Shafts: Summary

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Shaft Design: General Rules

Keep shafts as short as possible

Keep bearings as close to the applied loads as possible: this
Reduces bending moments
Reduces deflections
Increases critical speeds
Provide stress risers away from highly stressed regions, if
possible
If not possible, allow generous fillet radii and finer surface
finish (consider short peening)
If weight is critical, use hollow shafts (tubes)

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Shaft Design: Steps

Geometric Layout, based on constraints and prior knowledge

Calculate loads and stresses
Static and fatigue loading
Account for key-ways, steps, etc.
Choose material based on strength
Static strength
Fatigue strength
Assess rigidity in deflection
Bending deflection
Torsional deflection
Assess slope at bearings and shaft-supported elements
Assess vibration levels
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Shaft Design: Layout

Issues to consider for

shaft layout
Axial layout of
components
Supporting radial loads
(Keep bearings as close
to the applied loads as
possible)
Supporting axial loads
Providing for torque
transmission
Providing for assembly
and disassembly/
maintenance

Fig. 7-1

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The Endurance Limit

Simplified estimate of endurance limit for steels for the rotatingbeam specimen, S'e

Fig. 617
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Surface Factor ka

Stresses tend to be high at the surface

Surface finish has an impact on initiation of cracks at localized
stress concentrations
Surface factor is a function of ultimate strength. Higher strengths
are more sensitive to rough surfaces.

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Size Factor kb

Larger parts have greater surface area at high stress levels

Likelihood of crack initiation is higher
Size factor is obtained from experimental data with wide scatter
For bending and torsion loads, the trend of the size factor data is
given by

Applies only for round, rotating diameter

For axial load, there is no size effect, so kb = 1

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Size Factor kb
Table 63
A95 for common
non-rotating
structural shapes

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Loading Factor kc

Accounts for changes in endurance limit for different types of fatigue

loading.
Only to be used for single load types. Use Combination Loading
method (Sec. 614) when more than one load type is present.

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Temperature Factor kd

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Reliability Factor ke

Simply obtain ke for desired reliability from Table 65.

Table 65

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Estimating Stress Concentrations

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Use these once actual

dimensions are known.

Deflection Considerations

Allowable deflections at components will depend on the

component manufacturers specifications.
Typical ranges are given in Table 72

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Setscrews

Setscrews resist axial and rotational motion

They apply a compressive force to create friction
The tip of the set screw may also provide a slight penetration
Various tips are available

Fig. 715
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Setscrews

Resistance to axial
motion of collar or
hub relative to shaft
is called holding
power
Typical values listed
in Table 74 apply to
axial and torsional
resistance
Typical factors of
safety are 1.5 to 2.0
for static, and 4 to 8
for dynamic loads
Length should be
about half the shaft
diameter
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Keys and Pins

Used to secure
rotating elements and
to transmit torque

Fig. 716

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Tapered Pins

Taper pins are sized by diameter at large end

Small end diameter is

Table 75 shows some standard sizes in inches

Table 75

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Sled Runner
Keyseat

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Keys

Keys come in
standard square
and rectangular
sizes
Shaft diameter
determines key
size

Table 76

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Keys

Failure of keys is by direct shear and/or bearing stress

Key length is designed to provide desired factor of safety
Factor of safety should not be excessive, so the inexpensive key
is the weak link
Key length is limited to hub length
Key length should not exceed 1.5 times shaft diameter to avoid
problems from twisting
Multiple keys may be used to carry greater torque, typically
oriented 90 from one another
Stock key material is typically low carbon cold-rolled steel,
with dimensions slightly under the nominal dimensions to
easily fit end-milled keyway
A setscrew is sometimes used with a key for axial positioning,
and to minimize rotational backlash
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Gib-head Key

Gib-head key is tapered so that when firmly driven it prevents

axial motion
Head makes removal easy
Projection of head may be hazardous

Fig. 717
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Woodruff Key

Woodruff keys have deeper penetration

When used near a shoulder, the keyway stress concentration
interferes less with shoulder than square keyway

Fig. 717

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Woodruff Key

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Woodruff Key

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Stress Concentration Factors for Keys

For keyseats cut by standard end-mill cutters, with a ratio of

r/d = 0.02, Petersons charts give
Kt = 2.14 for bending
Kt = 2.62 for torsion without the key in place
Kt = 3.0 for torsion with the key in place
Keeping the end of the keyseat at least a distance of d/10 from
the shoulder fillet will prevent the two stress concentrations
from combining.

