Principles of Cutting

Simulation Techniques in Manufacturing Technology

Lecture 6
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering
Chair of Manufacturing Technology

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. F. Klocke

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 1

Cutting: Machining with geometrically defined cutting edge

Manufacturing Processes
1

major groups

primary
shaping

2
secondary
shaping /
forming

source: DIN 8580

Definition (DIN 8589):

Machining is cutting, in which layers of materials
are mechanically separated from a workpiece in the
form of chips by means of a cutting tool.

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

cutting

joining

coating

6
changing
material
properties

3.2
cutting with
geometrically
defined
cutting
edges
(DIN 8598-0)

Seite 2

Nomenclature at the wedge

shank

direction of
primary motion

rake face A

major cutting edge S

minor cutting edge S
major flank A
minor flank A
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

corner radius
Seite 3

Tool-in-hand system
s

Pn

cutting edge
normal plane Pn

assumed working
plane Pf
r
vc

tool cutting edge

plane Ps

Ps

Po

Pf

r
vf

tool orthogonal
plane Po

r Tool cutting edge angle

Pr

s Tool cutting edge

inclination

tool reference plane Pr

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 4

Tool-in-hand system (ISO 3002)

Pf

Variable with the process!

assumed working
plane Pf

tool orthogonal
plane Po

r
ve

r
vc

Po

Ps

tool cutting edge

plane Ps

r
vf

Fix with the machine by turning,

if the cutting edge is positioned
in the centre of the spindle.

Pr
z

s Tool cutting edge

x
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

r Tool cutting edge angle

machine coordinate
system

This is the plane of

the rake face A.

inclination
(DIN EN ISO 841)

tool reference plane Pr

Seite 5

Differences between reference systems

assumed direction
of primary motion

assumed
working
plane Pf

working back
plane Ppe

tool back
plane Pp

r
vc

selected point on
the cutting
r edge
vc

r
vc

r
vc

working
plane Pfe

r
vf

r
vf

r
vc

assumed
direction of
feed motion
tool reference
plane Pr
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

r
ve

direction of the resultant

cutting speed

direction of
feed motion

working reference
plane Pre
Seite 6

Definition of the tool cutting edge inclination during external

cylindrical turning
Working plane
Pf

= 90

Cutting insert
Workpiece
Tool holder

s
Tool reference
plane Pr

Feed direction

Direction of
primary motion

Tool cutting edge plane PS

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

ap

Shoulder
Seite 7

Process kinematics at the wedge

Idealised wedge in the

trace of the tool

reference plane Pr

trace of the plane

of the rake face A
O
trace of the
plane of the
flank A

tool

assumed direction
of primary motion

assumed working plane

The geometry of the idealised

cutting wedge is defined by

the rake angle O, the wedge
angle O and the clearance
angle O

O
O

assumed
feed direction

trace of the
tool back
plane Pp

assumed working plane Pf

tool orthogonal plane Po

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 8

Cutting edge angle and inclination angle

trace of the
tool back
plane Pp

trace of the tool cutting

edge plane PS

trace of the
assumed
working plane Pf
major cutting edge S

assumed feed
direction

re
r
tool

trace of the
assumed
working plane
Pf

s
tool

trace of the
tool reference
plane Pr

assumed direction of
primary motion

tool reference plane Pr

Tool cutting edge angle r
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

tool cutting edge plane PS

Tool cutting edge inclination s
Seite 9

Orientation of the cutting edge: process kinematics

r
vch

r
vch

tool

tool

r
vch
chip

chip

r
vc
r
vc

r
vc
workpiece

free orthogonal cut

Tool cutting edge inclination
s = 0and o = 90
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

