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Chapter 1
ENERGY & STEAM

INTRODUCTION
Energy is the capacity for doing work, generating heat, and emitting light. The equation
for work is the force, which is the mass time the gravity times the distance.
We use energy every day. Energy is need to operate machines, to heat and cool our
homes and schools, to cook, to provide light and to take people from place to place.

Energy Sources
Primary and Secondary Energy
All of the energy sources that we use, except geothermal and nuclear energies, are
derived initially from solar energy (Figure 1.1). The fossil fuels that we use

Figure 1.1. Origin of different sources of energy used by humans.

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Primary Energy sourcesFossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal)

Nuclear energy
Falling water, geothermal, solar

Secondary Energy sourcesSources derived from a primary source like

Electricity
Gasoline
Alcohol fuels (gasohol)

TYPES OF SOURCES
RENEWABLE: CAN BE REGENERATED IN A SHORT AMOUNT OF TIME OR IS
BASICALLY UNLIMITED
NON-RENEWABLE: CANT BE REPLACED IN A SHORT AMOUNT OF TIME AND IS
LIMITED

Characteristics of a good source of fuel:i) It should have a high energy output per unit mass or volume.
ii) It should be easily available.
iii) It should be easy to store and transport.
iv) It should be economical.
Nonrenewable Resources

Renewable Resources

When they are used up, they cannot Resources that are continuously replaced
be replaced by nature
by nature

Exists in finite supply

Inexhaustible supply

Fossil Fuels, Coal, Oil , Natural Gas

Solar
Geothermal Wind
Biomass Water

Environmental effects -hazardous

Environmental friendly

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Low cost

High cost

versatile and high net energy

This are not as versatile and low net

energy

It runs on combustion technology

It runs on non-combustion technology

NON-RENEWABLE
FOSSIL FUELS

NATURAL GAS
COAL
OIL
FISSION

FOSSIL FUELS
Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are formed in the earth from plants and animals that died millions of years ago.
Fossil fuels are a nonrenewable form of energy. That means that they cannot be replaced once
they are used.

COAL
Coal is an important fossil fuel.
Coal is found underground.
Coal is used to make electric power.
When coal is burned, it pollutes the air.

OIL

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Oil is removed from deep within the Earth. Workers pump oil out of the Earth using wells.
Oil is used to make gasoline and heating fuel.

Pros of Oil:
High net energy
Easily transported
Strong infrastructure

Cons of Oil:
Requires subsidies
Air pollution
Global warming

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Limited supplies

NATURAL GAS
Natural gas comes from the Earth.
Natural gas is a clean source of energy.
Natural gas can be compressed into a liquid and moved long distances through pipelines.

THERMAL POWER PLANT

In thermal power plants the heat energy produced by burning fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum or natural gas is used to heat water and change it into steam which rotates the turbines
of generators to produce electricity.
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is
heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.

Advantages

The fuel used is quite cheap.

Less initial cost as compared to other generating plants.

It can be installed at any place irespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be
transported to the site of the plant by rail or road.

It requires less space as compared to Hydro power plants.

Cost of generation is less than that of diesel power plants.

Disadvantages
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It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.

It is costlier in running cost as compared to Hydro electric plants.

RENEWABLE

HYDRO
SOLAR
WOOD
TRASH
GEOTHERMAL
WIND
FUSION

Hydro
power
plants:-

Hydropower make use of energy that is stored in water. Hydropower, also called hydroelectric
power, uses the massive amount of energy that exists in large volumes of flowing water. The
main way to capture hydropower has been the construction of large dams across rivers to cause
the water approaching the dam to build up and form a reservoir. Reservoir water flowing through
the dams pipes, called penstocks, turns turbines, which power generators that produce

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electricity. Transmission lines carry the electricity to near or distant communities. In the United
States, hydropower supplies more than 70 percent of all renewable energy production.

