Report Prepared

for
Anglo Gold Cerro Vanguardia SA

Technical Visit Report

CVSA Surface and Underground Operations
Review, Commentary & Recommendations

November 2010
In cooperation with

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Technical Visit Report Surface and Underground Operations

p. i

Technical Visit Report

CVSA Surface and Underground Operations
Review, Commentary & Recommendations

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Austin Powder Argentina (APA) offers a supply, load and shoot service for all blasting
activities at the Cerro Vanguardia operations in Santa Cruz, southern Argentina. The provision
of high quality technical service to the mine is an important part of the APA offering to Cerro
Vanguardia S.A. (CVSA). A key part of this technical component is the provision of regular
on-site visits y international blasting engineer consultants.
As such, Cameron McKenzie of Blastechnology and Bill Adamson of Austin Powder
International (API) visited the mine during the 8th to the 10 th of November of this year. This
visit was supported by the Technical Manager of APA; Emilio Concha Valle.
In accordance with the mixed mining method nature of the CVSA operations, work was
undertaken and visits made to both surface and underground production sites. The needs of
CVSA in both environments were communicated in preliminary presentations delivered by
CVSA engineers in a briefing exercise for the visiting consultants.
In response, two general presentations, describing previously discussed and available
APA/API technology and services (including Blastechnology support) were delivered by API
and Blastechnology.
The three day visit to CVSA on the part of the technical team from Austin Powder Argentina,
Austin Powder International and Blastechnology was an effective and productive exercise.
The visit was spent examining and studying drilling and blasting results (design and
implementation) in both the surface and underground mining environments.
The comments presented in the present section are separated, for clarity, into two groups,
reflecting the two mining environments visited in early November.

Surface Drilling and Blasting

The objectives of the drilling and blasting work in the surface mining context were fivefold:

Review the CVSA performance in terms of pre-split blasting

Review the performance regarding the coordinated implementation of buffer blast

design and implementation

Comment on practices for the optimised blasting of narrow veined orebodies

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p. ii

Consider the possibility of introducing a modified format of massive blasting in those

pits where the available bench area is present

Comment and participate in the fine tuning of special blast designs for blasting of rock
volumes containing pit dewatering well casings.

Pre-Split
Regarding the pre-split design and implementation, it was confirmed that a number of good
practices are regularly followed at CVSA; drilling and blasting the pre-split over the full depth
of the double bench and designing angled pre-splits are both excellent decisions in terms of
obtaining an optimum result.
The question was asked whether it is better to fire the pre-split blast some time (half a day, a
day, etc.) prior to the main blast, or whether it is more acceptable to fire the pre-split at the
same time as the main blast. Preferences are mixed on this point and there are arguments
supporting both points of view, however at this stage there have been nothing noted in recent
experiments at the mine to indicate a preference for one or the other theory. More work
perhaps needs to be done in this regard.
There is scope for further improvement in pre-split effectiveness if a greater effort is made to
relate pre-split design to rock mass properties between different pits. CVSA has access to the
full analysis capability of Austin Powder and it is recommended that Austin Powder be invited
to participate more in this optimisation process.
Finally, observations in the field (Pit OD-CB8) demonstrated the dominant influence that insitu structure can have over pre-split performance, where in two domains with very similar
UCS but significantly different structural characteristics, two very different results were
obtained in terms of pre-split quality. There is a clear difference noted between a result with
high half-barrel count, and a smooth, even fracture between each, and the case where halfbarrels are separated by uneven, rough rock surfaces that indicate the lack of a complete
fracture between charged blastholes.
Buffer Blasting
The issue of good buffer blast design remains critical for the success of wall control at Cerro
Vanguardia.
It is clear that the standoff distance for each blast must be matched to the charge characteristics
for the explosives in use, as well as the angle of drilling. CVSA has altered their standard
design practice for the better in ceasing to drill angled buffer holes, moving to vertical holes
and reducing the crater damage provoked at the crest of the new bench.
Under some conditions, excessive standoff may lead to the result of leaving a crust of cling-on
material along some parts of the face of the new bench. Success has been achieved in other
operations by using a negative angle or drilling back towards the toe of the pre-split for the
buffer row. This allows a suitable standoff distance to protect the crest yet also allows the
placement of explosive energy to remove the crust of unbroken rock.

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Narrow Vein Blasting

It is suggested to CVSA that dilution is inevitably, at least partially, related to muckpile
displacement during blasting. The current drilling and blasting designs for narrow vein
deposits tend to produce a great deal of displacement this has been confirmed by observation
of various video records for a number of ore blasts.
There is potential for use of modified pre-split blast drilling and charging, for reducing the
amount of displacement and burden movement velocity. This technique uses the drilling
parameters and the explosive charge philosophy but alters the initiation sequence to more
closely resemble a production blast. Previous attempts using this technique have reported quite
coarse fragmentation and lack of movement. It is suggested, in this case, that the number of
pre-split rows be increased gradually in order to reach a balance between displacement and
fragmentation. Austin Powder uses at least two modelling approaches to address this challenge
and CVSA is encouraged to work with Austin Powder to examine the alternatives in more
detail
Massive Blasting
In 2008 and 2009, Austin Powder International recommended that CVSA consider firing
larger production blasts, re-oriented to fire parallel to the final wall orientation.
Recent events in OD-CB8 suggest that CVSA has found a way to incorporate massive (> 10
rows) blast patterns into their production planning process. This will allow CVSA to
experiment with different initiation sequences that have been shown to reduce damage in a
number of mines around the world.
Well Casing Blasting
CVSA has managed to fire a number of controlled blasts in the vicinity of mine de-watering
well casings in the past. This work has been supported by Austin Powder Argentina with
drilling designs; the current pattern is a derivation of work done several years ago by APA. In
the case of this particular visit, a combination of circular pre-splitting and light fracturing
blasts, while encouraging a large amount of displacement for the front face, production rows,
was shown to leave the well casing in good physical condition.

Underground Drilling and Blasting

The development of underground mining operations at CVSA has advanced notably and a visit
was made to the Mangas Centro decline in order to assess the current state of efficiency in
drilling and blasting operations.
A number of visual observations were made, as follows;

It is clear that floor control has room for improvement, both in the main decline access
and along level development. There is a tendency for undulation, rising and falling, in
the floor surface and this is likely related to incomplete control of the drilling accuracy
when developing the tunnel access.
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Successful ring blasting within the stopes requires good drilling, which in turn requires
accurate survey set-up and marking of the ring positions and collaring points. A case
was observed where the ring plane direction was not perpendicular to the axis of the
stope drive this will complicate identification of the correct blastholes to charge and
will probably affect the ease of displacement of the blasted ore.

Survey of the top and bottom of each blast hole will provide important assistance at the
moment of deciding on the explosive charging and initiation sequence best suited to
deliver a good blast result.

The feedback from surveys of this nature, to drillers, should tend to create a positive
feed-back loop that encourages improved drilling accuracy and precision.

