BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN

In design we give shape to a concept with the application of science, technology and invention
to the realization of a machine so as to satisfy the required performance and characteristics, i.e.
its specifications with optimum economy and efficiency. A design process involves the
following consideration:
1. Design Base: Matching the existing experience with R and D; bringing in the latest
material technology; limitations in design; convenience in production line and
transportation; working safety and reliability; maintenance and repair, environmental
conditions; cost economy; optimization.
2. Specification. Meeting with the customers needs, guarantees; satisfy the national and
international standards.
3. Design Transfer. Transfer of design to factory foreman i.e. drawings, processes,
instructions, job flow, meeting the delivery schedule.
4. Information Updating. Technical journals, R and D papers and reports, interaction in
meetings and seminars.
Talking about optimization in design several aspects are to be considered. It is not just
minimizing the cost: A designer has to identify a criterion that gives best design to meet a given
specification or a given duty.
Knowing the characteristics and specifications that a machine has to satisfy, the main areas of
designs are
1. The magnetic circuit (yoke, core, air gap etc.)
2. The electric circuit (the windings)
3. The insulation
4. Heating and cooling circuit
5. Mechanical construction.

LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN

There are certain limitations imposed on the design such as:
1. Saturation of magnetic parts (increased core losses and excitation at higher flux
density).
2. Temperature rise (increased temperature rise under higher output deteriorates the
insulation and affects the machine operating life).
3. Insulation (breakdown due to high voltage gradient, temperature rise limitations,
mechanical damage).
4. Mechanical strength especially in large size and high speed machines.
5.

Efficiency (higher efficiency costs more initially but poor efficiency results in
increased losses and so higher operating cost and temperature rise.

6.

Power Factor (specially in case of 3 phase induction motor because of pf limitations

higher flux density cannot be taken in air gap which would have otherwise resulted in
more compact size motor).

7. Commutation (in dc machines output is limited due to commutation problem) and

8. Customers specifications.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES
All electrical machines are basically electro-magnetic devices. Among them the rotating
machines are electromechanical energy conversion devices but the transformer is a static
machine where energy conversion does not take place, only the level of voltage changes.
All electrical machines are based upon three principles namely:
(i) Induction
(ii) Interaction
(iii) Alignment.
Transformer operation is based on induction. Most of the rotating electrical machines use the
principle of induction as well as interaction. Only a few machines such as reluctance motors
are based on alignment.

MATERIALS FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES

The materials used in electrical can be divided in to three categories viz. conducting materials,
magnetic materials and insulating materials.
Electrical Conducting Materials:
Silver, copper, aluminium are some of the important conducting materials. Silver has
conductivity about 10% higher than that of copper, but it is never used in making electrical
machines due to its higher cost. Copper is the most widely used conducting material due to its
excellent electrical and mechanical properties. The next important conducting material is
aluminium which is increasingly being used in many electrical engineering applications.
The materials used in electrical can be divided in to three categories viz. conducting materials,
magnetic materials and insulating materials
Magnetic Materials:
Magnetic materials may be classified into three broad categories viz. diamagnetic materials,
paramagnetic materials and Ferro-magnetic materials. From the electrical engineering point of
view both the diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials could be considered as nonmagnetic. Ferro-magnetic materials (such as nickel, cobalt, iron, steel, silicon steel, perm alloy
and super-permalloy) are further divided into two broad groups, from hysteresis loop point of
view, viz hard magnetic materials and soft-magnetic materials.
Hard magnetic materials (such as carbon steel, tungsten steel, cobalt steel and hard ferrites)
have a gradually rising magnetization curve, large hysteresis loop area and consequently large
energy loss per cycle of magnetization and are used in making all kinds of instruments and
devices requiring permanent magnets.
Soft magnetic materials (such as silicon steel, nickel-iron alloys and soft-ferrites) have a
steeply rising magnetization curve, relative small and narrow hysteresis loop and consequently
small energy loss per cycle of magnetization and are widely used for the construction of cores
of electrical rotating machines, transformers, and for making electro-magnets, reactors, relays
etc.
Insulating Materials
There are quite a large variety of insulating materials available having vastly different
properties. Some of common insulating materials are paper, cotton, silk, cardboard empire