workpiece

free oblique cut

Tool cutting edge inclination s
not equal to 0

non-free oblique cut

Seite 10

Process kinematics at the idealised wedge

The wedge geometry is

cutting
direction

defined by the clearance

angle O, the wedge angle O
and the tool orthogonal rake
angle

The wedge penetrates the

material and causes elastic

and plastic deformations

chip
workpiece

trace of the plane

of the face A

Due to the given geometry the

deformed material is forming a

chip which flows across the
rake face

tool

trace of the plane of the

transient surface
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

trace of the plane of the flank

tool orthogonal plane Po
Seite 11

Process kinematics and rounded cutting edge radius

effective cutting
speed

vre

r
vc

In reality there are only

rounded cutting edges

cutting speed

The cutting edge radius is

usually measured in the

tool orthogonal plane PO

r
vf

feed velocity

workpiece

Feed direction and cutting

chip
rounded cutting edge
r

direction are enclosing the

feed motion angle

The directions of effective

tool

cutting speed and cutting

speed are enclosing the
effective cutting speed
angle

tool orthogonal plane Po

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 12

Shearing zones in cutting processes

Shearing is very essential

primary
shearing zone
secondary
shearing zone
of the face

workpiece

in cutting.

So-called shearing zones

might be formed.

The most important

chip

shearing zone is called

primary shearing zone.

The zones where shearing

secondary
shearing zone
of the flank

tool

flank
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

face

is caused by friction are

called secondary shearing
zones.

Under a wearless con-

sideration the secondary

shearing zone of the flank
drops out.
Seite 13

Chip formation
workpiece structure
shearing
plane
chip
structure

vc

shearing zone
0,1 mm

1
3
2

flank
rake face
cut surface
1
2
3
4
5

primary shearing zone turning tool

secondary shearing zone of the face
seperative zone (stagnation point)
secondary shearing zone of the flank
preliminary deformation zone

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

nach: Warn74

turning tool
cut surface
workpiece material:
cutting edge material:
cutting speed:
cross-section area of cut:

C53E
HW-P30
vc = 100 m/min
ap x f = 2 x 0,315 mm2
Seite 14

Penetration of tool and work piece, cross-sectional area

workpiece

direction of rotation

The cross-sectional area

is determined by the tool

cutting edge angle r , the
feed f and the depth of cut
ap

r
vf

h = f sin r

kr

r
vf
kr b

The undeformed chip

ap
tool

f
b=

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

thickness h and the width

of cut b can be calculated
from the feed f and the
depth of cut ap
respectively, using the
cutting edge angle r .

ap
sin r
Seite 15

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 16

Chip formation depending on the material behaviour

1 continuous chip 2 segmented chip

shear strength

shear strength

4 discontinuous chip

elastic area
plastic area

area of segmented, area of continshearing and

uous chips
discontinuous chips

3 shearing chip

flow area

0: degree of deformation in

B
E

elongation

E:
B:
Z:

the shear zone

limit of elasticity
breaking limit
tensile strength

degree of deformation
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 17

Chip formation for brittle material behaviour

2. split up, crack

segment
formation

3. shearing and
next bring up

4. second segment
formation
and bring up

1. bring up
gathering

t
5. shearing and
next crack

6. third segment
formation
and bring up

7. shearing and
next crack

dynamic
cutting force

source: Codron 1906

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 18

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 19

The shear plane model

trace of PS

shear plane

accounts:
 plastic deformation only in the shear plane
 plane strain deformation
 ideal sharpness of the cutting edge
realisation:

the orthogonal cut

All the force components are in the tool

orthogonal plane Po.

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

 tool cutting edge

angle kr= 90
 tool cutting edge
inclination s= 0

Seite 20

Krystoff 1939: shear angle determination

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 21

Ernst and Merchant 1941: force equilibrium and shear angle

Ff

nec.:

suff.:

nec.:

suff.:

Fn

Fz

Fn

trace of the
shear plane

shear plane location is determined

by the minimum for cutting energy

Fc

tool

workpiece

ao
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 22

Shear plane model: force calculation

demonstration of the total force as a function of the shear stress with consideration of:
 shear work
 friction work at the face

By using the circle of Thales, the total force can be substitute with the two force components
cutting force and feed force. (in the orthogonal cut)

Calculation of the force components with a physical and theoretical background!

