CHAPTER 4

EDIBLE OILS, FATS AND

WAXES

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION
Fats, oils and waxes are the naturally occurring

esters of long straight-chain carboxylic acids.

They belong to the Saponifiable group of lipids.

Lipids are biologically produced materials which are

relatively insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents (benzene, chloroform, acetone, ether, etc.).
The saponifiable lipids contain an ester group and

react with hot sodium hydroxide solution undergoing

hydrolysis (saponification):

Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION

No Reaction (Unsaponifiable)
No Ester Group
Includes Steroids,
Prostaglandins,
Leukotrienes
LIPIDS (HOT NaOH
SOLUTION)

Hydrolysis Reaction
(Saponifiable)
Contains Ester Group

Includes Oils,
Fats, Waxes,
Phospholipids

Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION

What is Saponification? Ester is heated with aqueous alkali

(sodium hydroxide) to form an alcohol and the sodium salt of the
acid corresponding to the ester. The sodium salt formed is
called a soap.

O
R

OR'

+ OH

+ HOR'

Fats and oils are esters of glycerol, the simplest triol (tri-alcohol),
in which each of the three hydroxyl groups has been converted
to an ester.

Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION

The acid portion of the ester linkage (fatty acids) usually

contains an even number of carbon in an unbranched chain of
twelve to twenty four carbon atoms.

The triesters of glycerol fats and oils are also known as

triglycerides.
Typical Fat-triester of glycerol

O
O

CH2

O CH
O

CH2

HO

CH2

HO CH glycerol,
CH2
HO

O
Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION
The difference between fats and oils is merely

one of melting point: fats are solid at room

temperature (20C) while oils are liquids. Both
classes of compounds are triglycerides.
Since glycerol is common to all fats and oils, whether

animal or vegetable, it is the fatty acid part of the fat

(oil) that is of interest.
The differences among triglycerides (fats and oils) are

due to the length of the hydrocarbon chains of the

acids and the number of position of double bonds
(unsaturation).
Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION
The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids may be

completely saturated (a saturated fat) or may contain

one or more double bonds.
The geometric configuration of the double bond in
fats and oils is normally cis.
If the chain includes more than one double bond, the
fat is called polyunsaturated.
The presence of a double bond puts a kink in the
regular zig-zag arrangement characteristics of
saturated carbons.
Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION

Therefore, the molecules cannot form a neat, compact lattice

and tend to coil, so unsaturated triglycerides often melt below
room temperature and are thus classified as oils.
U n s a t u r a te d F a t ( O i l ) - - i n c lu d e s c i s d o u b l e b o n d

O
O

O
O
O

k in k

CH2
CH
CH2

O
P o o r p a c k in g

Professor Bassam El Ali

INTRODUCTION
Fats and oils are the most concentrated source of

energy. They provide approximately 9 Kcal of energy

per gram, compared to 4 Kcal/g for proteins and
carbohydrates.
They are carriers of fatsoluble vitamins and essential

fatty acids.
They also contribute to food flavor and mouth feel as

well as to the sensation of product richness.

They are used as frying fats or cooking oils where their

role is to provide a controlled heat-exchange medium

as well as to contribute to color and flavor.
Professor Bassam El Ali

10

INTRODUCTION
Waxes are monoesters of long-chain fatty acids, usually

containing 24 to 28 carbon atoms, with long-chain fatty primary

alcohols.
A fatty alcohol has a primary alcohol group (-CH2OH) attached to

a 16 to 36 carbon atoms long chain. Waxes are normally

saturated and are solids at room temperature.
W a x -e ste r o f fa tty a c id a n d fa tty a lc o h o l

O
O
CH2

Professor Bassam El Ali

11

INTRODUCTION
Plant waxes are usually found on leaves or seeds

(cabbage leaf wax consists of the primary alcohols

C12 and C18-C28 esterified with palmitic acid and
other acids).
The dominant components are stearyl and ceryl

alcohol (C26H53OH). In addition to primary alcohols,

esters of secondary alcohols, e.g., esters of
nonacosane-15-ol are present:
H 3 C -(C H 2 ) 1 3 -C H -(C H 2 ) 1 3 -C H 3
OH
Professor Bassam El Ali

12

INTRODUCTION
Waxes can be classified according to their origins as

naturally occurring or synthetic.