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Retaining Rings

Retaining rings are often used instead of a shoulder to provide

axial positioning

Fig. 718

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Retaining Rings

Retaining ring must seat well in bottom of groove to support

axial loads against the sides of the groove.
This requires sharp radius in bottom of groove.
Stress concentrations for flat-bottomed grooves are available in
Table A1516 and A1517.
Typical stress concentration factors are high, around 5 for
bending and axial, and 3 for torsion

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Stress in Interference Fits

Interference fit generates pressure at interface

Need to ensure stresses are acceptable
Treat shaft as cylinder with uniform external pressure
Treat hub as hollow cylinder with uniform internal pressure
These situations were developed in Ch. 3 and will be adapted
here

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Stress in Interference Fits

The pressure at the interface, from Eq. (356) converted into

terms of diameters,

If both members are of the same material,

is diametral interference

Taking into account the tolerances,

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Stress in Interference Fits

From Eqs. (358) and (359), with radii converted to diameters,

the tangential stresses at the interface are

The radial stresses at the interface are simply

The tangential and radial stresses are orthogonal and can be

combined using a failure theory (do not forget to include shear
stresses due to torsion when applicable)
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Torque Transmission from Interference Fit

Estimate the torque that can be transmitted through interference

fit by friction analysis at interface

Use the minimum interference to determine the minimum

pressure to find the maximum torque that the joint should be
expected to transmit.

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Tolerance Grades Inch Series

Table A13
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Deviations

Deviation is the algebraic difference between a size and the basic

size
Upper deviation is the algebraic difference between the maximum
limit and the basic size
Lower deviation is the algebraic difference between the minimum
limit and the basic size
Fundamental deviation is either the upper or lower deviation that
is closer to the basic size
Letter codes are used to designate a similar level of clearance or
interference for different basic sizes

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Fundamental Deviation Letter Codes

Shafts with clearance fits

Letter codes c, d, f, g, and h
Upper deviation = fundamental deviation
Lower deviation = upper deviation tolerance grade
Shafts with transition or interference fits
Letter codes k, n, p, s, and u
Lower deviation = fundamental deviation
Upper deviation = lower deviation + tolerance grade
Hole
The standard is a hole based standard, so letter code H is
always used for the hole
Lower deviation = 0 (Therefore Dmin = 0)
Upper deviation = tolerance grade
Fundamental deviations for letter codes are shown in Table A12
for metric series and A14 for inch series
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Fundamental Deviations Metric series

Table A12

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Fundamental Deviations Inch series

Table A14
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Specification of Fit

A particular fit is specified by giving the basic size followed by

letter code and IT grades for hole and shaft.
For example, a sliding fit of a nominally 32 mm diameter shaft
and hub would be specified as 32H7/g6
This indicates
32 mm basic size
hole with IT grade of 7 (look up tolerance D in Table A11)
shaft with fundamental deviation specified by letter code g
(look up fundamental deviation F in Table A12)
shaft with IT grade of 6 (look up tolerance d in Table A11)
Appropriate letter codes and IT grades for common fits are given
in Table 79

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Description of Preferred Fits (Clearance)

Table 79

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Description of Preferred Fits (Transition & Interference)

Table 79

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Procedure to Size for Specified Fit

Select description of desired fit from Table 79.

Obtain letter codes and IT grades from symbol for desired fit
from Table 79
Use Table A11 (metric) or A13 (inch) with IT grade numbers
to obtain D for hole and d for shaft
Use Table A12 (metric) or A14 (inch) with shaft letter code to
obtain F for shaft
For hole

For shafts with clearance fits c, d, f, g, and h

For shafts with interference fits k, n, p, s, and u

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