(advantage of analytical models)
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 23

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 24

Overview: Influencing Variables on Machinability

production conditions

machine tool
 machine tool
 machine condition

production processes
engagement parameter
cooling

machinability
tool

tool type
geometry of the cutting
edge
clamping

cutting material

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

type of the material

chemical configuration
microstructure
strength property
surface treatment

workpiece

tool life
surface integrity
total force
chip form

geometry
surface integrity
clamping

material

type of the material

chemical configuration
microstructure
strength property
heat treatment
Seite 25

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 26

Resultant force and ist components in the cutting process

ve

vc
Primary motion
(Workpiece)

The information about the

absolute values and the
directions of the force
components provide a basis:

For the construction of

machine tools

Ff

vf

For the definition of the

Fp

cutting conditions
Fc
Fz
FD

Direction of feed
(Tool)

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Fa

Fz:
Fc:
Ff:
Fp:
Fa:
FD:

Resultant force
Cutting force
Feed force
Passive force
Active force
Thrust force

For the evaluation of the

cutting edge stresses and the

explanations of the wear
process

For the evaluation of the

materials machinability

vc: Cutting speed

vf: Feed velocity
ve: effective cutting speed
Seite 27

Cutting force Fc

Feed force Ff
Passive force Fp

Resultant force comp. Fi

Resultant force comp. Fi

Dependencies of the force components

Fc

Ff
Fp

Tool cutting edge angle r

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

are traced back to the fact of built-up

edge growth
Fc

The decrease in force along with

increasing cutting speed is a result of

the material softening
Ff
Fp
Cutting speed vc

Resultant force comp. Fi

Resultant force comp. Fi

Feed f

The peaks in the cutting speed chart

Fc

Ff
Fp

The force curves Fp and Ff have

opposing trends with increasing tool

cutting edge angle r, which is the
angle between the main cutting edge
and the direction of feed

The increase of the resultant force

components dependent on the depth

ap can be traced back to the higher
stock removal volume

Depth of cut ap
Seite 28

Cutting force measuring during the turning process

Kraft [N]

Fc

Force /
N

3-component-cutting-force-measuring-platform
Measurement Fc, Ff, Fp

200

150

FP
Ff

100

50
Fx Vorschubkraft
0

Fy Passivkraft
Fz Schnittkraft

-50
0

10

15

20

25

time tcZeit
/ s[s]

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 29

Force approximation: empirical models

linear approximation:

potential approximation:

 result of a curve fit

 first part is based on
the shear plane theory
 very easy function

 result of a curve fit

 calculation of the cutting force
is statistically verified
 very precise

 not very precise

 calculations are not sufficiently verified
(method is not commonly used)
 Schlesinger (1931)
 Pohl (1934)
 Klein (1938)
 Richter (1954)
 Hucks (1956)
 Thomson (1962)
 Altintas (1998)
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

 no theoretical basis
 calculation of the other force
components is not sufficiently
verified
 Taylor (1883/1902)
 Fischer (1897)
 Friedrich (1909)
 Hippler (1923)
researchers
 Salomon(1924)
 Kronenberg (1927)
 Klopstock (1932)
 Kienzle (1952)
Seite 30

Correlation between the force and the undeformed chip thickness

Schnittkraftdiagramm
diagram
of the cutting force
10000

1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Schnittkraft
Fc / N
cutting force

cutting force
Schnittkraft
Fc / N

Schnittkraftdiagramm
diagram
of the cutting force

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

100
100

Spanungsdicke
/ mm
thickness of hcut

linear system with a trend line

Spanungsdicke
/ mm
thickness of hcut

double logarithmic system with

a trend line

Today you describe the problem by curve fitting on your computer!