The naturally occurring waxes can be classified into

animal, vegetable and mineral waxes. The vegetable

waxes include carnauba, ouricouri and candelilla.
Petroleum waxes are the most prominent mineral

waxes. Paraffin wax is petroleum wax consisting

mainly of normal alkanes with molecular weights
usually less than 450.

Professor Bassam El Ali

13

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

14

FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids: carboxylic acids obtained from the

hydrolysis of a fat or oil. They are the building blocks

of the triglycerides.
The fats and oils are often named as derivatives of

these fatty acids.

Normal saturated fatty acids have a long, linear

hydrocarbon chain having a general formula

CH3(CH2)nCOOH (where n is even= 2 to 24).
The unsaturated fatty acids may have one double

bond (monosaturated) or have more than one cismethylene double bond (polyunsaturated).
Professor Bassam El Ali

15

COOH

CH3

CH3

Stearic Acid, Saturated

COOH
COOH

CH3
x=4

y= 2

z=6
COOH

CH3
x=1

y= 3

Oleic acid,
Mono-unsaturated
Linoleic acid,
Polyunsaturated

Linoleic acid

z=6

CH3

COOH

-Linolenic acid

COOH

CH3

Arachidonic acidimportant fatty acid

for animals

Professor Bassam
El Ali
Figure 4.1: The Structure
of Some
Fatty Acids

16

FATTY ACIDS
Fatty The following three systems of nomenclature are

in use for naming fatty acids.

The common (trivial) names.
The number of carbon atoms in the chain.
The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) system.
The trivial names which indicate the initial source of
fatty acids, are used more often than the IUPAC
names in the industry.
For example: butyric acid is a major component of
butter flavor; palmitic acid comes from palm kernel;
and oleic acid is from olives.
Professor Bassam El Ali

17

FATTY ACIDS
Abbreviation to designate fatty acids: number of

carbon atoms in the chain, followed by a colon and

additional numbers indicating number of double
bonds.
The 18-carbon series: C18:0 (stearic acid), C18:1
(oleic acid), C18:2 (linoleic acid) and C18:3 (linolenic
acid).
One or two letter abbreviations are also used, and
these four acids sometimes are designated by St, O,
L and Ln, respectively.

Professor Bassam El Ali

18

FATTY ACIDS
When double bonds are present, the suffix anoic is changed to

enoic, dienoic, or trienoic to indicate the number of bonds

present.
The location of the first carbon in the double bond is indicated by

a number preceding the IUPAC systematic name.

The geometric configuration of the double bonds is indicated by

the latin prefixes cis- (both hydrogens on one side) and trans-
(hydrogen across from each other).
Unsaturation between the 9 and 10 carbons with cis orientation

is most common in polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Accordingly, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids are called 9-

octadecenoic, 9,12-octadecadienoic and 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic

acids, respectively.
Professor Bassam El Ali

19

FATTY ACIDS
Carbon Atoms Common
Saturated
Fatty Acids
3
4
5
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18

Systematic Name

Common Sources

Propanoic
Butanoic
Pentanoic
3-Methylbutanoic
Hexanoic
Octanoic
Decanoic
Dodecanoic
Tetradecanoic
Hexadecanoic
Octadecanoic

Bacterial fermentation
Milk fats
Bacterial fermentation
Dolphin and porpoise fats
Milk fats, some seed oils
Milk fats, Palmae seed oils
Ship and goat milk, palm
seed oils, sperm head oil
Coconut-oil
Palm and coconut oils
Palm oil

Name
Propionic
Butyric
Valeric
Isovaleric
Caproic
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
Palmitic
Stearic

Table 4.2 Some Important FattyProfessor

Acids,Bassam
their
Names and Common Sources20
El Ali

FATTY ACIDS
Carbon Atoms

Common

Unsaturated
Fatty Acids
10
10
12
18

Name
Caproleic
Stillingic
Lauroleic
Linolenic

Systematic Name

Common
Sources

9-Decenoic
2,4-Decadienoic
2-Dodecenoic
9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic

Milk fats
Stillingia oil
Butterfat
Linseed oil

Table 4.2 Some Important Fatty Acids, their Names and Common Sources

Professor Bassam El Ali

21

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

22

GLYCERIDES

Glycerol can be esterified commercially with one, two or

three fatty acids to produce mono-, di-, or triglycerides.