Hydropower
Advantages

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Disadvantages

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large energy output

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

high construction costs

efficient conversion of kinetic energy to flooding to upstream environment displaces

electrical power

wildlife and people

low-cost electricity for customers

alters natural downstream waterways

provides steady source of irrigation water and interferes with salmon reproduction
downstream river habitat

halts natural flow of nutrients to downstream

lasts many years with proper

habitats

maintenance

danger of collapse

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear Fission
Fission produces energy when atomic nuclei are split apart by neutron bombardment. The
process can produce a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Nuclear power plants produce energy by heating water or other liquids which expand to
drive a turbine [Fig. 16.25, Keller, 2012] functioning the same way as a conventional power
plant
Since nuclear fuel utilizes a self-sustaining reaction, dampers (neutron
absorbers) or control rods are used to control the reaction [Fig. 15.22a, Keller, 2008]
inside of a containment structure designed to withstand at least minor runaway
reactions

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Figure
1.2: the
nuclear
chain
reaction:

Nuclear
Fission

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Nuclear Power Plant

Risks:
Runaway reaction, e.g. Chernobyl (Fig. 18) and [Fig. 15.E, Keller, 2000] accident caused by
severe operator error
{Fukushima Plant, Japan designed for 6 m tsunami, hit by 15 m (48 ft) high tsunami
Nuclear appears to be safest way to generate power in terms of environmental health risks

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the assembly or combination of light elements to make
heavier elements [Fig. 15.24, Keller, 2000]
This process is the source of the Sun's energy
Essentially non-polluting
Very safe, since the reaction halts if there is any breakdown in containment.

Advantages
Large fuel supply
Low environmental impact (without accidents)
Emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coal
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Moderate land disruption and water pollution (without accidents)

Low risk of accidents because of multiple safety systems (except for Chernobyl-type
reactors)

Disadvantages
Cannot compete economically without huge government subsidies
Low net energy yield
High environmental impact (with major accidents)
Environmental costs not included in market price
Risk of catastrophic accidents
No widely acceptable solution for long-term storage of radioactive wastes
Subject to terrorist attacks
Speared knowledge technology for building nuclear weapons

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Definition:
Geothermal Energy is energy stored in the form of heat beneath the surface of the solid earth.
Geothermal energy is that part of the total heat energy stored within the Earths interior that is
available for human use. That means practically that it is related to the heat energy stored in the
upper layers (crust) of the earth.
Although the earths stored heat is theoretically finite, its large amount (12.6 x 10 24 MJ) makes
geothermal energy practically a renewable energy that can theoretically sustain the energy needs
of mankind many times.

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How it works
Hot
rocks
underground
heat
water
to
produce
steam.
We drill holes down to the hot region, steam comes up, is purified and used to drive turbines,
which drive electric generators. There may be natural "groundwater" in the hot rocks anyway, or
we may need to drill more holes and pump water down to them.

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Geothermal energy
Advantages

steady, free energy source

low land disturbance
high efficiency of energy conversion
minimal construction other than
the power plant
low pollution

Disadvantages

limited number of sites

sometimes produces little power per well
difficult to store or modulate
emissions, odors, and noise

BIOMASS
ENERGY

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Biofuels are any fuels that are made from plant material. The main biofuels in use today are
ethanol produced from grain crops; methanol produced from natural gas or from solid organic
waste called biomass; biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide (CO2); and vegetable
oils.

Sugarcane, shown here, forms the basis of Brazils biofuel program, allowing Brazil to no
longer rely on foreign oil. Sugarcane produces twice the biofuel per acre as corn, the main

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feedstock for U.S. biofuel. All biofuel and biomass feedstocks must be grown sustainably
and preserve the worlds food supply and the environment. Brazil burns sugarcane fields
and pollutes the airto drive out snakes before workers enter the fields to be harvested.
The cutting of Brazilian forests to plant more sugarcane puts additional CO2 into the
atmosphere. The biofuel industry must solve these problems in order to truly help the
environment.

How does it work?

CROP RESIDUES -burn in the incinerator and produce electricity. It produces 10% of electricity
of Hawaii and Brazil.
WOOD - burn as fuel to either produce energy or heat. Wood-fired power plants provide 23% of
the electricity used in Maine.
Potential Energy Source?

California produces more than 60 million bone dry tons of biomass each year.
5 million bone dry tons are now burned to make electricity
If it were all used, the 60 million tons could make close to 2,000 megawatts of electricity
Would give enough energy to power 2 million homes
About 6% of Canadas energy needs are met by biomass, but that could be greatly
increased

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MUSTARD OIL burn in the engine

as diesel for vehicle or in power plant to produce electricity.
It is under research.