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 31

Kienzle Equation to Calculate the Static Cutting Forces

Linear equation:

2000

= Fi / (N/mm)

Fi1= 1740 N/mm2 = ki1.1

mi

Width of cut b

log Fi ' = a log h + log Fi '1

1000

800

Force Fi

yi = a x + b

600

log(

1
1 - mi = 0,7265

Fi
= (h)1 mi Fi '1
b

45

Fi
) = a log h + log Fi '1
b

400

Kienzle equation:
1

200
0,1

0,2

Fi = ki1.1 b h1 mi
0,4

0,6

Chip thickness h / mm
i = c, f, p

0,8

1,0

2,0

tan = 1 mi =

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

log Fi ' ( B) log Fi ' ( A)

log h( B) log h( A)
Seite 32

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 33

Tool wear
Tool wear
is influenced by high contact stresses, high cutting
temperatures and relative sliding velocities
These process values depend on:

tool
and
workpiece
materials
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

tool
geometry

interface
conditions

machining
parameters

Seite 34

Effective work We
/ (m daN/m)
Cut distance

Thermic stress segmenting the effective work during machining

7000

The work transformed during the

Nm

machining relates with the chip

width

5000

Total work

4000

Especially the shearing work part

increases with wider chips

Scherarbeit
Shearing work

3000

Tool flank friciton and Separation

work are in independent of the

chip width h

2000
Face flank friction

1000

The energy dedicated during the

Tool flank friction and separation work

0

0,2

Deformation
work
Effective
work
Friction
work
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

0,4
0,6
Chip h / mm

0,8

1,0

The heat emerges in the primary

Shearing work
Separation work
Face flank friction
Tool flank friction

machining process is nearly

completely transformed into heat

Latent
energy
and
heat

shearing zone and the friction

zone at the tool (secondary
shearing zone)
Quelle: Vieregge
Seite 35

Distribution of heat and temperature in workpiece, chip and tool

Heat flows emerging from the machining zone

Allocation of heat in the machining zone

Workpiece
300
380 C
130
80
500
30

600
650

Material:
Yield stress:
Cutting material:
Primary speed:
Chip width:
Chip angle:

310

600

Qair

Chip
400
450
500

QWp

Qchip

700
Tool
steel
kf = 850 N/mm2
HW-P20
vc = 60 m/min
h = 0,32 mm
o= 10

Qtool

Qair = Heat flow to environment

Qchip= Heat flow to chip
QWp = Heat flow to workpiece
Qtool = Heat flow to tool
Source: Kronenberg, Vieregge

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 36

Cutting forces and chip temperatures in turning

temperature

aluminium
feed
0,25 mm
depth of cut
2 mm

steel / titanium
0,1 mm
1 mm

cutting speed
cutting force Fc

500
N
300
200
100
0
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 37

Tool wear locations

Tool Wear appears at three locations

at the cutting tool
Crater Wear
Area of high level
of stress and
temperature, i.e. of
the order of 1200C.

Built-Up Edge
Observable for
ductile materials.
Not stable,
breaks off
frequently
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Flank Wear
Mainly responsible
for the resulting
surface quality
=> used as failure
criteria.

Tool Wear

Seite 38

Wear mechanisms

The total wear at the

wedge is a superposition
of distinct wear
mechanisms.

During cutting all distinct

Tool Wear

wear mechanisms occur

simultaneously.
Diffusion
Processes
Adhesion

Abrasion

Diffusion and oxidation are

dependent on the temperature level and occur

mainly at high cutting
speeds.

Oxidation
Cutting Temperature
(cutting speed, feed.)
source: Vieregge
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 39

adhesion

Wear mechanisms at the wedge: adhesion

deformed
chip

undeformed
bulk of the
workpiece

built-up edge

Low cutting speeds

causes low contact

temperatures between
chip and tool. This goes
along with high contact
pressure.

Low contact temperatures,

tool

high contact pressure and

material affinity lead to
adhesion.

Adhesion at the wedge

may cause built-up edges.

Built-up edges are
built-up edge
tool

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

unstable. They peel away

off the edge and slide over
the flank and the face
periodically.

Seite 40

Wear mechanisms at the wedge: abrasion

flank wear land

Abrasion at the wedge is

caused by hard particles

in the chip, which
penetrate into the tool
material and slide and
scratch over the face.