Currently the blasthole rings are fully charged with ANFO and this can lead to powder
factors of around 1.2 kg/t an intensity that is probably excessive and likely to
promote damage.

The objectives for optimisation of the underground drill and blasting were stated as;

Reduce damage, particularly to the hangingwall

Reduce dilution strongly related to the previous point.

Optimise drop-raising performance.

A number of suggestions were offered as a means to achieving these objectives, including;

Carry out near field vibration measurement campaigns in the stopes that are being
developed. This technique will permit a diagnostic evaluation of the progress of the
blasting and also supply valuable data for the fitting of a predictive vibration model.

Evaluate the geotechnical characteristics/properties of the rock masses in each stope in

order to calculate the critical value of vibration required to initiate fracturing
(remembering that in the underground environment, vibration is usually the dominant
mechanism of damage).

Use the fitted model mentioned above, together with the vibration damage criterion to
evaluate and modify blast designs in order to control damage.

The same technique can be adapted to evaluate fragmentation problems and potential
for improvement, if necessary.

Drop- raising blasting success is strongly affected by at least two factors;

o Drilling accuracy, and
o Percentage void space provide by uncharged drill holes.

Drilling accuracy can be measured and blast designs adjusted to maintain a correct
firing sequence.
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p. v

Electronic initiation systems will also allow firing times to be selected that will permit
an optimisation of initiation sequences for each lift of the drop-raise.

Project Team Formation

Both CVSA and Austin Powder possess valuable assets in the form of trained staff,
quantitative data, operational resources, specialised software and measurement technology.
These resources will be most efficiently put to use if customer and service provider can agree
to work in a team framework to design and execute specific projects aimed at optimising
targeted aspects of blast performance.

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p. vi

Report to AngloGold Ashanti, Cerro Vanguardia SA

Technical Visit Report

CVSA Surface and Underground Operations
Review, Commentary & Recommendations

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

SURFACE DRILLING AND BLASTING

UNDERGROUND DRILLING AND BLASTING
PROJECT TEAM FORMATION

I
III
V

1.

INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................1

2.

SCOPE OF WORK .......................................................................................................................1

3.

SURFACE ISSUES........................................................................................................................3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

4.

WALL CONTROL BLASTING PRE-SPLIT DESIGN AND PRACTICE

WALL CONTROL BLASTING BUFFER ROW DESIGN
NARROW VEIN BLASTING CONTROLLING DISPLACEMENT
MASSIVE BLASTING
SPECIAL PURPOSE BLASTING WELL CASING PROTECTION

3
7
9
12
14

UNDERGROUND ISSUES........................................................................................................19
4.1
4.2
4.3

CONTROL OF DAMAGE AND DILUTION

OPTIMISATION OF DROP-RAISES
OPTIMISATION OF DEVELOPMENT BLASTING

20
26
27

5.

JOINT PROJECT TEAMS........................................................................................................30

6.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................31

6.1
6.2
6.3

7.

SURFACE DRILLING AND BLASTING

UNDERGROUND DRILLING AND BLASTING
PROJECT TEAM FORMATION

31
33
35

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................35

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Technical Visit Report

CVSA Surface and Underground Operations
Review, Commentary & Recommendations

1.

INTRODUCTION
Austin Powder Argentina (APA) offers a supply, load and shoot service for all blasting
activities at the Cerro Vanguardia operations in Santa Cruz, southern Argentina. The provision
of high quality technical service to the mine is an important part of the APA offering to Cerro
Vanguardia S.A. (CVSA). A key part of this technical component is the provision of regular
on-site visits y international blasting engineer consultants.
As such, Cameron McKenzie of Blastechnology and Bill Adamson of Austin Powder
International (API) visited the mine during the 8th to the 10 th of November of this year. This
visit was supported by the Technical Manager of APA; Emilio Concha Valle.
In accordance with the mixed mining method nature of the CVSA operations, work was
undertaken and visits made to both surface and underground production sites. The needs of
CVSA in both environments were communicated in preliminary presentations delivered by
CVSA engineers in a briefing exercise for the visiting consultants.
In response, two general presentations, describing previously discussed and available
APA/API technology and services (including Blastechnology support) were delivered by API
and Blastechnology.
As a result of this opening exchange of information and needs, it was possible to delineate a
Scope of Work for the three days of the visit.

2.

SCOPE OF WORK
CVSA now extracts mineral from both surface and underground operations, although this
second source of production is very recent in the historical context of the mine life. The recent
visit, which gives rise to the current report, was therefore considered in two parts; surface
issues and underground challenges.
Two separate presentations were delivered to the API and APA personnel, both of which
communicated the current needs and interests of each production environment.
The material presented in the surface blasting context was interpreted as a request for feedback
on recently completed work in limits blasting and comments on a proposed design for special
purpose blasting in one of the production pits.
In response to the surface presentation, the following list of bullet points outlines the different
aspects of drilling and blasting that receive attention in the following Sections;
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Contour or final wall blasting

Pre-split design (spacing and charge)

Buffer row or rows (charging and stand-off distance from pre-split)

Blasting in narrow veins

Massive blasting

Special purpose blasting

Page 2 of 42

In a similar manner a presentation was delivered in which the characteristics of the

underground operations were explained and the general CVSA objectives outlined for the
understanding of the APA/API team (including Blastechnology).
A subsequent visit to one of the newly opened underground operations; Mangas Centro, was
planned so that direct observation of the mine layout, including Stope drilling and drop
raise/cut-off slot preparation could be carried out.
The objective of this part of the visit was to produce a suggestion list for possible joint
optimisation projects to be run by a team combining APA, CVSA and API resources.
The initial list of objectives suggested by CVSA included;

Reduction of dilution as a result of stope blasting

o Control of hangingwall stability
o Optimise pre-split design for the hangingwall

Improve charge design for drop raises and cut-off blasting

Improve generic drill and blast design for production stopes.

In the following section of the report, Surface and Underground objectives will be discussed
under separate headings.