Biomass energy
Advantages

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Disadvantages

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Most of them are renewable, e.g., wood,

mustard oil and crop residues.

Solve energy crisis in the future.
Some of them are re-using the waste,

e.g.,crop residues, sewage.

High energy efficiency.
Generally it does not polluted the
atmosphere as much as oil and coal.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Raising the price of food, wood and wood

products indirectly.
Either high technological

catalytic combustion is needed.

Large area is needed to grow plants for

biomass energy use.

When producing biomass fuel, large

level

or

amount of waste will also produced

TIDAL POWER
What is Tidal Energy?
Energy contained in a tide, especially that which can be converted to electricity.
Why Tidal Energy

Tidal
energy
uses the
motion
of

the

incoming and outgoing tides to turn turbines and generate electricity. Underwater turbines
will be more expensive to install than wind farm turbines, and the turbine blades might
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injure aquatic species. If those problems can be corrected, tidal energy and related wave
energy offer a long-term renewable form of energy.

The tides provides the hydrokinetic energy. Underwater turbines rotate with incoming tides and
in the opposite direction with outgoing tides. Tidal energy represents a steady and inexpensive
energy source, but the costs of building the underwater system can be high. Like wind turbines,
undersea turbines may cause harm to marine mammals and fish from the rotating blades. Wave
energy and tidal energy have not yet contributed a meaningful amount of energy to power grids,
but some proponents anticipate a bright future. Wind and solar are very diffuse sourcesyou
have to cover a lot of area to collect energy, said Roger Bedard of the Electric Power Research
Institute in Palo Alto, California. Waves carry a lot of energy in a small space. Smaller
machines cost less than bigger machines. This type of efficiency will be at a premium as open
land fills with new communities each year.

waves and tides

Advantages

steady source of power

efficient conversion of kinetic
energy to electrical power
no pollution
ocean power is free

Disadvantages

useful only on coasts or rivers

unproven technology
expensive construction

WIND TURBINES
Wind power has been a fast-growing segment of the alternative energy industry since the
1990s; wind power has grown more than 30 percent in each year of 2006, 2007, and 2008. Wave
and tidal power have made smaller contributions, but interest in these modes of producing energy
remains steady.

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MERGEFORMATINET

Wind generates power when gusts contact a windmill called a wind turbine. The turbines
blades rotate, which turns gears in a generator behind the blades and inside the turbine. The
generator converts the kinetic energy of the rotating blades into electrical energy, which cables
then carry to an electrical transfer building to distribute to customers.

Wind Power
Advantages

Disadvantages

efficient converting of wind to electrical energy little power output in low winds

moderate to low startup cost

extensive land needed for wind farms

wind is free

view of wind turbines

no pollution

injures and kills migratory birds and predatory

easy construction

birds

land below wind turbines can be used for other noise pollution
activities

The installation of wind turbines is one step towards becoming more eco-friendly in the
future.

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SOLAR ENERGY
Photovoltaic cells
Solar energy produced in the form of light and heat from the Sun help produce heat and
electricity in an increasing number of homes, schools, businesses and May someday be a power
source for vehicles. Solar energy can be collected by large utility companies that turn it into
electricity for their customers, or single buildings can be equipped with a solar thermal system to
turn heat into electricity.

A photovoltaic cell used in capturing solar energy receives photons (the Suns rays), which
silicon absorbs. This action releases an electron from a silicon atom each time a photon
strikes. Oppositely charged poles on either side of the cell induce the electrons to form a
current.
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Conversion of solar energy to electrical energy depends on a device called the

photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell. Photovoltaic cells work by capturing the energy in the
Suns radiation, called photons; the photons then dislodge electrons from a material inside the
cell and the flow of electrons produce an electric current. Semiconductor materials such as
silicon act as the best substance for this conversion of photon energy to electric current.
Solar energy has created the greatest level of interest of all alternative energies for
serving homes and other buildings. Solar energy represents a fast-growing industry; most U.S.
homeowners live in a place where they can make an appointment and have a sheet of
photovoltaic cells, called solar panels, installed on their roof in a day. Worldwide, solar
installations have increased as much as 62 percent (as MW produced) between 2006 and 2007,
yet solar energy accounts for less than 0.05 percent of global energy demand.

