M 804 Machine Design & Drawing II

Module-I

Gears
1.

Introduction

Gears are simply toothed wheels used for transmitting power and motion from one shaft to
another. The design of gears is highly standardised by the AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers
Association). Like bearings, gears represent a product of excellence in engineering design.
The advantages of gear transmissions are: (1) transmit large power, (2) high efficiency, (3) stable
speed ratio, (4) long life, and (5) reliable. The disadvantages are: (1) high requirements in manufacturing
and assembling, (2) expensive, and (3) unsuitable for long distance transmission.
The design of spur gears requires the study and objective understanding of the following subjects:
-- Kinematics and geometrical shapes
-- Analysis of forces produced in gears and in gear trains
-- Design of gears against breakage
-- Design of gears against deterioration and wear

2. Spur Gears
2.1.

Terminology

The following are some gear terminology associated with most gears, including spur gears. A
sketch of the gear teeth nomenclature is shown in Fig. 1.
Pinion:

when two gears are in mesh, it is customary to call the smaller as the pinion.

Base Circle: the circle from which the theoretical curve of gear teeth start.
Pitch Circle: the circle on a gear on which the thickness of a tooth equals to the space.
Addendum Circle: the circle drawn through the top of the gear tooth, its centre is at the gear centre.
Root or Dedendum Circle: the circle drawn through the bottom of the gear tooth, its centre is at the gear
centre.
Addendum: the radial distance from the pitch circle to the addendum circle.
Dedendum:

the radial distance from the pitch circle to the dedendum circle.

Clearance Circle: the largest circle centred at the gear centre, which is not penetrated by the teeth of the
mating circle.
Clearance:

the radial distance from the clearance circle to the dedendum circle.

Whole Depth: the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circles.
Working Depth: the radial distance between the addendum and the clearance circles.
Circular Pitch pc: the distance measured along the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to the
corresponding point on the adjacent tooth of the gear. Hence,
pc =

d
N

where d is the diameter of the pitch circle, N is the number of teeth of the gear. In order for
two gears to mesh, they must have the same circular pitch.
Diametral Pitch pd:this is equal to the number of teeth of a gear divided by the diameter of the pitch
circle (in inches only). That is,

N
(d in inches )
d
To relate pc and pd, we have from Eq. (1)
pd pc =
In order for two gear to mesh, they must have the same diametral pitch.
pd =

Module m:

reciprocal of the diametral pitch, but used only with the SI units. That is,
d
m=
( m in mm)
N
Note that unit conversion is necessary in going from Pd to m. Hence,
25.4
m=
pd
and the circular pitch in mm. is
pc = m

2
3

5
6

Pressure Line: the common inner tangent (line AB as in Fig. 2) of the two base circles of the meshing
gears.
Pressure Angle : the angle between the pressure line and the tangent of the pitch circle. Most gears are
manufactured with = 14 or 20. In order for two gears to mesh, they must have the
same pressure angle on the pitch circles.
Relation between radii r and rb of pitch circle and base circle is, as shown in Fig. 2,
rb = r cos
7
Backlash:

the difference between tooth space and tooth thickness of the meshing teeth. It is measured
on the pitch circle. The purpose is to avoid interference in gear motion and resulting in
jams. Too large a backlash can produce large shock loads resulting in excessive wear,
noise and inaccurate gear motion.

Fig. 1 Spur gear terminology

2.2. Meshing Geometry

Fig. 2 Pressure line and pressure angle

When using spur gears the designer must use a small gear (pinion gear) that has at least a certain
number of teeth. Below that number, all the load normally shared by several teeth will fall on just one
tooth, which can exceed the yield strength of the single tooth. Since gears are used to change shaft
rotational speed, we must also consider gear ratio.. The gear ratio between a pinion (small gear) and the
large gear is:
gr =

dg

dp

Ng

Np

The distance the gear centres must be separated by is:

Cd =

(d

+ dg )

This distance must be highly accurate (within 0.0002 in) or else the teeth will not contact properly
and will wear badly. Page 623 of the text has useful sizing information.
2.3. Power and Gear Ratio
It should be noted again that power is equal to torque multiplied by rotation speed.
P = T

10

and this must be constant from the input gear to the output gear. Therefore, if torque T rises, then
speed must be reduced. The power is constant, we cannot put five watts in and get fifteen watts out!
Notice also, in SI units:
1 watt = 1 N m 1 rad / se c
2.4. Contact Ratio
As pinion and gear rotate, the number of teeth in contact varies slightly. We can analyse the
geometry to determine the average number of teeth in contact.