As a result on the face a

crater is generated.
crater
face

As a result on the flank a

wear land is generated.

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 41

Catastrophic failure of the wedge

face
crater

Chipping and break outs

at cutting edge
flank

If the mechanical load at

the wedge surpasses the

resistance of the cutting
material, the cutting edge
fails.
little disruptions
at the cutting edge

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 42

The cutting edge influenced by thermic overload

The cutting material may heat massively through

thermic load which reduces its resistance towards

mechanical stress; the cutting edge may deform
plastically
Plastic
deformation

The plastic deformation appears basically with high

speed steel

Thermic alternating load may cause comb cracks at

the wedge

They appear mainly during discontinuous cuts

Comb crack

whereas the cutting edge heats in circuit and cools

down in the disruption

In order to avoid comb cracks in discontinuous

cutting (e.g. during milling) the use of coolant can

often be avoided

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 43

Formation of comb cracks and parallel cracks during milling

Comb and parallel cracks

Comb cracks

GJS70

42CrMo4+QT vc = 275 m/min

vc = 200 m/min

Temperature
Heating
during the
cut

Tension
ten. + 0 comp.

-y

VB

Cooling down
Quelle: Lehwald, Vieregge
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 44

Wear mechanisms at the wedge: diffusion

concentration of mass / %

cutting material (HT-P20)

material (42CrMo4)

100

Fe

If the temperature level of

the contact area reaches a

limit and affinity of material
is given diffusion can be
activated.

The diffusion is shown by

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

an analogue experiment.
Here a cemented carbide
tool works on quenched
steel.

Co

During cutting only a very

Co

short time is available for

diffusion to occur.

Ni
Ni
Cr

Fe
-80

-60

-40

-20

20

40

way / m
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 45

Types of wear and values for the tool wear characterization

Crater Wear
Flank Wear

A-A
KM
KF
KT

VB
KB

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

VB: flank wear width

KM: crater center distance
KF: distance from crater to edge
KB: crater width
KT: crater depth
Seite 46

Evaluation of crater wear

Indicators
according to DIN
ISO 3685

Crater wear

A
Crater
A
50,0

0,0

-50,0

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

SV

KB
KM

the evaluation of crater

wear are the crater depth
KT, the crater centre
distance KM, the crater
width KB and the
displacement of the
cutting edge SV in face
flank direction

Weakening of the cutting

Cut A-A
KT

[m]

2,50 mm

Measured indicators for

edge is a result of
massive crater wear
 Danger of a cutting
edge fraction
(crater edge fracture)

Seite 47

Evaluation of flank are wear

Flank wear examined with a microscope

Indicators according to DIN ISO 3685

r
C

VBN

VBB

VBB max.

VBC

SV

Flank wear width VB

b/4
B

N
Wear chamfer
at the main
cutting edge

A distinction is drawn between the measured indicators flank wear width VB and the

displacement of the cutting edge in flank direction SV

The flank wear width is refered to the cutting edge without wear

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 48

Width of flank wear land VB / m

The typical course of wear

180
160

16MnCr5 (62 HRC)

CBN20
vc = 200 m/min
f = 0,08 mm
ap = 0,2 mm

140
120
100
80
60
40
20

0
0

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

II
1

2
time / min

III
3

Seite 49

Taylor Function
Tool life function

Tool-life function in a double logarithmic system has

the shape of a straight line

(logarithmic scale)
100

y = mx+b

log T = k log vc + log Cv

vc
Tool life T / min

with

k = tan vc =

10

log CV
log CT

T = vc C v
k

tool-life straight
line

Taylor-equation
(simple)

vc = T 1/ k CT

Cv (ordinate intercept):
standardised tool life T for
vc = 1 m/min

11
10

CT
Cutting speed
vc / (m/min)

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

100

Taylor-equation
(extended)

Frederick Winslow Taylor

(USA, 1856-1915)

