly-by of Venus in 1999 detected no signs of lightning, the observation
window lasted mere hours. Radio pulses recorded by the spacecraft Venus Express (which
began orbiting Venus in April 2006) have been confirmed as originating from lightning on
Venus.

Human-related phenomena[edit]

Airplane contrails have also been observed to influence lightning to a small degree.
The water vapor-dense contrails of airplanes may provide a lower resistance pathway
through the atmosphere having some influence upon the establishment of an ionic
pathway for a lightning flash to follow.[67]

Rocket exhaust plumes provided a pathway for lightning when it was witnessed
striking the Apollo 12 rocket shortly after takeoff.

Thermonuclear explosions by providing extra material for electrical conduction and

a very turbulent localized atmosphere, have been seen triggering lightning flashes within
the mushroom cloud. In addition, intense gamma radiation from large nuclear
explosions may develop intensely charged regions in the surrounding air
through Compton scattering. The intensely charged space charge regions create
multiple clear-air lightning discharges shortly after the device detonates. [68]

Scientific study[edit]
Properties[edit]
Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different
portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times. [69]
When the local electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of damp air (about 3 million volts
per meter), electrical discharge results in a strike, often followed by commensurate
discharges branching from the same path. (See image, right.) Mechanisms that cause the

charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation. [70][71] Lightning may
be caused by the circulation of warm moisture-filled air through electric fields.[72] Ice or water
particles then accumulate charge as in a Van de Graaff generator.[73]
Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one-dimensional speeds of 10
flashes observed were between 1.0105 and 1.4106 m/s, with an average of 4.4105 m/s.[74]

Detection and monitoring[edit]

Ray counter in a museum.

Main article: Lightning detection

The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunder storm was the lightning
bell. Benjamin Franklin installed one such device in his house.[75] [76] The detector was based
on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by Andrew Gordon in 1742.
Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radiofrequency pulses. The times at which a pulse from a given lightning discharge arrives at
several receivers can be used to locate the source of the discharge. The United States
federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing
lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S. [77][78]
The Earth-ionosphere waveguide traps electromagnetic VLF- and ELF waves.
Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide.
The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their group velocity depends on frequency.
The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is
proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction finding
methods, this allows to locate lightning strikes up to distances of 10000 km from their origin.
Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth-ionospheric waveguide, the Schumann
resonances at about 7.5 Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.[79]

In addition to ground-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have

been constructed to observe lightning distribution. These include the Optical Transient
Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the
subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard TRMM launched on November 28,
1997.[80][81][82]

Artificially triggered[edit]

Rocket-triggered lightning can be "triggered" by launching specially designed

rockets trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket
ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader
attaches, the wire provides a low-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The
wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel
in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more
controlled and predictable manner.[83]
The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp
Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.

Laser-triggered
Since the 1970s,[84][85][86][87][88][89] researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes
by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas
through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of
lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and
other sensitive targets.[90][91][92][93][94]
In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new terawatt laser which provoked lightning.
Scientists fired ultra-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending
several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds
over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized
molecules known as "filaments". Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments
lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers
generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike.
Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered.
According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast
pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand.
[95]

Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical

activity in the thundercloud where it was aimedin effect they generated small local
discharges located at the position of the plasma channels.[96]

Physical manifestations[edit]

Lightning-induced remanent magnetization (LIRM) mapped during a magnetic field gradient survey
of an archaeological site located in Wyoming, United States.

Lightning-induced magnetism[edit]
The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see electromagnetism). The
intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field.
Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can
become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightninginduced remanent magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often
horizontally near the surface[97][98] but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or
ground water offers a less resistive path.[99] One theory suggests that lodestones, natural
magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.[100]
Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground, [101][102] and analysis of
magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization [103] and
provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge. [104]

Solar wind and cosmic rays[edit]

Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the
solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, creating pathways for lightning bolts.
[105]

In culture[edit]

Further information: Lightning in religion

Lightning by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis (1909)

In many cultures, lightning has been viewed as part of a deity or a deity in and of itself.
These include the Greek god Zeus, the Aztec god Tlaloc, the Mayan God K, Slavic
mythology's Perun, the Baltic Prkons/Perknas, Thor in Norse mythology, Ukko in Finnish
mythology, the Hindugod Indra, and the Shinto god Raijin.[106] In the traditional religion of the
African Bantu tribes, lightning is a sign of the ire of the gods. Verses in the Jewish religion
and in Islam also ascribe supernatural importance to lightning. In Christianity, the Second
Coming of Jesus is compared to lightning.[Matthew 24:27][Luke 17:24]
The expression "Lightning never strikes twice (in the same place)" is similar to "Opportunity
never knocks twice" in the vein of a "once in a lifetime" opportunity, i.e., something that is
generally considered improbable. Lightning occurs frequently and more so in specific areas.
Since various factors alter the probability of strikes at any given location, repeat lightning
strikes have a very low probability (but are not impossible). [107][108] Similarly, "A bolt from the
blue" refers to something totally unexpected.
Some political parties use lightning flashes as a symbol of power, such as the People's
Action Party in Singapore, the British Union of Fascists during the 1930s, and the National
States' Rights Party in the United States during the 1950s.[109] The Schutzstaffel,
theparamilitary wing of the Nazi Party, used the Sig rune in their logo which symbolizes
lightning. The German word Blitzkrieg, which means "lightning war", was a major offensive
strategy of the German army during World War II.
In French and Italian, the expression for "Love at first sight" is coup de foudre and colpo di
fulmine, respectively, which literally translated means "lightning strike". Some European
languages have a separate word for lightning which strikes the ground (as opposed to
lightning in general); often it is a cognate of the English word "rays". The name of New

Zealand's most celebrated thoroughbred horse, Phar Lap, derives from the
shared Zhuang and Thai word for lightning.[110]
The bolt of lightning in heraldry is called a thunderbolt and is shown as a zigzag with nonpointed ends. This symbol usually represents power and speed.
The lightning bolt is used to represent the instantaneous communication capabilities of
electrically powered telegraphs and radios. It was a commonly used motif in Art
Decodesign, especially the zig-zag Art Deco design of the late 1920s.[111] The lightning bolt is
a common insignia for military communications units throughout the world. A lightning bolt is
also the NATO symbol for a signal asset.