Advanced practical skills keywords -AS

Manipulation, measurement and observation

Hypothesis
Independent
variable
Range and intervals
of the independent
variable
Serial dilution p250

The variable in an experiment or investigation that is manipulated or changed.

Simple dilution
(proportional
dilution)
(V1C1 = V2C2)

Adding a unit volume of a solution of a known concentration to a solvent to

obtain the required concentration, e.g. to dilute a stock solution by 5, 1 cm 3 of
the stock solution is added to 4 cm3 of solvent. This gives a 1:5 dilution.
To make a standard volume of a specific concentration a formula V1C1 = V2C2
can be used e.g. a stock solution contains 100 mg cm3 (C1) and need to make
10 cm3 (V2) of a solution with a concentration of 25 mg cm3 (C2). The volume of
stock solution needed is V1 = 10 cm3 (V2) 25 mg cm3 (C2) / 100 mg cm3 (C1).
V1 = 10 cm3 (V2) 25 (C2) / 100 (C1) = 2.5 cm3
You could also use a table like
Concentration/%
Volume of stock
Volume of water/ Total volume/
solution/cm 3
cm 3
cm 3
2
20
4
20
6
20
8
20
10
20
0
20

Control

Control experiments can be of the type where all factors are identical to the
experimental treatment except that the value of the independent variable is
zero, e.g. water is used instead of a test solution, or they may be of the type
used to confirm
that, for example, it is an organism that is causing a particular effect, by
leaving out or replacing the organism by non-living material, e.g. sterile glass
beads instead of an insect in a respirometer.
The variables in an experiment or investigation that are kept the same so they
do not influence the measurement of the dependent variable.

Standardised(contr
olled)
variables
Dependent variable

Making the same dilution step over and over, using the previous dilution as the
input to the next dilution in each step e.g. a stock solution of a known
concentration is made and 1 cm3 is added to 9 cm3 of solvent (usually water),
making a 101 or, 10 dilution, or 1 in 10, or 10 fold. For the next dilution, 1
cm3 of the 101 solution is removed and added to 9 cm3 of solvent; making a 10
2
or, 100 dilution or, 1 in 100 or, 100 fold dilution. The process
of removing 1 cm3 of a solution and adding to 9 cm3 of solvent to make a
dilution is continued until the required number of dilutions is obtained;

The variable in an experiment or investigation that is measured

Risk assessment
Presentation of data and observations
Independent
Table of results
variable/units

1st reading

Dependent variable/units
2nd reading
3rd reading

mean

Calculations

(i) mean
(ii) percentage
(iii) change in mass or length
(iv) percentage change, gain or loss
(v) rate of reaction

Constructing line
graphs

Bar charts
Histograms
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation
unknown concentrations where a calibration curve has been drawn
Find an unknown
values for 50% plasmolysis
value
zero changes in mass in osmosis investigations
rate of enzyme reaction from time as 1/time = s1 or from gradient of a line
estimate unknown concentrations from results for known concentrations
identify unknown solutions using biological molecule tests.

Identify anomalous
results
Describe patterns
or trends shown in
tables and graphs
Draw conclusions

from the patterns and trends in data

on whether experimental data supports a given hypothesis
from results, including estimating an unknown concentration from known
concentrations
make scientific explanations for the conclusions

Identify the significant sources of error in a particular investigation.

Estimating
uncertainty in a
measurement
Percentage error in
a measurement

Evaluate the effectiveness of the standardisation of variables and thus the confidence with which
conclusions might be drawn

Systematic errors

Random errors

Accuracy

the closeness of a measured data value to its true value

Precision

the closeness of repeated measurements to each other

Suggest
modifications to a
procedure that will
increase the accuracy
of
the observations that
can be made.

-increasing the range of values for the independent variable, or more values
near an optimum.

-standardise relevant variables

e.g. using a thermostatically controlled water bath, using buffer solutions.

-use a measurement method which is more accurate and reliable to measure

the dependent variable e.g. colorimeter and a haemocytometer.

-collect more data by repeats or replicates to obtain a mean. This checks the
reliability of the data and checks from anomalous results

Reliability

Reliable results are repeatable by the same student and reproducible by

others.

Suggest ways in
which to extend the
investigation to
answer a new
question and
describe such
modifications
clearly in words or
diagrams.

change a different independent variable

standardise all other variables
use an accurate and reliable method to measure the dependent variable.