Solar power plants

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Large-scale solar power plants can use various technologies for increasing their efficiency
of converting solar energy into electrical energy. A solar tower uses sunlight-heated air to
form an updraft that runs the plants turbines; a parabolic trough collects direct sunlight
and reflected sunlight; a solar dish with a Stirling engine uses a solar concentrator to
maximize power. The cost of solar energy has declined in the past 20 years.

Solar Power
Advantages

Disadvantages

sunlight is free

high costs at present

quick to install

need access to the Sun about 60

easy to add on to the system

percent of time

no pollution from energy

needs energy storage system

production

may need energy backup system

quiet

some homeowners do not like solar

little disturbance of land

panels appearance

photovoltaic cells last for several

takes 4050 years for energy

decades

savings to make up initial cost

manufacturing produces hazardous
silicon wastes

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Boiler
What is Boiler?
A closed metallic vessel in which the water is heated beyond the boiling
temperature by the application of heat by the combustion of fuels to convert it into
steam.
The function of the boiler is to supply the steam at constant pressure with desired
quality by maintaining the steam generation rate and the steam flow rate equal.
Classification of Boiler:
Based upon relative position of water and flue gas (hot gas) carrying tubes,
1) Fire tube boiler 2)Water tube boiler
Based upon location of furnace,
1) Externally fired boiler 2) Internally fired
boiler
Based upon method of water circulation,
1) Natural circulation 2)Forced circulation
Based upon direction of principle axis of the
shell,
1) Horizontal axis boiler 2)Vertical axis boiler
3) Inclined axis boiler Based upon pressure of
the steam produced,
1) High
boiler

pressure

boiler

2)Low

pressure

Based upon usage,

1) Stationary boiler 2) Portable boiler 3)
Locomotive boiler 4) Marine boiler
Fire tube Boiler: Fig: 1.1
In the fire tube boiler, the hot gases produced
by the combustion of fuel are passed through
tubes around which the water circulates as
shown in the figure 1.1.
Example: Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler.
Fig: 1.2

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Water tube Boiler

In water tube boiler, the water circulates inside the tubes
while hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel
flows around the water tubes externally as shown in the
figure 1.2.
Example: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler.

Comparison of Fire tube and Water tube boiler:

Description
1 Passage of hot
gases and water
circulation
2 Position of
furnace
Lancashire Boiler:

Water tube
Here
water
circulates
through the tubes and the
hot flue gases surround
them externally
Furnace is situated outside
the boiler

Fire tube
Here
the
hot
flue
gasespasses through tubes
which are surrounded by
water circulation
Furnace is situated within
the boiler

Lancashire boiler is a horizontal, fired,

natural circulation fire tube boiler.
In this boiler steam is produced at 15
bar, at the rate of 8500 kg per hour.
The steam produced in this boiler is
used for processing purposes in sugar
mills and in chemical industries as the
produced at low pressure with low rate
of production.
Construction:
Fig: Lancashire boiler
Lancashire boiler consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell placed on a brick
work as shown in the below figure.
Two large flue tubes of diameter about 0.4 times the diameter of shell are
fitted inside the shell which extends over the entire length. In each of these
flue tubes two furnace grates are provided at the entrance of flue tube and
the space underneath the grate is the ash pit( ash collector ).
The arrangement of brick work and shell creates a rear enclosed chamber for
each of flue tubes at the rear end of the boiler which in turn is connected to
one bottom central channel at the underneath the shell and which in turn is
connected to two side channels at the front end. Two side channels are
connected at their rear end to a common rear passage which is connected to
chimney as shown in the figure.

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The boiler shell is mounted with necessary mountings like feed valve, steam
stop valve, pressure gauge, water level indicator safety valve etc as shown in
the figure.
Working:
Fill the boiler shell with water to of its volume by the help of feed valve
which will submerge both the flue tubes and the remaining space inside the
shell is for collection of steam.
When the fuel is supplied to the furnace and burnt, the hot gases produced
will passes along the flue tubes towards rear enclosed chamber and mean
while heat transfer take place from the hot gases to water through the walls
of the flue tubes.
The hot gas from the rear enclosed chamber is next entered into the bottom
central channel and passes towards entrance of the boiler shell. In passing
heat transfer takes place from the hot gas to water through bottom portion of
the boiler shell which is exposed to bottom central channel.
After passing along the bottom central channel, the hot gas divided at the
entrance of the boiler shell and enters into the both side channels towards
rear exit passage which in turn connected to chimney. In passing through side
channels heat transfer take place through side portions of the boiler shell
which are exposed to side channels.
The steam accumulated in the steam space is collected with the help of
steam stop valve.