Fig 3 Details of line of action, showing angles of approach and recess for both pinion and gear.
The involute profile serves to keep the line of action of the forces on the tooth along the line of
action shown in the figure. Generally, a contact ratio greater than two is desirable. A contact ratio below
two means that only one pair of teeth is carrying the total load for part of the time. An absolute minimum

value for Cr is 1.2. From the diagram the expression for contact ratio Cr can be derived:
1
r 2 + r 2 1 2 + r 2 + r 2 1 2 C tan
Cr =
( op bp ) ( og bg ) d p
pc cos
c

11

2.5. Backlash
The more accurately the tooth profile is cut, and the centre-to-centre distance is maintained, the
smaller the backlash. If the input shaft is fixed, backlash is the distance a tooth on the gear moves when
contact is shifted from the forward tooth to the trailing tooth.
2.6. Speed Ratio
We know the gear ratio gr is the inverse to the rotational speed ratio z.
N
if
gr = g ,
Np

p rp = g rg
Then because

g rp N p
= =
=z
p rg N g

12

The rule is that the big gear turns slower than the little one.
Sometimes, in automotive transmissions annular gear arrangements are used. Here the centre
distance is given as:
Cd = ( r2 r1 )
13
2.7. Power Transmitting Force

Fig. 4 Force transmitted from one gear to another

Recall the force, Fp between a pair of teeth always lies along the pressure line which is tangent to
the base circle as shown in Fig. 2. In terms of quantities pertaining to the base circle, the power due to this
force is determined by:
nrb Fp
nT
hp =
=
( Fp in lb., r in inches)
14
63, 025 63, 025
or
2 T 2 nrb Fp
kW =
( Fp in N , rb in m)
=
15
1, 000
1, 000
FP in Fig. 4 can be divided into two components, one, Wt, tangential to the pitch circle and the

other Wr directed toward the centre. The latter transmits no power. The substitution of Wt = FP cos and
Eq. (7) into Eqs. (14) and (15) results
nrWt
hp =
(Wt in lb., r in inches, n in rpm)
16
63, 025
or
2 nrWt
kW =
(Wt in N , r in meter , n in rev / se c)
17
1, 000
2.8. Beam strength of Gear Teeth Lewis Equation
Dynamic Forces between Gear Teeth
Noise which is generated at high speeds by a pair of gears is caused by the impact forces between
contacting tooth surface. The greatest cause of these dynamic forces is error in teeth profile due to
improper manufacturing. Various approaches have been taken to determine the dynamic force. One of
these gives:
2e
18
Fd =
kmc
t
where
e = combined error in both gears (given in Table 1)
t
= time duration of contact in sec.
k = spring constant for the pair of teeth
me = equivalent mass for the two gears
AGMA
Quality
Number