Fats and oils are naturally occurring triglycerides.

The properties of triglycerides depend on the fatty acid

composition and on the relative location of fatty acids on
the glycerol.
O
C H 2O H

C H 2O

C
O

CHO

C
O

R"

C H 2O

R '''

F a tty A c id s

CHOH
R -C O O H
R '-C O O H
R "-C O O H

C H 2O H

R'

Fa t w ith th re e d iffe re n t
23 e
c a rb o x y lic a c id -T rig ly c e rid

G ly c e ro l

Professor Bassam El Ali

GLYCERIDES
Table 4.3: Triglyceride Types and Isomeric Forms of Natural Fats
________________________________________________________________
Types (% Wt)
Isomers (% Wt)
________________________
________________________
GS2U GSU2 GU3
SUS SSU
USU
UUS
GS3
________________________________________________________________
Pig fat (Lard)
2.5
22.4
55.7
19.4
1.0
21.4
46.9
8.8
Peanut oil

9.9

42.5

47.5

9.3

0.6

0.7

41.8

Beef fat (Tallow) 12.6

0.1

43.7

35.3

8.4

30.6

13.1

3.4

31.9

Cocoa butter

7.1

67.5

23.3

2.1

65.0

2.5

0.2

23.1

Soybean oil

3.7

31.0

65.3

3.7

31.0

________________________________________________________________
GS3: a fully saturated glyceride; GS2U: a glyceride composed of two saturated
acids and one unsaturated acid. Distinguishing between the 1, 3 and 2 positions
permits identification of the SUS and SSU isomers of GS2U and the USU and
UUS isomers of GSU2.

Professor Bassam El Ali

24

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

25

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
The physical properties, such as melting points,

specific heat, viscosity, density and refractive index,

depend on:

the type of fatty acids present in the triglyceride

and their location,

chain length of fatty acids,

number and location of cis and trans double

bonds on the fatty acid chains.

Professor Bassam El Ali

26

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Melting Point

The melting range of fats depends on the

triglyceride composition.

Melting points increase with chain length.

Trans fatty acids always have higher melting points

than their cis counterparts for any chain length.

Melting point data are useful in animal fats and

processed fats but are of little value for vegetable
oils since most oils are liquids at ambient
temperatures.
Professor Bassam El Ali

27

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Specific Heat

The specific heat of fats is defined as the ratio of

the heat capacity of a fat to the heat capacity
of water; or the quantity of heat required for a
one-degree temperature change in a unit weight
of fats.
Specific heat does increase with increasing
unsaturation of fatty acids in both the liquid and
solid states of a fat. Liquid fats have almost twice
the specific heat values than those of solid fats.

Professor Bassam El Ali

28

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Viscosity

Viscosity of the fatty acids increases with chain

length and decreases with increasing
unsaturation.
There is an approximately linear relationship
between log viscosity and temperature.
The viscosity of oils usually increases in
prolonged heating due to polymerization (gum
formation).

Professor Bassam El Ali

29

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Density

The density of fats and oils is an index of the

weight of a measured volume of the material.
The solid fat index (SFI) is related approximately
to the percentage of solids in a fat at a given
temperature.
When SFI is determined at a number of specified
temperatures, it can be especially useful to
margarine manufacturers or other processors.

Professor Bassam El Ali

30

10

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Refractive Index

The refractive index of fats and oils is sensitive

to composition.
The refractive index of a fat increases with
increasing chain length of fatty acids in the
triglycerides or with increasing unsaturation.
The refractive index can be utilized as a control
procedure during hydrogenation processes.

Professor Bassam El Ali

31

GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
Polymorphism

Polymorphism: the existence of a substance in two or

more forms, which are significantly different in physical or
chemical properties.

Certain pure or mixed fatty acid triglycerides may show as

many as five different melting points. Each crystal system
has a characteristic melting point, x-ray diffraction pattern
and infrared spectrum.