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Fig: Different views of Lancashire boiler

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

Babcock and Wilcox boiler is a
horizontal, externally fired, natural
circulation water tube boiler.
A high capacity boiler produces steam at
40 bar
at the rate of 40000 kg per hour.
This boiler is used in thermal power
stations as it produces steam at higher
pressure with higher rate of production
and also this boiler is capable of
producing steam very quickly to the
higher amount as and when required.

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Fig: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Construction:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler consists of 4 parts as shown in the figure.
1) Steam and water drum 2) Water tubes 3) Furnace 4) Super heater
1) Steam and water drum:
It is horizontal cylindrical shell which is suspended with the help of iron
girders which are resting on iron columns.
The boiler shell is mounted with necessary mountings like feed valve, steam
stop valve, pressure gauge, water level indicator safety valve etc as shown in
the figure

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1 Feed valve , 2 Water level indicator , 3 Pressure gauge , 4 Safety valve , 5

Steam stop valve , 6 Down take header , 7 - Up take header , 8 Descending
water tube , 9 Ascending water tube , 10 Chain grate stroke , 11 Mud box with
blow off pipe , 12 Baffle plates , 13 Way to chimney , 14 T tube.
2)

Water Tubes :
These are number of inclined water tubes at an angle of 15 degree
through which water circulates.
The water tubes are arranged one below the other in a serpentine
fashion to form vertical row with 4 to 5 water tubes as shown in the
figure.

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Both the ends of the tubes are connected to end boxes which are
called as headers. The header which is at right side is called down take
header and on the left side is called up take header. Both the headers
are in turn connected to boiler with the help of pair of tubes.
Descending water tube connects down take header to boiler and
ascending water tube connects uptake header to boiler.
Each set of vertical row with pair of headers arranged one behind the
other in required number.
A mud box is connected at the bottom of the down take header with
blow off pipe connected to it is to collect contaminants and to remove
from the water tubes.
3)

Furnace (Chain grate stroke ):

The furnace is provided at the bottom of up take header which consists of
continuous moving chain in between two rollers. The coal is fed at the front
end of the chain grate stroke is burnt on the moving grate and residual ash
falls at the other end of the grate in to the ash pit.

4) Super heater:
It is number of u tubes secured at each end to the horizontal connecting
boxes and placed in the combustion chamber underneath the boiler drum.
The upper box is connected to T tube which is situated in the steam space
inside the boiler drum and allows steam to enter and passes it to super
heater and then to steam stop valve by passing through lower box .
Working:
Fill the boiler shell with water to 1/2 of its volume by the help of feed
and the remaining space inside the shell is for collection of steam
mean while water tubes, headers also filled with water.
When the fuel is supplied to the furnace and burnt, the hot gases
produced will passes through the particular path guided by the baffle
plates.
The produced hot gas moves upwards around the portion of the water
tubes lying in between the combustion chamber and below the boiler
drum, then down wards around the portion of the water tubes in
between baffle plates , and then once again upwards between the
baffle plate and the down take header and finally passes out to
chimney.
During the path of hot gas, the water extracts the heat from the hot
gas and converted to steam, then the mixture of steam and hot water
raises to up take header and then collects in boiler drum.

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The steam collected in steam space passes to the super heater by

entering into the T tube in turn connected to steam stop valve by
which super heated steam can be extracted.

Advantages and Disadvantages of water tube boiler over fire tube boiler.
Advantages:
1)

Steam can be produced more quickly

2)

Steam at higher pressure can be produced

3)

Higher rate of evaporation

4)

Sediment deposition is less

5)

Suitable for any type of fuel

6)

More effective heat transfer

7)

Failure of water tubes will not affect boiler operation

8)

Occupies less space

9)

Easy maintenance

10)

Easy transportation.