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SURFACE ISSUES
The unique characteristics of the surface operations are a consequence of the physical aspect
of the orebodies, which lead to the mining of relatively small, yet occasionally quite deep, pits
with a very large (~ 26:1) waste to ore ratio. This physical setting places great emphasis on
controlling the geotechnical quality of final walls so as to maintain relatively aggressive interramp and final pit wall angles, thereby maintaining safe working conditions in tight pits.
For this reason, the issues of damage control, controlled blasting and the need for efficiencies
in the operational aspects of drilling and blasting are always present in any discussion of
CVSA requirements and objectives, with respect to APA/API technical service.
The technical visit carried out during the 8th to the 10th of November of this year was no
exception.
As mentioned previously, the primary focus of improving drilling and blasting results at
CVSA is usually in the area of wall control and damage reduction. In this direction, two
important points raised in the introductory, surface presentation by CVSA relate to these
challenges. In particular, CVSA requested that APA/API review the physical results of an
experiment intended to examine the potential difference in effectiveness of pre-split blasts
fired prior to, or simultaneously with the main production or wall control blasts.
This review was conducted and is described in this report, however the results obtained are not
conclusive and it remains apparent that there are benefits to be achieved in re-focussing on
some fundamental aspects of pre-split and buffer row blast design.
Another aspect of CVSA drilling and blasting where, in the opinion of APA/API,
improvements are obtainable is that of narrow vein drilling and blasting; specifically
considering the need to control the displacement of the blasted ore.
CVSA has carried out experimental field work, looking at the design and implementation of
relatively massive blasts; two such events were fired in Osvaldo Diez, Cut Back 8 (OD CB8)
pit. This new work has encouraged a re-examination of a suggestion offered to CVSA in 2008
regarding the re-orientation of large blasts in terms of their initiation sequence and muckpile
displacement vectors. This suggestion is described in more detail further below.
Distinct from all of the foregoing points is the final request tabled by CVSA. As the pits widen
with new cut backs or expansions, the active pit shells begin to encompass elements of mine
infrastructure such as dewatering well casings, that must be kept open as benched are drilled
and blasted around them. While not an unknown challenge for CVSA, the local engineering
staff invited APA/API to participate in refining an existing drilling design and suggesting
timing and explosive charging options.

3.1

Wall Control Blasting Pre-split Design and Practice

The initial question raised by CVSA in connection with the pre-split test blasting in OD-CB8
related to whether a pre-split is best fired prior to the main blast (wether this be a full
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production or perhaps a four-row trim shot) or alternatively, fired simultaneously (but

immediately before) the main blast. The results obtained would appear to be inconclusive as
far as blast scheduling is concerned, however a visual inspection suggests the existence of
other, more important factors that should be taken into account.
In reviewing the CVSA pre-split design protocol there are a number of positive aspects that
should be highlighted;
Drilling and firing the pre-split over the full extent of a double bench is an excellent practice
that is a major step in optimising final wall results
In a similar manner, industry experience suggests that the use of inclined pre-split drilling
(standard practice at CVSA) facilitates the achievement of quality, stable final walls. Care
must always be taken to ensure precision and accuracy in the drilling of each hole so as to
maintain a constant, correct inter-hole spacing.
It is very important to ensure that the spacing and charge profile are adjusted to match the
physical characteristics of the rock mass and the strength of the rock matrix. The optimum
spacing is closely related to the borehole explosion pressure, in turn dominated by explosive
properties and hole diameter. This calculated spacing, however, may be subject to
modification based on the in-situ fracture conditions for the rock mass in question. Under
conditions where sub-vertical structures strike across the intended pre-split plane, spacing
should be reduced and the borehole pressure increased.
When evaluating pre-split quality based on a visual examination of the physical result, it is
very important to focus on the quality of the fracture surface between half holes or half
barrels and not simply a count of the number of half holes.
The field observation of the results obtained in OD-CB8 highlighted the strong, dominant
influence of the in-situ structure. The results of pre-split blasting obtained in opposite walls of
the OD-CB8 pit were compared visually and significant differences were apparent. CVSA
Drilling and Blasting engineers informed APA/API that the intact rock strength values were
similar for both rock masses, on either side of the pit, however the in-situ fracture conditions
are very different.
Figure 1 shows the results obtained on the East side of the pit. An ample presence of half holes
with quite smooth, even fracture plane surfaces between each, suggest that a very good result
has been obtained in this part of the pit. There is little apparent presence of important in-situ
structure with the exception of a continuous, clearly defined fracture plane that daylights
approximately 3m above the bench floor. This structure dips into the bench face; another
positive aspect of the rock mass condition in this wall.

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Figure 1. Pre-split results in the East Wall of OD-CB8 Pit

Figure 2 shows the pre-split result obtained in the West wall of the same pit, where the
geotechnical condition of the rock mass varied notably from that of the East wall. The same
nominal pre-split design was applied in both locations and the results obtained were very
different. While some presence of half holes is visible in the wall shown in Figure 2, it is clear
that very little evidence of clean fracturing or shearing between half holes is visible. This
result highlights the difficulty introduced by the unfavourable presence of structure, and the
need to close up spacing and increase borehole pressure.

Figure 2. Pre-split results in the West Wall of OD-CB8 Pit

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Regarding the enquiry about the most appropriate moment to fire the pre-split, it is difficult to
make a definitive judgement based on the visual evidence available at the time of the visit to
CVSA. A considerable amount of broken rock still remained to be fully excavated and
removed, thereby preventing a safe and clear evaluation. Figure 3 illustrates the situation
described. It is recommended that a full set of photographs be compiled for this part of the
OD-CB8 West wall, so that a final review may be conducted.
A preliminary examination of the visible wall suggested that local variation in pre-split quality
is more related to local variation in structural characteristics than the difference between priorand simultaneous pre-split firing.

Figure 3. Partially excavated broken rock partially obscuring the view of the final wall, prior to cleanup

As a general guide to pre-split optimisation, the following suggestions are offered;

Review the characteristics of the explosive charge that is employed, including the length and
diameter of the cartridges used in CVSA
Whenever and wherever possible, obtain the maximum quantity (and quality) of information
from mine geologists or geotechnical engineers, particularly regarding the rock UCS and an
indication of the frequency and orientation of fractures with respect to the pre-split line
orientation
Work interactively with API and local APA technical service engineers, who are equipped
with design analysis tools that will assist in evaluating necessary design changes as a
consequence of variation in rock mass quality or availability of explosive and/or drill hole
diameters.
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An example of the application of one such design tool is given in Figure 4. This software tool
allows Austin Powder engineers to evaluate any combination of drill hole diameter, spacing
and explosive characteristics for a given set of rock mass conditions.

Figure 4. Computer aided review of the suitability of a given pre-split design (combination of drill hole diameter,
spacing, explosive and rock mass properties).

Figure 4 examines the case of 25mm pre-split charges of watergel placed in 92mm diameter
drill holes, spaced at 1.2m apart, for a soft to medium (50MPa) rock under dry conditions.
The results indicate that the generated blasthole pressure (55MPa) is sufficient to comply with
the rock requirements, and that the spacing value is within optimum range.
This same tool would be used to adjust explosive and drilling diameters and spacing to adapt
to changing rock quality, striving to maintain the dashboard indicators in the green.
It is recommended that a joint initiative between CVSA engineers and geologists, and APA
Technical Service engineers will facilitate the ongoing optimisation of pre-split design at
Cerro Vanguardia.