For example, tristearin can exist in three polymorphic

forms with melting points of 54.7C, 63.2C and 73.5C.

Polymorphism has several industrial implications in use of

fats as shortenings, margarines and cocoa butter.
Professor Bassam El Ali

32

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

33

11

GLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
The most important chemical reactions for

triglycerides (fats and edible oils) are hydrolysis,

methanolysis and interesterification.
The other reactions: hydrogenation, isomerization,

polymerization and autoxidation.

Professor Bassam El Ali

34

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Hydrolysis
The fat or oil can be hydrolyzed into fatty acids and

glycerol by treatment with steam under elevated

pressure and temperature.
The reaction is reversible and is catalyzed by

inorganic catalysts (ZnO, MgO or CaO) and an acid

catalyst (aromatic sulfonic acid).
C H 2O C O R

C H 2O H

C H O C O R + 3 H 2O

C H O H + 3R C O O H

C H 2O C O R

C H 2O H

Professor Bassam El Ali

35

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Hydrolysis
Glycerides can also be hydrolyzed by treatment with

alkali (saponification).
After acidification and extraction, the free fatty acids

are recovered as alkali salts (soaps).

C H 2O C O R

C H 2O H

CHOCOR + 3 KOH

C H O H + 3R C O O K

C H 2O C O R

C H 2O H

Professor Bassam El Ali

36

12

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Methanolysis
The fats and oil reacts with methanol to produce fatty

methyl esters.
Inorganic alkali, quaternary ammonium salts, and

enzymes (lipase) have been used as catalysts for

methanolysis in commercially practiced processes
for soap manufacture.
CH 2 OCOR
CHOCOR

CH 2 OH
+ 3 CH 3 OH

RCOOCH 3

CHOH

CH 2 OCOR

CH 2 OH

+ NaOH
3RCOONa + CH 3 OH
Professor Bassam El Ali

37

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Interesterification

Interesterification causes a fatty acid redistribution within

and among triglyceride molecules.
Substantial changes in the physical properties of fats and
oils or their mixtures without altering the chemical
structure of the fatty acids.
The reaction is very slow even at 200-300C, but the rate
of reaction can be accelerated by using sodium
methylate.
CH2OCOR1

CH2OCOR2

CH2OCOR2

CH2OCOR1

CHOCOR1 +

CHOCOR2

CHOCOR1 +

CHOCOR2

CH2OCOR1

CH2OCOR2

CH2OCOR1

CH2OCOR2

etc

Professor Bassam El Ali

38

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Interesterification
Interesterification may be either random or directed.
In random interesterification the acyl groups are

randomly distributed (equal proportions of tristearin

(S-S-S) and triolein (O-O-O) are allowed to
interesterified).
S S S
(50%)

O O O
(50%)
(NaOCH3)

S S S
(12.5%)

S O S
(12.5%)

O S S
(25%)

S O O
(25%)

Professor Bassam El Ali

O S O
(12.5%)

O O O
(12.5%)
39

13

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Interesterification
In directed interesterification, the reaction temperature

is lowered until the higher melting and least soluble

triglyceride molecule in the mixture crystallize
higher and lower melting fractions.
O

O
(NaOCH 3 )

S S
(33.3%)

O O O
(66.7%)
Professor Bassam El Ali

40

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Hydrogenation
The unsaturated double bonds in fatty acid chain are

converted to saturated bonds by addition of

hydrogen.
Suitable solid catalyst: nickel, platinum, copper, or

palladium.
Hydrogenation is exothermic, and leads to an

increase in melting point and drop in iodine value.

Partial hydrogenation can lead to isomerization of cis

double bonds (geometrical isomerization).

Professor Bassam El Ali

41

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Hydrogenation
Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic acid

(C18:3) is hydrogenated more quickly to linoleic

(C18:2) or oleic acid (C18:1) than linoleic to oleic
acid or oleic acid to stearic acid (C18:0).
C18:3

K1
+H 2

C18:2

K2
+H 2

C18:1

Professor Bassam El Ali

K3

C18:0

+H 2

42

14

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Isomerization
The configuration of the double bond in naturally

occurring fatty acids, present in oils and fats, is

predominantly in the cis form.
Isomerization can occur if oils and fats are heated at

temperatures above 100C in the presence of

bleaching earths or catalysts such as nickel,
selenium, sulfur or iodine.