CT (abscissa intercept):
standardised cutting speed vc
for T = 1 min

T = C vfa v c

k vc

fz

k fz

ap

k ap

Seite 50

Wear diagram: flank wear

wear diagram

the choice of the

tool life criterion
under fixed cutting
edge geometries
and
cutting conditions

determination of the tool life

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

consideration of the
boundary conditions
Seite 51

Tool life straight line

determination of the cutting speed for a tool life of 15 minutes

Standzeitdiagramm
tool
life diagram

T=15 min

Standzeit
min
tool life T / /min

100

10

HW - P25

1
100

1000
Cutting speed / m/min/ m/min
Schnittgeschwindigkeit

v15VB 0,3 = 170

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

m
min
Seite 52

Tool wear modelling

tool wear modelling

Das Bild k ann zurzeit nicht angezeigt werden.

tool life equations

tool life by Taylor:

T = v ck Cv
T = tool life
= temperature

tool wear rate models

tool life by Hasting:

T =

empirical
tool wear model

k, A, B = constants
Cv = T for vc = 1 m/min
model by Archard:

dV
F S
=K
dt
3H

model by Takeyama:

model by Usui:

dV
= n v ch C1 e
dt

dV/dt = wear volume per time

H
= hardness
F
= mechanical load
S
= cutting path
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

physical
tool wear model

C
( 2 )
T

dV
= G v c + D e R
dt

K, C1, C2, G, D = constants

n = normal pressure
vch = sliding velocity
= temperature
Seite 53

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 54

Factors influencing surface quality in metal cutting

influences on surface quality in metal cutting
kinematic roughness

tool
motion

Influenced by

cutting
speed,
feed

Source: F. Betz
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

cutting
edge

Influenced by

wear on
minor
flank,
overall
wear

cutting roughness

chip formation
alteration of
mechanisms,
cut surface
BUE

Influenced by

tool geometry,
work material,
temperature,
tool material

additional factors

vibrations, chips,
deformation of feed
tracks

Influenced by

Influenced by

corner and
flank wear,
friction and
welds,
cooling

dynamic stiffness of
the system tool-workmachine tool, cutting
forces, chip formation,
tool micro geometry,
work material,
cutting parameter
Seite 55

Kinematic (theoretical) depth of roughness

f2
R t = r r
4
or :
oder
2

r
f
__

Kr

Rt

r-Rt

f2
Rt =
8 r

Feed f

The theoretical depth of roughness Rt can be

derived from the geometrical engagement
specifications and is a function of the feed and the
corner radius r

Depth of roughness Rt

r = 0,4
r = 0,8
r = 1,2
Feed f

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 56

Theoretical and measured depths of roughness

28

The illustration
r = 0,25

Depth of roeughness Rt / m

0,5
1
2

20

demonstrates a
comparison of theoretical
and measured depths of
roughness

The divergency between

the results in the low feed

area can be traced back to
the low chip width which
grows with increasing
rounded cutting edge
radius

16
12
8
4

measured depth of
roughness

theoretical depth of
roughness
0,4
mm 0,6

0
Source: Moll und Brammertz
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

0,1
0,2
feed f / m

0,3

Seite 57

Chip Tip Theory

The geometrical ideal surface

profile is determined by the

kinematic depths of roughness
Rkin

Due to the material resilience

x
Rkin

Working planePf

apmin

r
r

and the cutting edge wear,

material of the work piece is
being displaced which partially
springs back afterwards

Chip tips are created because

of this process
Pr
Cutting edge plane Ps

Due to the creation of chip tips

the real depth of roughness is

higher than the theoretical
kinematic depth of roughness
Rkin.

Source: Brammertz, 1961

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 58

Outline
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 59

Evaluation criterion: Chip Formation

unfavourable

3
1
2
3
4
5

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

acceptable

ribbon chips
tangled chips
corkscrew chips
helical chips
long tubular chips

good

acceptable

8
6
7
8
9
10

10

short tubular chips

spiral tubular chips
spiral chips
long comma chips
short comma chips
Seite 60

Thanks for your attention!