cloth, pressphan, mica, asbestos, Bakelite, micanite, resins, silicons, glass, ceramics, quartz,
varnish, transformer oil etc.
The fundamental needs of a good insulating material are
(i) high dielectric strength
(ii) high insulating resistance
(iii) low dielectric loss
(iv) good mechanical strength
(v) good thermal conductivity
(vi) high degree of thermal stability and
(vii) good machinability to mass production. Besides these it must be easily and economically
available.
Insulating materials normally used in electrical machinery and apparatus, according to their
thermal stability in service are grouped into seven classes viz classes Y, A, E, B, F, H, C
capable of operating at temperatures 90 C, 105 C, 120 C, 130 C, 155 C, 180 C, and
above 180 C respectively safely.
Temperature Rise-Time Relation:
When an electrical machine is switched on and put on a constant load, the temperature starts
rising at a rate determined by losses. With the rise in temperature the active parts of the
machine and various surfaces start transferring and dissipating the heat. The higher the rise in
temperature, greater is the heat dissipation. So with the rise in temperature, the rate falls
because of increased dissipation making the temperature rise-time curve an exponential in
nature. The temperature rise at any time, t C is given as
= m ( 1 - e-t/)
Where m is the final steady temperature rise, m is directly proportional to losses and
inversely proportional to the surface area and specific heat dissipation. For poor ventilated
machine, it will attain a higher steady area and specific heat dissipation. For poor ventilated
machine, it will duration during which the machine will attain 63.2% of its final steady
temperature rise. Large size machines have large heating time constant because with the
increase in size of machine, the volume and so the weight increases in proportion to the cube of
linear dimensions and surface area increases in proportion to second power.

Temperature Fall-Time Relation

When the load on the machine is reduced or completely thrown away leading to reducing or
stoppage of generation of heat, the temperature of the machine will fall according to
exponential law. The temperature difference at any time, tC is given as
= f e -t/
Where f is the final temperature rise when the machine is switched off and is the cooling
time constant defined as the time taken by the machine for its temperature difference to fall to
36.8% of its initial value i.e. f .
Methods of Ventilation and Cooling
The cooling of electrical machines by means of an air stream is called the ventilation of the
machines. The cooling systems can be grouped into three types viz natural cooling, self cooling
and separate cooling.
Further, the ventilation of the machine can be classified into three categories, according to the
scheme of ventilation incorporated in the machine, namely,1 open circuit ventilation 2 closed
circuit ventilation and 3 surface ventilation. Open circuit ventilation can be divided into two
types viz induced ventilation and forced ventilation.
The ventilating system can be further classified into four types in accordance with the
provision of cooling ducts and how the air passes over the heated parts of the machines.
1. Radial Ventilating System. This is commonly used as the movement of rotor induces
natural centrifugal motion of the air. The movement of the air can be increased, in
needed, by rotor fans. A high rate of dissipation is possible.
2. Axial Ventilating System. This system is suitable for modern output and high speed
machines. To increase the cooling surface, holes may be punched in the core plates to
form through ducts where considerable heat dissipation occurs. This greatly improves
the cooling, but requires a large core diameter for the increased core depth necessary.
3. Combined Radial and Axial Ventilating System. This method is normally used for large
motors and small turbo-alternators.
4. Multiple-Inlet Ventilating System. This system is used in large turbo-machines.

Cooling of Large Sized Machines (Turbo-alternators)

Turbo-machine coupled to a steam turbine is basically a high speed machine having small
diameter but long core length. With such machines open-circuit ventilation requiring large
volume (several tons of air per hour depending upon the machine rating) dust and moisture free
clean air cannot be adopted due to heavy operating cost. Closed-circuit air cooling can be
applied only up to a maximum rating of 50 kw. So the only alternative cooling medium is
hydrogen gas for large high speed machines. Hydrogen gas, as a coolant in place of air under
closed circuit cooling has the advantages of
(i) better cooling medium
(ii) increased efficiency, output and life
(iii) Quite operation
(iv) elimination of fire hazard
(v) reduced maintenance and
(vi) reduced size of coolers

Carters Gap Coefficient

In a slotted armature, the effective area of flux path is substantially reduced resulting in an
increase in air gap reluctance. A simple method of calculating reluctance in this case is to
assume that the air gap flux is uniformly distributed over the whole of slot pitch except for a
fraction of slot width. The fraction depends upon the ratio of slot width to air gap length. Carter
gave a coefficient which depends upon the ratio of slot width/gap length to take into this
effect. Carter gap coefficient (Kcs) is given as
Kcs = 1/ (1+ 5/g/ws)
Where Ig is the air-gap length and ws is the width of slot.
Gap Contraction Factor for Slots
Ratio of air gap reluctance of slotted armature to air gap reluctance of smooth armature is
called the gap contraction factor for slots (Kgs) and is given as
Kcs =

Ys / (Ys Kcs * Ws)

Where Kcs is Carters gap coefficient, Ws is the width for slot and Ys is the slot pitch.
Gap Contraction Factor for Ducts
Ratio of air-gap reluctance with ducts to air gap reluctance without ducts is called the gap
contraction factor for ducts (Kgd) and is given as
Kgd = L/(L Kcd * Nd * Wd)
Where L is length of core, Kcd is Carters coefficient for ducts, Nd is number of ducts and Wd
is the width of each duct.
Total gap contraction factor (Kg) for slots and ducts is given
Kg = Kgs * Kgd
Air Gap MMF For Slotted Armature
Air gap mmf for slotted armature is given as
ATg = 8,00,000 BgKglg
Where Bg is the flux density in T and Ig is the air gap in meter.
Gap Expansion Factor is the ratio of effective gap length to the actual gap length and is given
as Kg = Ige/Ig
Where Ige is the effective gap length, which is increased gap length due to provision of ducts
and slots.