Professor Bassam El Ali

43

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Polymerization
Under deep frying conditions (200-300C) the

unsaturated fatty acids undergo polymerization

reactions forming dimeric, oligomeric and polymeric
compounds.
The rate of polymerization increases with increasing
degree of unsaturation: saturated fatty acids are not
polymerized.
In thermal polymerization polyunsaturated fatty acids
are first isomerized into conjugated fatty acids.
Conjugated fatty acids interact by Diels-Alder reactions
producing cyclohexene derivatives.
Professor Bassam El Ali

44

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Autoxidation

Fats and oils often contain double bonds.

Autoxidation of a fat or oil yields a mixture of products that

include low molecular weight carboxylic acids, aldehydes
and methyl ketones.

The autoxidation reactions involve three steps: initiation,

propagation, and termination.

The initiation step leads to the formation of a

hydroperoxide on a methylene group adjacent to a double
bond; this step proceeds via a free-radical mechanism.

Professor Bassam El Ali

45

15

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Autoxidation

The second step, which is also a reaction in the

propagation cycle, is the addition of another molecule to
the hydroperoxide radical to generate new free radicals.
(H abstraction)
CH 2

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

+ O2
[ CH 2

CH

CH

OO
CH CH CH
hydroperoxide

OO H
CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

Professor Bassam El Ali

46

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES

Autoxidation

The second step, which is also a reaction in the propagation

cycle, is the addition of another molecule to the hydroperoxide
radical to generate new free radicals.
(H a b s tra c tio n )
CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

+ O2
[ CH

CH

CH

OO
CH
CH
CH
h y d r o p e ro x id e

OOH
CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

The chain length of these two radical-reaction steps is about

100. When the radical concentration has reached a certain
limit, the chain reaction is gradually stopped by mutual
combination of radicals, the termination step.
Professor Bassam El Ali

47

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

48

16

SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS

The organ fats of domestic animals, such as cattle

and hogs and milk fat are important raw materials for
fat production.
The edible oils are mostly of plant origin. Olive oil
and palm oil are extracted from the fruits.
All other oils are extracted from the oilseeds.
World oilseed production in 2000 was 307.7 million
tons.

Professor Bassam El Ali

49

SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS

Soybeans constitute the largest share (56%) and the

United States are the main crop growers.

Malaysia grows mainly palm oil.
The Philippines grows coconut.
China, Europe, India and Canada grow rapeseed

(canola). Sunflower is grown in the United States,

Australia, Europe and Argentina.
The cottonseed market is dominated by the United

States, China, Pakistan, India and the form Soviet

Union.
Professor Bassam El Ali

50

SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS

World vegetable oil consumption in 2000 was 87.2

million tons. United States consumption was 7.39

million tons.
In the United States market animal fats (tallow and
lard) have a relatively small share (4%) as compared
to vegetable oils.
The consumption of four oils-soybean (80%), corn
(4%), canola (4%) and cottonseed (3%) have grown
rapidly over the past 30 years as compared with the
traditional oils and animal fats.

Professor Bassam El Ali

51

17

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Crude fats and oils consist primarily of glycerides.
They also contain many other lipids in minor

quantitites. Corn oil, for example, may contain

glycerides plus phospholipids, glycolipids, many
isomers of sitosterol and stigmasterol (plant
steroids), several tocopherols (vitamins E), vitamin A,
waxes, unsaturated hydrocarbons, as well as many
products of decomposition, hydrolysis, oxidation and
polymerization of any of the natural constituents.

Professor Bassam El Ali

52

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

All crude oils and fats obtained after rendering,

crushing or solvent extraction, inevitably contain

variable amounts of non-glyceridic co-constituents
like:

fatty acids,
partial glycerides (mono- and diglycerides),
phosphatides,
sterols,
hydrocarbons,
pigments (gossypol, chlorophyll), vitamins (carotene),
sterol glucosides, protein fragments, traces of
pesticides and heavy metals.
Professor Bassam El Ali

53

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

The general methods employed to produce edible

oils suitable for human consumption consist of:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

seed preparation
extraction
degumming
neutralization
bleaching
deodorization
hydrogenation and sometimes winterization.