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 61

Gliederung
1

The Cutting Part

Chip Formation

Shear Plane Model

Machinability

Force Components

Tool Life

Surface Integrity

Chip Form

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 62

Cutting edges on the cutting part of a turning tool

primary motion

shank

feed motion
major face Ay

minor cutting edge

major cutting edge

major flank A

minor flank A

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

cutting edge corner

Seite 63

Standbedingungen: Schneideneingriff und Kinematik

Wirk-Bezugssystem

Werkzeug-Bezugssystem

Pr = Grundebene

r
ve

Pp

Pfe

Index e = effective

r
vc

Pf

r
ve
r
vc

Ppe

r
vf

r
vf

Pre

Pr

nach DIN 6581

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 64

The feed motion angle and the tool in use system in turning
trace of the
tool-back plane Pp

trace of the tool-back plane Pp

feed motion angle

vector of the
cutting speed
vector of the
cutting speed

trace of the
tool-reference
plane Pr
O

vector of the
feed direction

negativ
vector of the
feed direction

O
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

trace of the
tool-reference
plane Pr
Seite 65

Tool cutting edge inclination

r
vch

r
vch

tool

tool

chip

r
vc
workpiece

Tool cutting edge inclination s

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

r
vc

workpiece

Tool cutting edge inclination s not equal to 0

Seite 66

Chip formation: types of chips I

segmented chip

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

continuous chip

chip with build-up edge

Seite 67

Chip formation: types of chips II

shearing chip

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 68

Strain rates in different processes

Super plastic deformation

Deep drawing

Warm rolling

Cold rolling

Beam and tube pulling

High speed forging

Wire pulling

Explosive deformation

Split-Hopkinson-Bar-Test

Cutting
107 106 105 104 103 102 101
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

10

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 strain speed

& /

1
s
Seite 69

Calculation of the strain rates

hch

strain rate
tool

2 x xy
2 ij =
r xy 2 y
v
workpiece

workpiece

source: Leopold

Fy

v x
x

& y =

v y

& z =

v z
z

shearing strain rate

&xy =

x0

Fx

& x =

vx v y
+
y x

& yz =

v y
z

vz
y

&zx =

vz vx
+
x z

strain speed

tool

r
vch

+ o

strain tensor

ux

hch

uy
xch
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

x = ln

xch
x0

y = ln

hch
= ln h
h

u
+ o = arctan x
hch

=0

+ o
2 ln ch
+ o
2 ln l
x0
=

2 xy =

hch + o
2 ln h
2 ln
+ o

The time based differentiation

delivers the strain speed!
& y = 2

ln h
t

& x = 2

xy = + o

xch

ln
t x0
Seite 70

Consideration of energy
h
model
shear plane
vc

vch

h
hch

FF

Dx
shear energy:

EF = FF Ds

specific shear energy:

eF =

EF
F Ds
= F
=t

D
VF
AF x
AF =

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Ds

Dx

Ds

A
b h
=
sin F sin F
Seite 71

Application: theory of the ideal plastic body Lee/Shaffer (1951)

trace of the shear plane
A

Mohrs circle diagram

a, d

2 r

=0
=0

go

c, f

trace of the
tool reference
plane Pr

tool

workpiece

F =
ao
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

p
4

+ go - r

Po Pf Pn
Seite 72

Calculation of the shear angle, Hucks (1951)

Trace of the tool
reference plane
Trace of the
P
shear plane

Calculation of the material

specific angle :

r yz zy

Tool

rr

Trace of

Ps Pp

directions of the maximum

normal stresses
(1, 3) with Mohrs Circle

y FE

Pr

z FE

Determination of the

1,3: maximum normal stress

zy yz
Po Pf Pn

1
2

= 45 arcsin(

D 2 F
)
D

Calculation of the shear angle:

1
1 = arctan(2 ) + n
2
1
2

= arctan( 2 )

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 73

Dependencies of the force components

distribution of force
area of the rounded
corner

Ff
Fp

feed

Ff
Fp

cutting speed

The maxima are produced

by the build up cutting edge
during the area of low
cutting speed.