3.2

Wall Control Blasting Buffer Row Design

The creation of a high quality pre-split is an important step towards controlling damage to the
final walls in surface mining operations. However this measure alone will not suffice to
guarantee reduction in damage intensity. The successful pre-split must be coupled with a well
designed and executed trim or buffer blast in order to achieve a transition between the full
production blast energy condition and the pre-split assisted final wall.
The correct design of the buffer row or rows is critical to the success of limits blasting, as has
been discussed in detail in previous reports to CVSA (March, 2008; October 2009). In these
reports the importance of correct positioning of the buffer row (or rows) as well as the issue of
vertical vs. inclined buffer holes has been discussed at length.
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Maintaining an appropriate distance between the buffer row collars and the pre-split (future
crest of the bench) will assist in controlling the impact of blast vibrations on the wall, whereas
the vertical orientation of the buffer holes will assist in reducing the damage to the crest due to
cratering at the collars of the buffer holes.
These design parameters standoff distance and blasthole inclination together with the
explosive charge profile, should be adjusted as a function of ongoing observation of the crest
and toe lines that are produced in the field.
It must also be remembered that a variable, and often significant, component of crest damage,
as shown in Figure 5, may be the excess concentration of explosive energy resulting from the
sub-drill (and explosive contained therein) from the previous bench.
All of the aforementioned aspects must be balanced in order to optimise the final result.

Figure 5. Damage to the crest due to sub-drill from the previous bench and/or the proximity of buffer hole collars

Previous technical reports (March, 2008; October, 2009) have also explained the importance
of maintaining an appropriate standoff distance between the collars of the blastholes in buffer
rows and the crest of the pre-split. This distance is adjusted in accordance with the explosive
energy present in the buffer row; however there may be occasions when the standoff distance
must be increased due to physical limitations of the drilling equipment (dimensions of the drill
rig) or safety standards imposed by the mine management in terms of minimum proximity to
the existing wall.
Under such conditions there is a risk of leaving a crust of cling-on material in front of the
pre-split plane, but un-displaced by the trim blast. This remnant material must be removed
mechanically with bulldozer, retro-excavator and/or hydraulic hammers, usually at a
significant cost.
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A design alternative is to drill the final buffer row (if there is more than one) with a negative
inclination, which is to say back towards the toe of the pre-split. This approach is observed in
Figure 6. This technique has been applied successfully at the Sunrise Dam operations of
AngloGold Ashanti in Western Australia and the Anglo American copper operations of
Mantoverde, in Chile.

Figure 6. Alternative distribution of buffer row drilling to adjust standoff distance while continuing to avoid
unbroken crust material

Care should be taken to ensure that the accuracy of buffer row drilling is maintained so as not
to damage the toe of the pre-split.
Occasionally the increase in distance between buffer row and pre-split has been observed to
produce, to a lesser degree, some incidence of un-fragmented and un-displaced crust in the
upper part of the bench face and the solution to this occurrence lies in the careful adjustment of
the explosive charge in the buffer row, adjacent to the pre-split.

3.3

Narrow Vein Blasting Controlling Displacement

During the technical visit in November of this year the APA/API team had occasion to
examine a number of video recordings of ore blasts. These narrow vein blasts offer significant
challenges to the Drilling and Blasting engineers of CVSA, particularly in the narrow veins
where real thickness might be as little as 0.8 to 1.0m. The challenge is to produce a design
solution of distribution of drilling and charging such that adequate breakage is achieved while
controlling the amount of displacement of the broken ore.

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CVSA is rigorous in its approach to bench clean-up prior to blasting, so that displaced ore can
be completely recovered, and reconciliation factors for these blasts (between geological
reserves and extracted tonnages) are reported to be healthily high.
However it seems worthwhile to consider other options that would reduce the displacement
and difficulty of achieving of complete excavation of all blasted ore, while still producing
adequate fragmentation. It is widely believed that a strong relationship exists between
displacement, dilution and ore loss.
Austin Powder uses the program, QEDCalc to examine a multitude of design issues for surface
drilling and blasting. One such relationship calculates burden movement characteristics for
different combinations of drilling pattern (in particular, burden) and explosive charge
parameters, for a specified hole diameter.

Lo Que Dice QED Calc

ANFO

ANFO + Aire (50/50)

Gelamita 25 mm

Burden = 1.5 m

Burden = 1.5 m

Burden = 1.5 m

Distancia de
proyeccin = 160 m,

Distancia de
proyeccin = 60 m,

Distancia de
proyeccin = 20 m,

Vel (avg) = 38 m/s

Vel (avg) = 22 m/s

Vel (avg) = 10 m/s

Vel (max) = 102 m/s

Vel (max) = 80 m/s

Vel (max) = 40 m/s

Figure 7. QED Calc analysis of burden displacement variation with explosive charge

Figure 7 summarises the reduction achieved in displacement and burden velocities (average
and maximum) for different charge configurations.
Energy intensity is steadily reduced from fully coupled ANFO, through the application of a
50% by volume air deck with ANFO, to a decoupled continuous charge of 25mm diameter
Gelamita. Displacement distance reduces from 160m to 20m, with a similar proportional dropoff in burden velocity.
It is proposed that these reductions in displacement and velocity must be beneficial in terms of
reducing dilution and ore loss.

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Figure 8 shows similar trends that occur as charge intensity is decreased, although design
parameters vary somewhat from the previously demonstrated case.
The results indicate how modelled projection distances from the front face (constant burden of
2.5m) reduce from 70m to 22m as the charge is varied from fully coupled ANFO to the same
25mm decoupled charge of Gelamita, as discussed in Figure 7.

Effect of Explosive Charge

Characteristics on Maximum Burden
Displacement
92mm diameter blasthole, standard design (2.5m x 3.0m),
10m bench
Decoupled cartridged
charge (emulsion or
watergel)

Diluted ANFO
(reduced energy,
reduced density)

Standard ANFO

Flyrock Projection: Plan View

Flyrock Projection: Plan View

Flyrock Projection: Plan View

25

60

80

20

60

40

15

40

10

20

20

(m)

0
-100

-50

50

100

(m)

0
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

(m)

0
-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

-5

-20
-20

-10

-40

-15

-40

-60
-80

Burden Throw

-20

(m)

-60

Collar Throw

Burden Throw

-25

(m)
Collar Throw

Burden Throw

(m)
Collar Throw

Figure 8. Estimation of front face displacement distances with varying charge characteristics

CVSA has made some initial investigations in this line of experimentation and while
displacement has been controlled, the degree of fragmentation and digability has been found to
be inadequate. APA/API would like to suggest that CVSA continue with experimentation,
examining new variations in the drilling and blasting design, such as;
Drilling two staggered rows of blastholes and continuing to load with the same diameter
product, or
Increase the diameter of the decoupled product used in the narrow vein blasts. APA produces a
range of diameters and the use of 40mm diameter charges should be considered in sectors
where this technique has given poor fragmentation results.

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Massive Blasting

In the briefing presentation made by CVSA to the APA/API team, mention was made of a presplit trial in the OD-CB8 pit. It was also noted that this trial was carried out in association with
two large production blasts, each comprising in excess of 7 rows. Figure 9 shows the design
for both events.
These two blasts are of interest because they combine production blasting with buffer rows in
a manner that is very similar to the technique recommended in the March, 2008 report,
submitted by Austin Powder and Blastechnology.