Pitch Diameter
Pitch

1-1/2 in.
or
38mm

3 in.
or
75 mm

6 in.
or
150 mm
0.0048

12 in.
or
300 mm
0.005

25 in.
or
625 mm
0.0052

50 in.
or
1,250 mm
0.0055

0.0032

0.0034

0.0036

0.0037

0.004

0.0022

0.0023

0.0024

0.0025

0.0028

0.0029

0.0017

0.0018

0.0019

0.002

0.0021

0.0023

0.0033

0.0034

0.0037

0.0039

0.0022

0.0023

0.0025

0.0027

0.0027

0.0016

0.0017

0.0018

0.0019

0.0019

0.002

0.0013

0.0013

0.0014

0.0014

0.0015

0.0016

0.0024

0.0025

0.0025

0.0027

Pd = 2 or m = 12
8

Pd = 4 or m = 6
Pd = 8 or m = 3
Pd = 16-20 or m = 11.5-1.25
Pd = 2 or m = 12

Pd = 4 or m = 6
Pd = 8 or m = 3
Pd = 16-20 or m = 11.5-1.25
Pd = 2 or m = 12

10

Pd = 4 or m = 6
Pd = 8 or m = 3
Pd = 16-20 or m = 11.5-1.25

0.0016

0.0017

0.0018

0.0019

0.0024

0.0012

0.0012

0.0012

0.0013

0.0014

0.0015

0.0009

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.0011

0.0011

0.0012

0.0012

0.0013

0.0014

0.0015

0.0008

0.0009

0.0009

0.0009

0.001

0.0011

0.0006

0.0007

0.0007

0.0007

0.0008

0.0008

0.0009

0.0009

0.0009

0.001

0.001

0.0006

0.0006

0.0007

0.0007

0.0007

0.0008

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0006

0.0006

Pd = 4 or m = 6
11

Pd = 8 or m = 3
Pd = 16-20 or m = 11.5-1.25
Pd = 4 or m = 6

12

Pd = 8 or m = 3
Pd = 16-20 or m = 11.5-1.25

Table 1 Total Tooth-to-Tooth Spacing and Profile Errors, e, Inches

The contact time for one tooth is

t=

60 1
( n in rpm)
n N

then Eq. (18) becomes

enN
19
kmc
30
The spring constant for a pair of meshing teeth is given by
b E E
k= 1 2
9 E1 + E2
where E1 and E2 are Youngs moduli of the two gears. Esteel = 30,000,000 psi. If both gears are steel, then
Fd =

k = 1,667,000b lb/in. = 11,500b newtons/mm

The equivalent mass is obtained from consideration of moment of inertia and is given by
m 'm '
lb se c
newton se c 2
mc = 1 2
or
m1 '+ m2 '
in
mm
where
b
m' =
( r04 r14 )
2 gr0 2
in which

= density of the material, steel = 7.68 10-5 N/mm3 = 0.283 lb/in3.

ro, ri = the outside and inside radii respectively of the rim. ro = r
g
= the gravitational constant = 9,806.6 mm/sec2 = 386 in/sec2.
b
= width of the gear
If the two gears are solid and made from the same material, then Eq. (22) can be simplified to
C 2 b r12

mc =
1+ C 2 2g
where
C = N2/N1.

20

21

22

23

3. Allowable Stresses on Gear Teeth

3.1. Bending Stresses
The allowable bending stress on a tooth could limit the power transfer for thinner teeth at low contact
ratios. The simple graph deals with the bending stress at the root of a gear tooth. The additional tables
here give more detailed information.
Usually gears fail because the tooth surface is deformed and wear takes place due to the small sliding
action of the contact point. Thus the contact stress may also be the critical design stress. Additional
information is given in the figures reproduced here.
An important factor in the bending stess is the Lewis Factor Y.

t =

3Wt
3Wt Pd
wP
=
= t d
2bw x 2bw pd x bwY

where bw = tooth face width

The Lewis Factor, Y, (also called the Geometry Factor) is given in the graph below

24

Fig 5 Spur gear geometry factor for pressure angle of 20 and full depth involute
For general design, Motts formula (1992) is used:
WPK K K
t = t d a s m
bwY j K
Where
Ka = application factor associated with load variations in operation
Ks = size factor (often 1.0)
Km = load distribution factor associated with tooth alignment
Kv = dynamic factor associated with loading and unloading of the tooth

25

Driven machines
Power source

Uniform

Light shock
Moderate shock
Application factor, K a

Heavy shock

Uniform

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

Light shock

1.20

1.40

1.75

2.25

Moderate shock

1.30

1.70

2.00

2.75

Table 2 Application factor as a function of driving power source and driven machine

Fig 6 Load distribution factor as function of face width and ratio of face width to pitch diameters
The variable Q is a gear quality number. From Table 1 it can be seen that low values of Q are associated
with large backlash and large errors in tooth profile. As speed increases dynamic impact forces increase,

thus for Q < 5, the maximum pitch line velocity

vt < 2500 ft/min. For Q = 5,6, or 7 is typical for machinery. Q > 7 are specified for high speed use. Pitch
line velocity is defined as:
d N
d N
t = p ap = g ag
26
12
12
where
Na = rpm of gear or pinion
d = diameter of gear or pinion