Disadvantages:
1)

Not suitable for ordinary water

2)

Not suitable for mobile application

3)

High initial cost hence not economical

Boiler Mountings and Accessories

The devices which helps boiler to work satisfactorily, efficiently, safely and for easy
maintenance are called boiler mountings and accessories.
The devices are divided into two categories based upon work as,
1)

Boiler Mountings: The devices which helps to control the steam

generation, measurement of steam properties and safe working of the
boiler.

The boiler mountings are

1) Water level indicators: It indicates water level in the boiler drum and
guides to maintain constant level of water in the boiler and thereby avoids
overheating damages. These are fitted at the front end of the boiler for
clear vision.
2) Pressure gauge: It indicates the pressure of the steam inside the boiler
to maintain the pressure to a desired safer limit. These are also fitted at
the front end or top of the boiler for clear vision.

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3) Safety valves: It maintains the safe pressure inside the boiler. If

pressure crosses the safe limit, the excess steam will blow off from the
safety valves automatically and thereby maintains safer pressure limit,
preventing the explosion of the boiler. Commonly used safety valves are
Dead weight safety valve and spring loaded safety valve.
4) Steam stop valve: It regulates the supply of steam for the required rate
whenever necessary and shut off the steam when not required. It is
situated at the top of the boiler drum.
5) Blow off valve: Its function is to empty the water in the boiler drum
when required for periodical cleaning (removal of sediments collected at
the bottom of the drum) and inspection. It is fitted at the lowest part of
the drum.
6) Feed check valve: Its function is to feed water in to the boiler drum
continuously and also regulates the rate of the flow of feed water and
prevents escape of water from boiler drum due to higher pressure inside
the boiler drum.
7) Fusible plug: It is safety device and its function is to protect the boiler
from the explosion due to the overheating due to lower water level.
Whenever temperature exceeds safety limits, the plug itself melts and
allows the water and steam to escape and to extinguish the fire in the
furnace.
2)
Boiler Accessories: The devices which helps to improve the efficiency
of the boiler and to enable proper working of the boiler.
The boiler accessories are
1)
Economizer: It is heat exchanger which is placed in the hot gas path so
that it can exchange the heat between hot gas and cold water passing
through the heat exchanger. It improves the overall efficiency of boiler by
reducing the fuel consumption because the feed water supplied to the boiler
will be at a higher temperature.
2)
Air pre heater: It is heat exchanger which is kept in between
economizer and chimney which exchanges heat between hot gas and cold air
passing through heat exchanger. Supplying preheated air to the furnace
produces higher furnace temperature and accelerates combustion of fuel and
there by increases thermal efficiency of the plant.
3)
Super heater: It is heat exchanger which is fixed in line of hot gas path
which recovers heat from hot gas to increase the temperature of saturated or
wet steam to super-heated temperature by passing steam into this heat
exchanger.
4)
Feed pump: It feeds the water at a high pressure in to the boiler as
pressure inside the boiler is higher than surrounding pressure.

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5)
Steam separator: It separates condensed water particles from the
steam which is entering into the turbine. It is fitted at the entrance of the
turbine
6)
Steam trap: It is used to drain off the collected condensed water in the
steam pipe lines. It is connected to small by-pass pipe from the main steam
pipe to pass the collected water.

STEAM PROPERTIES

Introduction
Heat is a form of energy and is measured in joules. Temperature is the degree of hotness or
coldness of a substance. Heat and temperature are thus not the same thing. For example, twice
the heat energy is needed to boil a full container of water than half a containerthat is, different
amounts of heat energy are needed to cause an equal rise in the temperature of different amounts
of the same substance.
Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1 C. The symbol used for specific heat capacity is c and
the units are J/ (kg C) or J/ (kg K).
Water 4190 J/ (kg C),
Aluminium 950 J/ (kg C),
Iron 500 J/ (kg C),

Ice 2100 J/ (kg C)

Copper 390 J/ (kg C)
Lead 130 J/ (kg C)