Incidence of Massive Blasting

CASO N2

CASO N 1

Figure 9. Massive blast events designed for CD-CB8

Figure 10 revisits the change in design that was suggested previously in order to reduce the
impact of blasting on the final wall of the pit. The conventional trim blast practice applied
commonly in many parts of the international mining industry has been shown to induce
reaction forces, under certain circumstances, that impose a compressive/tensile
loading/unloading cycle on the final wall that has a propensity to cause rock mass damage.
The change to a design such as that shown on the left of Figure 10 will produce benefits in
damage control due to a redirection of the reaction forces away from the final wall, as well as
the partial screening of the wall from blast induced vibration. The large volume of rock blasted
in one event also implies further benefits in terms of operational efficiency. The single large
blast involves less frequent interruptions to production during blasting for evacuation of
personnel and equipment and allows excavation and haulage equipment to spend more
uninterrupted time in production.

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Voladuras Masivas

Voladura masiva

Prctica convencional,
CVSA

Figure 10. Massive blast event design suggested in March, 2008

The successful implementation of the massive blasting approach will involve certain changes
in the drilling and blast design and the following factors are suggested for consideration by
CVSA engineering staff;
An additional row of buffer holes with reduced charge should be added to the design
The initiation point for the blast should be close to the final wall, at the beginning of the
second buffer row
The initiation sequence should be such that the blast is oriented towards the excavator, along
strike, and not towards the pit
An increase in powder factor of between 10 15% should be considered so as to avoid a tight
muckpile
Massive, deep blasts will tend to produce higher muckpiles and this can produce certain
difficulties for front end loaders. Timing should be modified to facilitate forward displacement
of the muckpile as much as possible.
With the previous point in mind, CVSA should consider the application of electronic
detonators as a means of achieving more control over displacement as well as enhancing
fragmentation. An accurate evaluation of the relative costs of this technology will indicate that
the increase in cost per tonne of blasted rock is marginal

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Special Purpose Blasting Well Casing Protection

The mining sequence at CVSA occasionally leads to the need for drilling and blasting
activities in close proximity to casing pipes for dewatering wells, previously installed around
and outside the initial pit shells. CVSA described the importance of avoiding damage to these
sites and estimated the cost of losing such a well casing in as much as US$ 150.000.
Figure 11 illustrates the desired result; a successful blast that left the well casing intact (this
example comes from a previously fired blast).

The Objective

Avoid damaging and losing the

well (and many USD $$)

Figure 11. Desired state for results of Well Casing protection blast

Figure 12 shows a theoretical design that has its origins in a suggested course of action
developed by APA previously. The fundamental protective measure is found in the circular
array of holes distributed around the well casing. Choices available include firing these as a
circular pre-split or perhaps as a type of post-split to clean off the rock around the well casing.
It may be observed that a linear pre-split is incorporated into the blast, tangential to the circular
array of holes. The purpose of this line is to cut the observed volume in two, allowing a more
cautious approach to be taken to this second section at a later date.
The principal features in the design include an outer ring of holes that are available for light
charging, and an array of standard production holes.
Figure 13 shows the actual as-drilled distribution of blastholes and this information was used
to select the sequence of blast events in the order intended to protect the well casing.
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WELL CASING TO BE BLASTED

IN pit OD-CB7

Figure 12. Theoretical Design for Well Casing Protection Blast

Well Casing Blast

Light Charges

Well
Circular Pre-split

Figure 13. As drilled result for the Well Casing Protection Blast

The intention of the blast sequence was to pre-fracture the zone immediately around the well
casing, prior to the detonation of the production holes, understanding that the broken yet
relatively undisturbed rock should provide a filter for the vibrations produced in the rest of the
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blast. The firing of light charges around the circular pre-split would achieve this fragmentation
without inducing any relative displacement around the well casing. The distribution of
explosive charges, air and stemming is shown to the right of Figure 13.

Well Casing Blast

Pre-fracture the zone
around the well casing
before detonating the
main explosive charges

Normal Powder Factor

Minimal Powder Factor

(~ 80 - 100 g/t, ignoring
the pre-split charges)

Figure 14. Description of powder factor, sector by sector

Figure 14 indicates the zone of rock around the well casing, which would be pre-fractured
without damaging the casing, thereby protecting it from the physical effects of the remainder
of the blast.
The order of firing or sequence of initiation for the blast is highlighted in Figure 15, below.

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Figure 15 shows the sequence of initiation of the different sections of the blast:
1. The main pre-split was fired instantaneously
2. The circular pre-split was fired 17ms later so as to reduce the instantaneously
detonating charge weight
3. The second ring of lightly charged holes was fired to complete the process of prefracturing of the rock around the well casing
4. Finally the main production holes were fired in such a sequence as to direct the rock
movement away from the well casing in all directions.

Initiation Sequence
4. Production charges

3. Light charges

2. Circular Pre-split

1. Main Pre-split

Figure 15. Initiation sequence for well casing blast

Finally, Figure 16 shows a view of the resulting muckpile immediately following the blast and
prior to the commencement of excavation.
Observation of the visible section of the pipe suggested that the well casing remained
undamaged.
The most complicated aspect of the process was the sequencing of the blast using pyrotechnic
delay systems and detonation cord. The use of electronic delays would greatly facilitate the
process of tying in these complicated blasts.

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Voladura de 09 Noviembre

Figure 16. Blast result prior to the commencement of excavation

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UNDERGROUND ISSUES
As a means of reducing the overall waste to ore ratio, as well as reducing per ounce production
costs, CVSA has begun to develop some of the existing veined deposits in the mine using
underground mining methods. Three underground mines are in varying stages of development
at this time;

Mangas Norte

Mangas Centro

Osvaldo Siete

Of these three, Mangas Centro is actually in production and has completed some early stoping
while continuing to develop the decline and lower levels.
Mining is conducted using long hole open stoping methods with a mixture of up-hole drilling
and down-hole charging or loading. The orebodies are identical, geologically and physically,
to those veins previously mined using surface techniques and similar challenges exist in the
underground environment; particularly wall damage and dilution (although the specific
damage mechanisms may vary to some extent). At the depth at which underground mining is
taking place, the veins have similar dimensions to those exploited on the surface.
A visit was made to the operations of Mangas Centro in order to observe first hand the quality
of the rock mass, the dimensions and quality of the development blasting, the commencement
of the down-hole drop raising and the condition of the stopes; walls, drilling, etc.
CVSA presented APA/API with a short list of desired outcomes in the drilling and blasting
process in the underground operations and the original list of five points can be simplified to
the following three;

Reduction of dilution as a consequence of reducing wall damage from stope blasting

Improve drilling and blasting design for the drop raises used for creating initial cut-off
slots in stope preparation

Improve generic drill and blast design options and practices for production stopes

Additionally, this report will offer commentary on the importance of good design and
implementation practices for development blasting, particularly as it effects stope
development.
More importantly, APA/API offers definitive and specific suggestions regarding a joint
initiative between CVSA and Austin Powder to investigate the damage mechanisms operating
in the underground mining environment and develop a series of preventative measures that
will make possible a reduction in dilution and damage.