Fig 7 Dynamic factor as function of pitch-line velocity and transmission accuracy level
3.2. Contact Stresses
If contact stresses are too high the surfaces of the gear teeth will be gouged. Lubrication films break down
and metal-to-metal contact takes place. The teeth grind away the profile due to sliding. If the gear is
surface hardened, surface fatigue may occur, resulting in surface flaking. These flakes can then become a
grinding powder that rapidly destroys the machine.
1

W ' 2
pH = E '
27

2
where E is the effective modulus of elasticity between the two gear materials. E determines the surface
conformity (contact area) due to deformation under load.
Thus:
2
E'=
28
2
1 a 1 b 2
+
Ea
Eb
W is the dimensionless load:
w'
29
W '=
E ' Rx
where w = load per unit width Pz/bw and,
1 1 1 1
30
= +
Rx rp rg sin
When this is all related properly, contact stress is given as:
1

W ' Ka Ks Km 2
Ka Ks Km 2
=
p
c = E '

H
2 K

As is given, lubricant and film thickness can be calculated to select weights of lubricants.

31

4. Bevel Gears
Bevel gears may have straight or curved teeth. They require special mountings because they produce large

axial thrust forces. Unlike in spur gears where the pitch circle lies in a cylinder (pitch cylinder), the pitch
circle in bevel gears lies in a cone.
4.1. Terminology and Geometry
Straight bevel gears are specified, in pairs, as follows:

N1, N2

--- Pressure angle (as for spur gears)

--- Number of teeth

Pd

--- Diametral pitch, measured at outside diameter

--- Width of tooth, measured along pitch cone

--- Width of blank, required for calculating Fd

The above parameters are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Straight-tooth bevel gear

From Fig. 8, the diametral pitch is
Pd =

N1
N
= 2
2r01 2r02

33

The circle pitch at mid-point of tooth is

2 r1 2 ( r01 12 b sin 1 )
=
N1
N1
and is required in calculating tooth bending capacity.
p =

34

A bevel gear has a virtual number of teeth N which is the number of teeth a spur gear of radius ro (back
cone radius) would have. N is used in calculating wear capacity c and bending capacity b. N is given
by
N1 ' =

N1
cos 1

Back cone radius, ro, is used in determining tooth profiles.

35

The virtual radius at mid-tooth r is used in determining c. r is given by

r1 ' =

r1
cos 1

36

4.2. Bending Capacity

The bending capacity, b, is given by the same formula as for spur gear teeth, that is,

t =

Wt pd K a K s K m
bwY j K

37

where
t
Yj
b
pd

=
=
=
=

bending strength of material

Lewis form factor using N
the gear width (see Fig. 8)
the diametral pitch at the tooth mid-point, given by Eq. 34

4.3. Contact Capacity

The wear capacity, Fw, is given by the equation for Fw for spur gears, but modified as follows,

W ' Ka Ks Km
c = 0.75Q ' E '

2 K

38

where
0.75 = reduction factor due to poor contact in bevel gear teeth
Q

= determined by N1 and N2 for spur gears, that is

Q' =

2 N2 '
2 N 2 sin 1
2N2
=
=
N1 '+ N 2 ' ( N1 cos 1 ) + ( N1 cos 1 ) N1 tan 1 + N 2

39

4.4. Horsepower Capacity

The horsepower capacity or loading capacity is determined in the same way as for spur gears.(eqs.1417)
4.5. Loads on Bearings by Bevel Gears
In determining bearing loads in bevel-gear applications, it is assumed that all forces act on the centre of
the tooth. From Fig. 9, the forces and components are:
Pz =

Wt
cos

40

Wr = Wt tan cos

41

Wa = Wt tan sin

42

In the above equations, Wt can be obtained from the known horsepower:

hp =

Wt n
63, 025

(n in rpm)

43

Fig. 9 Forces at midpoint of bevel gear tooth