AS practical assessments
[PA] use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells and be familiar with units
(millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies;
[PA] compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells;
[PA] draw and label low power plan diagrams of tissues and organs (including a transverse section of
stems, roots and leaves);
[PA] calculate linear magnification of drawings and photographs;
[PA] calculate actual sizes of specimens from drawings and photographs;
[PA] carry out tests for reducing and non-reducing sugars (including using colour standards as a semiquantitative use of the Benedicts test), the iodine in potassium iodide solution test for starch, the
emulsion test for lipids and the biuret test for proteins;
[PA] follow the progress of an enzyme-catalysed reaction by measuring rates of formation of products
(for example, using catalase) or rates of disappearance of substrate (for example, using amylase);
[PA] investigate and explain the effects of temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate
concentration on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions;
[PA] investigate the effects on plant cells and the effect on animal cells of immersion in solutions of
different concentrations of solutions (with different water potentials);
[PA] describe, with the aid of diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle
and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell membrane, centrioles and spindle (names of
the main stages are expected);
[PA] describe how to investigate experimentally the factors that affect transpiration rate;
[PA] describe the distribution of xylem and phloem tissue in roots, stems and leaves of dicotyledonous
plants;
[PA] describe the structure of xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements and companion cells
and be able to recognise these using the light microscope;
[PA] describe how the leaves of xerophytic plants are adapted to reduce water loss by transpiration;
[PA] describe the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries and be able to recognise these vessels
using the light microscope;
[PA] describe the structure of red blood cells, phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) and
lymphocytes;
[PA] describe the structure of the human gas exchange system, including the microscopic structure of
the walls of the trachea, bronchioles and alveoli with their associated blood vessels;
[PA] describe the distribution of cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells and smooth muscle in the
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles;

[PA] recognise phagocytes and lymphocytes under the light microscope; Planning, analysis and

evaluation- A2
Planning
Defining the
problem
Method

Express the aim of the experiment as a prediction or hypothesis. It may be

expressed in words or in the form of a sketch graph showing the expected
result.
describe the method they would use to vary the independent variable, and
the ways in which they would make sure that they had measured its values
accurately;
describe how they would measure the dependent variable. The measuring
instruments chosen should measure the correct quantity to a suitable
precision.
describe how they would standardise each of the other key variables. The
methods chosen should be suitable to the apparatus being used and the nature
of the investigation.
explain how they would use any control experiments to make sure that it is
the independent variable that is affecting the dependent variable and not some
other factor.
describe how to use apparatus and the steps that they would use in the
procedure.
use words and labelled diagrams for describing the apparatus and how to
use it;
suggest appropriate volumes and concentrations of reagents, and explain
how different concentrations would be prepared.
explain how to make up solutions:
- in % (w/v), for example by adding a known mass of solute to a small volume
of solvent, mixing until fully dissolved and then making up to the final volume
with solvent;
- in mol dm3, by dissolving the molar mass of solute and then making up to 1
dm3 with solvent;
by using serial dilution.
using proportional dilution.
describe how they would ensure the reliability of results by considering any
anomalous results and the spread of results by inspection and by using
standard deviation, standard error or 95% confidence limits.
describe how they would ensure the validity of the results by considering
both the reliability and the success at measuring the intended dependent
variable;
assess the risks of their proposed methods. Candidates should be able to
carry out a simple risk assessment of their plan, identifying the areas where an
accident or injury is most likely to happen and the areas where it would be
most serious;
describe precautions that they would take to keep risks as low as possible.
For example, they might point out that soda lime used to absorb carbon dioxide
is corrosive and poses a particular risk if they come in contact to the skin and
cornea. Wearing gloves and eye protection would therefore be an appropriate
precaution.

Analysis, conclusions and evaluations

Dealing with data

work out which calculations are necessary for making conclusions from

Median (middle
number)

provided data.
These calculations may include the mean, median, mode, percentage and
percentage gain or loss.
sketch or draw suitable graphs displaying the independent variable on the xaxis and the dependent variable on the y-axis, In addition, they should include
confidence limit error bars, calculated using standard error.
carry out the key steps of statistical methods designed to assess variability in
data including
range
inter-quartile range
standard deviation
standard error.
choose and use (when given suitable equations) statistical tests designed to
find the differences between samples:
chi squared test
standard error
t-test.
state a null hypothesis for a statistical test. It is expected that candidates
can
use figures with standard deviation or standard error, or graphs with standard
error bars, to determine whether differences in mean values are likely to be
statistically significant. calculate the degrees of freedom for a statistical
test and use a probability table to determine the significance of a calculated
value for the t-test and the chi-squared test.
e.g. 13,18,13,14,13,16,14,21,13
14

Mode (most
occurring)
Range

13
Difference between the largest and the smallest values
8

Interquartile range
4

Normal distribution
Standard deviation

Standard error

Error bars

A symmetrical frequency distribution, about 95% of the data lie within 2

standard deviations from the mean.
The spread of a set of data from the mean of the sample is a measure of the
variability
of a population from a sample. A small standard deviation indicates that the
data is more reliable.
An estimate of the reliability of the mean of a population sample. A small
standard error
indicates that the mean value is close to the actual mean of the population.