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Control of Damage and Dilution

The incidence of dilution in long hole stoping extraction of gold, silver, etc. is very closely
linked to the incidence of blast induced damage. In the underground environment the principle
mechanism of damage is stress induced fracturing as a result of excessive vibration levels in
turn resulting from the detonating explosive charges.
API has developed software tools that allow the prediction of vibration levels for any given
combination of explosive, drilling and rock mass. Examples of the application of this
modelling process capability will be given subsequently in this report.
In order to be applied confidently as a predictive tool, the modelling technique requires that
certain site specific parameters be adjusted based on the analysis of field measurements carried
out within the mine, in the production area.
This measurement and modelling is ideally suited as a candidate for a joint team project
involving APA/API and CVSA. A simple description of the steps required for this project
follows.
The data needed in order to adjust the parameters of the predictive model can be collected
during a vibration monitoring campaign focussed on a single stope, ideally measuring all
available blasting events from the commencement of the development of the stope.

Point of Focus
Drilling Level Stope; Installation of Triaxial Geophone

Figure 17. Vibration monitoring scenario for stope characteristation

Figure 17 is a plan view of a hypothetical stope, showing the upper level from which the rings
of blastholes will be charged. The red symbol at the intersection of the crosscut and ore drive
represents the position of a triaxial geophone array installed in the vein along the stope axis.
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The purpose of this geophone is to detect the vibration signals from each detonating charge
with the purpose of fitting the site parameters of the vibration model, as will be described.
The vertical lines in Figure 17 represent the rings of drilled blastholes to be charged and fired.
Figure 18 shows the typical vibration data that are collected and analysed in order to fit the
predictive model. Three separated waveforms are captured, one for each of the three
orthogonal sensors.

Practical Aspects of Vibration Analysis

Three vibration
component
signals

Vector Sum data

used in analysis

Figure 18. Signal acquisition and analysis procedure

The model fitting process should be carried out using magnitudes that represent the full
vibration impact at the point of interest. For this reason, three input waveforms are resolved
into a vector sum as can be observed in Figure 18.
Each of the observable peaks shown in the figure will correspond to a particular explosive
charge that can be identified according to the time at which it appears on the vibration trace.
The spatial relationship between the length of the detonating explosive charge and the point of
measurement is described quantitatively by the model that is represented in Figure 19.
The intensity of the measured vibration is a function of the available explosive energy, the
geometrical relationship between charge and sensor, and site or rock mass specific parameters.
Fitting of the equations shown in Figure 19 through analysis of the curves shown to the left of
the figure allows the investigation to identify the values of the site parameters with a
quantifiable level of confidence
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Fitting of Near Field VibrationModel

Near field vibration predicion

models (Holmberg y Persson)

Vibration intensity depends on

the characteristics and
geometry of the charge

Figure 19. Vibration model format and fitted data

With this fitting complete the adjusted model is used within the framework of Austin Powders
blast design and analysis software; QEDPlus, to predict likely vibration levels at specific
distances from specific charges, emplaced within the fitted rock mass.
In order to equate the estimated vibration levels with a known physical effect, a mathematical
relationship between rock mass property response and vibration level is required.
An approximate guide is derived from Hookes Law whereby a critical value of particle
velocity, PPVcrit is defined as that vibration intensity at which new fracturing commences in a
given rock mass. The critical value of peak particle velocity is calculated as;
PPV

Where:

crit

T .VP
E

T is the tensile strength of the intact rock

E is the elastic modulus, and
Vp is the P wave velocity in the same material

Based on this key value, it is possible to calculate other threshold estimates such as the
intensity required to extend existing fractures (0.25 PPVcrit)
With a suitably fitted vibration model and a quantitative criterion for estimating damage it
becomes feasible to analyse a range of design options in terms of the probability of producing
damage in a given rock mass. As a concrete and relevant example, Figure 20 illustrates two
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cases for a stope ring blast in a hypothetical case where the critical vibration limit for damage
has been established. It is considered that the dark grey contour level (see Figure 20) indicates
presence of damage.
The charge design on the left suggests that there will be blast damage to the hangingwall with
a high probability of dilution.
The right hand side image represents a modified design where the charge in the blasthole
closest to the hangingwall has been changed, substituting a laterally decoupled charge for the
original fully coupled charge. The grey shaded contour has changed, as may be observed, and
now coincides with the hangingwall plane. This situation, while hypothetical, should represent
a decrease in damage and a reduction in dilution.

Waste Dilution to the

Hangingwall

Figure 20. Reduction in damage and dilution contours

This vibration contour / damage criterion analysis can be applied to the case of stoping in
Mangas Centro once the vibration model has been fitted and geotechnical properties obtained
and analysed to calculate the critical vibration intensity.
During the introductory underground presentation delivered by CVSA it was revealed that the
powder factor calculated for the current blast design is approximately 1.2 kg/t. This value
seems quite high and suggests that there may be over-break of hangingwall and footwall.
Certainly it is suggested that the possibility of reducing this powder factor merits analysis.
Although at this time, APA/API has neither a fitted vibration model nor a valid vibration
damage criterion; Figure 21 illustrates the analysis of a design, similar to that currently used in
the Mangas Centro mine. The image to the left indicates a ring that has been fully charged
with ANFO, whereas in the image to the right the footwall charge has been replaced with a
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decoupled charge of Gelamita. The contraction of the vibration contour back to the footwall
surface is plainly visible.

Cerro Vanguardia Mangas Centro

Figure 21. Reduction in damage and dilution contours Mangas Centro case

The analysis discussed has so far concentrated solely on the option of varying explosive
charge characteristics to obtain more ideal vibration contour scenarios.
This is valid when considering the ideal situation where all drill holes are perfectly executed
with no inaccuracies or deviations. However this result is rarely the case in reality.
In an underground mining environment it is common to observer hole deviation resulting from
inaccurate collaring as well as incorrect angular orientation, as well as in-hole deviation due to
geological structures and inadequate operational procedures.
Figure 22 shows hole accuracy data collected in an Australian underground mine. The
blastholes were 102mm in diameter, some 25m in length and were drilled downwards from a
drive with an irregular floor surface.
The breakthrough locations were surveyed and compared with the planned locations. The
graph in Figure 22 plots relative error for each hole. The blue circle represents an error
criterion of six hole diameters and it is found that only 29% of the drilled holes comply with
this, quite generous error criterion.
Correct and successful blasting of this particular volume of rock was extremely difficult and,
in fact, not successful.

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Drilling Deviation
The energy goes where the explosive goes, which in
turn goes where the blasthole goes

Figure 22. Reduction in damage and dilution contours

Using the same example as that shown in Figure 21 the effect of only one deviated hole is
analysed. In the case of a production blast, the deviation of one hole into the hangingwall
would produce significant damage, inducing a high percentage of dilution located locally
around this particular ring. This scenario is illustrated in Figura 23.