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Ff

Ff
Fp

Fp

vc

Fc

Fc
force

force

force

Fc

force

Fc

tool cutting edge angle

depth of cut

ap

At the area of the rounded

corner the trend line of the
force components are not
linear!

Seite 74

primary influence of the force components

technical cutting mechanics

geometrical relation

technical terms: vc, vf, ap,

kr, ls, ao, go,

theoretical cutting mechanics

theoretical terms: b, h, hch,

In the theoretical cutting mechanics, the cross-sectional area was identified as primary
factor and for the calculation the following parameters were defined:
 thickness of cut h
 width of cut b

Fz = f (b, h)
Plagens has found a good approximation of the cutting force with a linear function of the
width of cut (b).
The approximation of the force components with a function of the thickness of cut h was
often discussed and lead to empirical models:
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Seite 75

Nomogram of the specific components of the cutting force

equation of the straight line:

Kraftnomogramm
nomogram
of the force

log k i = mi log h + log k i1.1

10000

specific
spez.
Kraft force
k i / N/mm

y = mx+b

k i = k i 1 .1 h
A

mi

slope of the straight line in the double

logarithmic system:
B

ki1.1
1000
0,1

mi =

log B y log Ay
log B x log Ax

mi =

log Ay log By
log Bx log Ax

thickness of cuth / mm
Spanungsdicke

i.g.:

ki =

Fi
F
= i
A bh

k i1 .1 =

Fi
1 mm 1 mm
(scaling)

You can determine directly the scaled specific

components of the cutting force divided by
an area of 1 mm !
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

Fi = k i1.1 b h (h / m )

mi

Seite 76

Example: potential approximation

scaled force nomogram

yi = a x + b

scaled force F i ' / N/mm

10000

log Fi ' = a log h + log F i1 '

Tan i=1-mi

F 'i1
1000

F i ' = F i1 ' h (1 m i )

i
log(FiB)-log(FiA)

A
log(hB)-log(hA)

100
0,1

1
thickness of
cut hthickness
/ mm
Undeformed
Chip
h / mm

Fi = ki b h

ki =

ki1.1
hmi

logarithmic scale of the axes!

triangle of the slope!

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

potential approximation:

Fi = ki 1.1 b h1 mi
Seite 77

Types of wear
face A
flank A

flank wear land

C

SV

crater
N

KM
KT

VBB
KF

SV
A

flank

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

face A
Seite 78

Notch wear in machining of nickel base alloys

chip removal
chip lamella
feed
transverse material
flow following
upsetting of the
chip lamella

flank

turning direction

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

transverse material
flow following
upsetting of the
chip lamella

formation of a sawtooth profile

at the edge of the chip lamella
abrasion
surface damage
cutting edge sector with
- high pressures
- high temperatures
- high shear stresses
- high thermal and mechanical
stress gradients
- high thermal and mechanical
alternating stresses
adhesion
surface damage
tribooxydation
notch wear
on the face

notch wear
on the flank
Seite 79

Spanzipfeltheorie

Das geometrisch ideale

Oberflchenprofil wird durch die

kinematische Rauhtiefe Rkin
beschrieben.

Aufgrund von Werkstoffx

Werkzeugarbeitsebene Pf

Rkin
apmin

elastizitt und Schneidenverschlei wird im Bereich der

Nebenschneide Werkstoff
verdrngt, der anschlieend
teilweise elastisch zurckfedert.

Durch diese Effekte entstehen

Pr
Werkzeugschneidenebene Ps

Quelle: Brammertz, 1961

WZL/Fraunhofer IPT

die sogenannten Spanzipfel.

Die tatschliche Rauhtiefe ist

durch die Bildung der

Spanzipfel grer als die
theoretisch berechnete
kinematische Rautiefe Rkin.
Seite 80