If you draw an error bar that extends two standard errors above and two
standard errors below the mean, you can be 95% certain that the true
value of the mean lies within this range. If the error bars overlap
between two groups then the difference between the two groups is not
significant.

t-test

Chi-squared test

Null hypothesis
5% confidence
level
Degrees of freedom
Confidence limit

Types of variable
and types of data

The range in which a population value is likely to fall. This is usually taken as
95% of the time a measurement will fall in this range. In a normally distributed
population, the observed value falls in the middle of the confidence limits.

Types of variable
Qualitative

Types of data

categoric
ordered
Quantitative
continuous
discrete

Evaluation

identify anomalous values in provided data and suggest how to deal with
such anomalies e.g. repeating the experiment until consistent results are
obtained or leaving out the affected data;
within familiar contexts, suggest possible explanations for anomalous
readings. Where investigations
assess whether the provided readings have been replicated sufficiently, and
describe the adequacy of the range of data given.
know why replicating data is important and the practical limits on
replication.
show instances where the investigator should have taken readings at lower or
higher values of the independent variable in order to give a complete range
of values. They must also be able to point out situations where there are gaps
in the range that reduce the information that the investigation can give, e.g.
around a key turning point.
assess whether the method of measuring is appropriate for the dependent
variable, e.g. using a pH meter is more likely to give more accurate and
reliable results than using an indicator and a colour chart to measure changes
in pH;
use the information given to assess whether standardised variables have
been controlled effectively.
use these evaluations and the information given to make informed
judgements about how much confidence can be put in any conclusions.

make informed judgements about the validity of the investigation and how
much it can be trusted for testing the hypothesis.

Validity
Conclusion

Valid results are reliable and successful at measuring the intended dependent
variable.
draw conclusions from an investigation, giving a detailed description of the
key features of the data and analyses, and considering whether experimental
data supports a given hypothesis. The candidates should give key points of
the raw data, processed data, graphical representations of it and statistical test
results, including quoting relevant figures. They should clearly show the
strength or weakness of any support for or against the hypothesis. In
particular, they should be able to show whether the hypothesis has been fully
supported or not supported by the data;
give detailed scientific explanations of the data and of their conclusions.
For example, candidates should make reference to the rate of effective
collisions between enzyme molecules and substrates to explain the conclusions
made about an enzyme-related hypothesis;

make further predictions, ask informed and relevant questions and suggest
improvements
to increase the confidence in drawing conclusions.
A2 Practical assessments
[PA] carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to measure RQ and the effect of temperature
on respiration rate;

[PA] describe the structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, a palisade cell and a chloroplast and
relate their structures to their roles in photosynthesis;
[PA] discuss limiting factors in photosynthesis and carry out investigations on the effects of
light intensity and wavelength, carbon dioxide and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis;
[PA] discuss the role of chloroplast pigments in absorption and action spectra, and separate
them using chromatography;
[PA] describe the gross structure of the kidney and the detailed structure of the nephron with
the associated blood vessels (candidates are expected to be able to interpret the histology of
the kidney, as seen in sections using the light microscope);
[PA] describe the cellular structure of an islet of Langerhans from the pancreas and outline the
role of the pancreas as an endocrine gland;
[PA] describe, with the aid of diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis, and
the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell membrane and centrioles (names of
the main stages are expected, but not the sub-divisions of prophase);
[PA] use the chi-squared test to test the significance of differences between observed and
expected results (the formula for the chi-squared test will be provided);
[PA] outline the five-kingdom classification to illustrate the diversity of organisms (cross
reference to Syllabus Section A (c) and A (g), a knowledge of phyla within the kingdoms is not
required)
[PA] outline the principles of electrophoresis as used in:
genetic fingerprinting
DNA sequencing;

[PA] immobilise an enzyme in alginate and compare the ease of recovering the enzyme and
ease of purification of the product compared to the same enzyme that has not been
immobilised;
[PA] describe and explain the structural features of a named, wind-pollinated plant;
[PA] describe the structure of the fruit in maize and explain the function of the endosperm;
[PA] explain how the anatomy and physiology of the leaves of C4 plants such as maize or
sorghum are adapted for high rates of carbon fixation at high temperatures in terms of:
the high optimum temperatures of the enzymes involved
the spatial separation of initial carbon fixation from the light-dependent stage (biochemical
details of the C4 pathway are not required);
[PA] explain how sorghum is adapted to survive in arid environments;
[PA] explain how rice is adapted to grow with the roots submerged in water in terms of
tolerance to ethanol and presence of aerenchyma;
[PA] describe the histology of the mammalian ovary and testis;

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