Cerro Vanguardia Mangas Centro

With Hole Deviation

Figure 23. Damage impact of a single hole deviation into hangingwall

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Optimisation of Drop-Raises

One of the key areas of concern for CVSA as regards the underground operations is the
development of expertise in the drilling and blasting down-hole drop raises. These openings
are required for ventilation and access ways as well as the first steps in the creation of a free
face slot at the commencement of a new stope.
Once again drilling accuracy is a critical success factor for successful development of drop
raises, particularly because of the high density of drilling (and powder factor) in a small
volume. Figure 24 applies the vibration damage analysis to demonstrate the effect of deviation
in only one of the blastholes. Given that any or all of the holes may demonstrate some degree
of deviation, the original designed spatial relationship between charges will change
significantly with depth. Successful blasting of this type of situation might well require a
variation in the initiation sequence applied at different depths. This type of analysis and design
implementation is within the capabilities of the APA/API technical team.

Cerro Vanguardia Mangas Centro

Deviation in Drop Raises

Figure 24. Effect of drilling deviation in terms of vibration contour distribution for down-hole drop-raise

Another important factor in achieving success in drop raise blasting is to ensure an adequate
presence of empty, uncharged easer holes within the volume to be blasted (typically these
holes should be reamed out to a larger diameter perhaps 102mm). There is a direct
proportionality between the effective relief volume of empty holes and the probability of
success in firing drop raises.
Close control over measurement of depths and lengths of explosive charges is also an essential
part of successful raise blasting. Over the course of the full depth of the raise, blasthole
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deviation may produce changes in the spatial relationship between different holes, thereby
changing the effective pattern of the holes at different depths. Two blastholes that were placed
adjacent to one another when collared at the top of the raise may be notably distant at the
midpoint of the raise, while other holes may have become much closer. This variation in hole
position should be investigated and quantified by surveying top and bottom coordinates of
each hole and plotting the position of each hole at successive depths. This may allow initiation
sequences to be changed as needed to provide an ordered initiation of the blast.
Austin Powder (APA/API) can offer CVSA support in this task using the QED Plus software.

4.3

Optimisation of Development Blasting

During the visit to the operations of Mangas Centro, it was observed that the regularity of the
floors of both the main decline and the level development drives could be improved. As with
all aspects of drilling and blasting, the accuracy and precision of the drilling is extremely
important. Figure 25 shows the effect on vibration contour distribution for a standard
development blast when only one contour blasthole has an excess of lookout angle applied. In
reality it can be common for a number of separate blastholes to suffer from drilling errors,
both in terms of collar position and angular deviation.

Horizontal Development
Drilling Accuracy Control
Effect of lack of care with drilling

Figure 25. Effect of blasthole drilling inaccuracy (for one hole) on vibration contour distribution

This phenomenon will tend to produce irregularity in the dimensions of the development
headings, affecting rock mass stability, but also affecting the quality of any subsequent
production blasting drilling that is undertaken from this particular horizon. Excess back-break
to the roof of the drive will affect the likelihood of collaring errors for up-holes, uneven floor
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levels will add difficulty when attempting to drill accurate down-holes. Uneven perimeters for
drill drives will make it very difficult to emplace a production drill rig correctly.
Figure 26 represents the result of a development blast (together with a view of the intended
design outcome) measured in a Chilean underground mine, using survey techniques. Overbreak is plainly visible, particularly in the roof of the drive. However it may also be noted that
there is some irregularity in the floor and RL.

Possible Errors
Horizontal development profile - overbreak

The production blastholes are drilled from the same development drive that we
excavate

Figure 26. Example of irregular drive outline as a result of over-break

The drive shown in the image was intended for use as a drilling horizon for producing a
drawpoint bell excavation, using up-holes inclined at a number of different angles. The
accuracy of the subsequently drilled holes was poor, as a result of not being drilled from a
regular, even floor, nor being collared at an even, well blasted roof surface.
Figure 27 indicates a range of drilling difficulties that may arise as consequences of irregular
roof and floor surfaces.

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Extreme Consequences
Effects of errors in excavation of development gallery drilling
horizon

The production blastholes are drilled from the same development drive that we
excavate

Figure 27. Drilling errors induced by irregular drill and blast results in horizontal development headings

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JOINT PROJECT TEAMS

The technical visit of November 8 10 of this year, and the analyses that form the bases of
this report have confirmed that there are yet several challenges and opportunities for
improvements in the efficiency and effectiveness of a number of processes associated with
drilling and blasting at Cerro Vanguardia. This is equally the case for surface and underground
mining operations.
In recent years Austin Powder has demonstrated the capacity to conduct field investigation
programs capable of demonstrating that improvements in process efficiency are quite feasible;
in the areas of both fragmentation (2007) and final wall damage control (2008 and 2009).
Austin Powder is convinced that the way towards achieving additional advances and
consolidating these successes into the normal design and implementation practices at CVSA is
to establish joint investigation teams whereby both CVSA and APA/API, supported by
Blastechnology, work together execute specific process improvement projects (initiatives),
pooling resources and responsibilities to achieve greater and more lasting advances in a range
of areas of optimisation.
The tripartite project teams would comprise members from CVSA, APA and
API/Blastechnology, each contributing with experience, knowledge and resources. These
resources could be broadly grouped as follows;
CVSA
Human and information resources from management and functional teams such as;

Geology; lithological and structural data, mapping and interpretation

Geomechanics; rock mass data, slope designs, fracture mapping

Engineering; planning and survey resources, field measurements, design input

Cost analysis where appropriate for benefit evaluation

Austin Powder

On-site Technical Service engineers

Instrumentation for measurement of blast and explosive performance

Detailed modelling capability including vibration, damage, flyrock and fragmentation

simulation and prediction

Analysis and recommendations with the support and periodic presence of Cameron
McKenzie and Blastechnology
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Using these joint resources, teams can be defined for specifically identified projects. The
teams can then follow a clear process of planning, execution, documentation and reporting of
the results to CVSA and Austin Powder management.
The same project based philosophy will be relevant and applicable for both surface and
underground blasting environments.
The objectives of the teams should include;
Control of damage; final pit walls, hangingwall and footwall contacts in underground
stopes, roof and floor.
Control of dilution; surface and underground
Efficiencies in mine development; uncovering veins for blasting, accessing mineral
resources underground, bringing stopes on line in optimum time, etc.
Downstream benefits associated with fragmentation and materials handling.
The team concept will benefit from a clear specification of leadership and responsibility roles
in both CVSA and Austin Powder. The success of these initiatives will be favoured by the
nomination of on-site responsible parties who can call on other required resources as becomes
necessary for each project.

6.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The three day visit to CVSA on the part of the technical team from Austin Powder Argentina,
Austin Powder International and Blastechnology was an effective and productive exercise.
The visit was spent examining and studying drilling and blasting results (design and
implementation) in both the surface and underground mining environments.
The comments presented in the present section are separated, for clarity, into two groups,
reflecting the two mining environments visited in early November.

6.1

Surface Drilling and Blasting

The objectives of the drilling and blasting work in the surface mining context were fivefold:

Review the CVSA performance in terms of pre-split blasting

Review the performance regarding the coordinated implementation of buffer blast

design and implementation

Comment on practices for the optimised blasting of narrow veined orebodies

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Consider the possibility of introducing a modified format of massive blasting in those

pits where the available bench area is present

Comment and participate in the fine tuning of special blast designs for blasting of rock
volumes containing pit dewatering well casings.