Change of
state
Formation
of Steam

Vaporization

States

Gaseous
State

solid, liquid
Liquid
State

Manjunatha E, Assistant Professor, TOCE, Bangalore-68

Melting

Heat

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or gas. If heat is supplied at a constant rate to some ice initially at, say, 30 C, its temperature
rises as shown in Figure 19.1. Initially the temperature increases from 30 C to 0C as shown
by the line AB. It then remains constant at 0 C for the time BC required for the ice to melt into
water. When melting commences the energy gained by continual heating is offset by the energy
required for the change of state and the temperature remains constant even though heating is
continued. When the ice is completely melted to water, continual heating raises the temperature
to 100 C, as shown by CD in Figure 19.1. The water then begins to boil and the temperature
again remains constant at 100 C, shown as DE, until all the water has vaporized.
Continual heating raises the temperature of the steam as shown by EF in the region where
the steam is termed superheated. Changes of state from solid to liquid or liquid to gas occur
without change of temperature and such changes are reversible processes. When heat energy
flows to or from a substance and causes a change of temperature, such as between A and B,
between C and D and between E and F in Figure 19.1, it is called sensible heat (since it can be
sensed by a thermometer).
Heat energy which flows to or from a substance while the temperature remains constant, such as
between B and C and between D and E in Figure 19.1, is called latent heat (latent means
concealed or hidden).
Latent heats of fusion and vaporization
The specific latent heat of fusion is the heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from the
solid
state to the liquid state (or vice versa) at constant temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from
a liquid to a gaseous state (or vice versa) at constant temperature.
The units of the specific latent heats of fusion and vaporisation are J/kg, or more often kJ/kg

Terms Related to Steam

Enthalpy of water
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The quantity of heat absorbed by one kg of water at constant pressure from freezing temperature
to its saturation temperature it is called enthalpy of water. It is denoted by hf.
Enthalpy of Steam
The amount of heat absorbed by water at constant pressure from freezing temperature to its
saturation temperature plus heat absorbed during vaporization it is called enthalpy of steam. It is
denoted by hg.
Latent Heat of Steam
The quantity of heat absorbed by one kg of water at constant pressure to convert one kg of water
at its boiling point into dry saturated steam. It is denoted by hfg.

Types of Steam
Wet Steam
When the steam contains moisture of water particle in suspension it is called wet steam. The of
wet steam is.
hw = hf + x hfg

(x = Dryness fraction)

If the steam is dry and saturated, then x = 1

Dryness Fraction
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to the mass of steam containing in it. It
is denoted by (x).
=
mg
mw

Mass of actual dry steam

weight of water particle in suspension in steam.

Dry Saturated Steam

When the steam is further heated and does not contain any suspended particle of water is called
Dry Saturated Steam. Here x = 1.
hg = hf + hfg

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Superheated Steam
When the dry steam is further heated at constant pressure thus rising its temperature is called
superheated steam. The additional amount of heat supplied to the steam during superheating is
called Heat of superheat. Since the pressure is constant so therefore the volume of superheated
steam increases.

hs = hf + hfg + Heat of superheat

Specific Volume of Dry Steam

The volume of one kg of dry steam at a given pressure is known as specific volume of
dry steam. It is denoted by Vg
Vg = Volume of 1 kg of perfect dry steam.

Specific Volume of Wet Steam

The volume of one kg of wet steam will be equal to the volume of dry steam + volume

water in suspension.
Vg

Volume of 1 kg of dry steam.

Vf

Volume of 1 kg of water.

Dryness Fraction.

Volume of one kg of wet steam (Vw) = Volume dry steam + Volume of water
(If the steam has dryness fraction x, then one kg of this steam contains x kg of dry steam & (1-x)
kg of water)
Volume of wet steam (Vw) = x Vg

Specific Volume of Superheated Steam

As superheated behaves like a perfect gas its volume can be found out in the same way as
the gases.

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Vg

Specific Volume of dry steam.

Ts

Saturation temperature in K

Tsup

Temperature of superheated steam in K

Vsup

Volume of 1 kg of superheated steam.

Vsup

External work done during Evaporation

When water is evaporated to form saturated steam its volume increases from Vf to Vg at
constant pressure and the external work done during evaporation = p (Vg - Vf ), as Vf is very
small , so it is neglected.
External work done during Evaporation = p Vg

Internal Latent Heat

Internal latent heat consists true latent heat and work of evaporation.
Total latent heat = True latent heat and work of evaporation.

= hfg + p Vg
Internal energy of steam
The actual heat energy stored in the steam is known as internal energy of steam.
h = hf + hfg

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