Pre-Split
Regarding the pre-split design and implementation, it was confirmed that a number of good
practices are regularly followed at CVSA; drilling and blasting the pre-split over the full depth
of the double bench and designing angled pre-splits are both excellent decisions in terms of
obtaining an optimum result.
The question was asked whether it is better to fire the pre-split blast some time (half a day, a
day, etc.) prior to the main blast, or whether it is more acceptable to fire the pre-split at the
same time as the main blast. Preferences are mixed on this point and there are arguments
supporting both points of view, however at this stage there have been nothing noted in recent
experiments at the mine to indicate a preference for one or the other theory. More work
perhaps needs to be done in this regard.
There is scope for further improvement in pre-split effectiveness if a greater effort is made to
relate pre-split design to rock mass properties between different pits. CVSA has access to the
full analysis capability of Austin Powder and it is recommended that Austin Powder be invited
to participate more in this optimisation process.
Finally, observations in the field (Pit OD-CB8) demonstrated the dominant influence that insitu structure can have over pre-split performance, where in two domains with very similar
UCS but significantly different structural characteristics, two very different results were
obtained in terms of pre-split quality. There is a clear difference noted between a result with
high half-barrel count, and a smooth, even fracture between each, and the case where halfbarrels are separated by uneven, rough rock surfaces that indicate the lack of a complete
fracture between charged blastholes.
Buffer Blasting
The issue of good buffer blast design remains critical for the success of wall control at Cerro
Vanguardia.
It is clear that the standoff distance for each blast must be matched to the charge characteristics
for the explosives in use, as well as the angle of drilling. CVSA has altered their standard
design practice for the better in ceasing to drill angled buffer holes, moving to vertical holes
and reducing the crater damage provoked at the crest of the new bench.
Under some conditions, excessive standoff may lead to the result of leaving a crust of cling-on
material along some parts of the face of the new bench. Success has been achieved in other
operations by using a negative angle or drilling back towards the toe of the pre-split for the
buffer row. This allows a suitable standoff distance to protect the crest yet also allows the
placement of explosive energy to remove the crust of unbroken rock.
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Narrow Vein Blasting

It is suggested to CVSA that dilution is inevitably, at least partially, related to muckpile
displacement during blasting. The current drilling and blasting designs for narrow vein
deposits tend to produce a great deal of displacement this has been confirmed by observation
of various video records for a number of ore blasts.
There is potential for use of modified pre-split blast drilling and charging, for reducing the
amount of displacement and burden movement velocity. This technique uses the drilling
parameters and the explosive charge philosophy but alters the initiation sequence to more
closely resemble a production blast. Previous attempts using this technique have reported quite
coarse fragmentation and lack of movement. It is suggested, in this case, that the number of
pre-split rows be increased gradually in order to reach a balance between displacement and
fragmentation. Austin Powder uses at least two modelling approaches to address this challenge
and CVSA is encouraged to work with Austin Powder to examine the alternatives in more
detail
Massive Blasting
In 2008 and 2009, Austin Powder International recommended that CVSA consider firing
larger production blasts, re-oriented to fire parallel to the final wall orientation.
Recent events in OD-CB8 suggest that CVSA has found a way to incorporate massive (> 10
rows) blast patterns into their production planning process. This will allow CVSA to
experiment with different initiation sequences that have been shown to reduce damage in a
number of mines around the world.
Well Casing Blasting
CVSA has managed to fire a number of controlled blasts in the vicinity of mine de-watering
well casings in the past. This work has been supported by Austin Powder Argentina with
drilling designs; the current pattern is a derivation of work done several years ago by APA. In
the case of this particular visit, a combination of circular pre-splitting and light fracturing
blasts, while encouraging a large amount of displacement for the front face, production rows,
was shown to leave the well casing in good physical condition.

6.2

Underground Drilling and Blasting

The development of underground mining operations at CVSA has advanced notably and a visit
was made to the Mangas Centro decline in order to assess the current state of efficiency in
drilling and blasting operations.
A number of visual observations were made, as follows;

It is clear that floor control has room for improvement, both in the main decline access
and along level development. There is a tendency for undulation, rising and falling, in
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the floor surface and this is likely related to incomplete control of the drilling accuracy
when developing the tunnel access.

Successful ring blasting within the stopes requires good drilling, which in turn requires
accurate survey set-up and marking of the ring positions and collaring points. A case
was observed where the ring plane direction was not perpendicular to the axis of the
stope drive this will complicate identification of the correct blastholes to charge and
will probably affect the ease of displacement of the blasted ore.

Survey of the top and bottom of each blast hole will provide important assistance at the
moment of deciding on the explosive charging and initiation sequence best suited to
deliver a good blast result.

The feedback from surveys of this nature, to drillers, should tend to create a positive
feed-back loop that encourages improved drilling accuracy and precision.

Currently the blasthole rings are fully charged with ANFO and this can lead to powder
factors of around 1.2 kg/t an intensity that is probably excessive and likely to
promote damage.

The objectives for optimisation of the underground drill and blasting were stated as;

Reduce damage, particularly to the hangingwall

Reduce dilution strongly related to the previous point.

Optimise drop-raising performance.

A number of suggestions were offered as a means to achieving these objectives, including;

Carry out near field vibration measurement campaigns in the stopes that are being
developed. This technique will permit a diagnostic evaluation of the progress of the
blasting and also supply valuable data for the fitting of a predictive vibration model.

Evaluate the geotechnical characteristics/properties of the rock masses in each stope in

order to calculate the critical value of vibration required to initiate fracturing
(remembering that in the underground environment, vibration is usually the dominant
mechanism of damage).

Use the fitted model mentioned above, together with the vibration damage criterion to
evaluate and modify blast designs in order to control damage.

The same technique can be adapted to evaluate fragmentation problems and potential
for improvement, if necessary.

Drop- raising blasting success is strongly affected by at least two factors;

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o Drilling accuracy, and

o Percentage void space provide by uncharged drill holes.

6.3

Drilling accuracy can be measured and blast designs adjusted to maintain a correct
firing sequence.

Electronic initiation systems will also allow firing times to be selected that will permit
an optimisation of initiation sequences for each lift of the drop-raise.

Project Team Formation

Both CVSA and Austin Powder possess valuable assets in the form of trained staff,
quantitative data, operational resources, specialised software and measurement technology.
These resources will be most efficiently put to use if customer and service provider can agree
to work in a team framework to design and execute specific projects aimed at optimising
targeted aspects of blast performance.

7.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Austin International and Blastechnology wish to acknowledge the support and assistance
provided by CVSA geomechanics, geology, mining and production personnel, and in
particular the cooperation and involvement of Sergio Sancho, Gustavo Sarapura and all the
staff at CVSA.

Technical Visit Report - CVSA - November - draft.doc