Professor Bassam El Ali

54

18

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Seed Preparation

When oils seeds, which are received at the oil mill, contain
plant residues, damaged seeds, dust, sand, wood, pieces
of metal and foreign seeds.

The oils seeds are carefully cleaned of these materials

using magnets, screens, and aspirator systems.

The cleaned seeds are dried to remove moisture. Next,

the dried oil-seeds are usually decorticated to remove the
hull that surrounds the oilseed meat before being further
processed.

Hulls always contain much less oil than do the kernels or

meats.

Professor Bassam El Ali

55

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction

The raw material for the fat and oil industry comes from
the animals (hogs, sheep and fatty fish); fleshy fruits (palm
and olive); and various oilseeds.
Most oilseeds are grown specifically for processing to oils
and protein meals.
The purpose of oil extraction is two fold.
Firstly is to extract the maximum amount of good quality
oils and then to get maximum value from the residual
press cake or meal.
The following three methods, with varying degree of
mechanical simplicity are used: (1) rendering (2) pressing
with mechanical presses and (3) extracting with a volatile
solvent.
Professor Bassam El Ali
56

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction
The following three methods, with varying degree of

mechanical simplicity are used:

1. rendering
2. pressing with mechanical presses, and
3. extracting with a volatile solvent.

Professor Bassam El Ali

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19

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction-Rendering
The fatty tissues are chopped into small pieces and

are boiled in steam digesters.

The fat is gradually liberated from the cells and floats

to the surface of the water, where it is collected by

skimming.
A similar method is used in the extraction of palm oil

from the fresh palm fruits.

Professor Bassam El Ali

58

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction-Pressing

Oil seeds do not have fat cells like those of animals

for storing fats. Instead oil is stored in microscopic
globules throughout the cells.

The general sequence of modern operations in

pressing oilseeds and nuts is as follows.
1. Preparation of the seed to remove stray bits of metals
and removal of hulls;
2. Reduction of particle size of the kernels (meats) by
grinding;
3. Cooking and pressing in hydraulic or screw presses.
Professor Bassam El Ali

59

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction-Pressing

Oil expressed without heating contains the least amount of

impurities and is often of edible quality without refining or
further processing.
Such oils are known as cold-drawn, cold-pressed, or virgin
oils.
The expressed oil from cooked seeds contains greater
quantities of nonglyceride impurities such as
phospholipids, color bodies and unsaponifiable matter.
Such oils are more highly colored and are not suitable
for edible use.

Professor Bassam El Ali

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OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Extraction-Solvent Extraction

The press cake emerging from a screw press still retains 3

to 15 percent of residual oil.
More complete extraction is done by solvent extraction of
the residues obtained from mechanical pressing.
The common solvent for edible oil is commercial hexane
or heptane, commonly known as petroleum ethers.
After extraction, maximum solvent recovery is necessary
for economical operation.
The solvent is recovered by distillation and is reused. The
extracted oil is mixed with prepress oil for refining. The
extracted meals contain less than 1 percent of residual oil.
Professor Bassam El Ali

61

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)

Degumming reduces mainly the phosphatides and metals

content of the crude oil by mixing it with an acid and water.
The phosphatides are present in free hydratable form (HP)
or in non-hydratable form (NHP), mostly in combination
with some Ca++, Mg++ or Fe++.
In alkali refining, the NHP which remain behind in the oil
after acid treatment, and the free fatty acids formed during
the hydrolysis (lipolysis) of the HP, are further removed by
neutralization.
Degumming consists of treating the oil with a small
amount (0.05%) of concentrated phosphoric acid and
water, followed by centrifugal separation of coagulated
material (lecithin).
Professor Bassam El Ali

62

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
The process is applied to many oils (e.g. soya been

oil) that contain phospholipids in significant amounts.

Refining with alkali removes free fatty acids which are

formed during the lipolysis of the fat or oil before

rendering or extraction.
The oil is treated with an excess of 0.1% caustic soda
solution and the mixture is heated to about 75C to
break any emulsions formed.
The mixture is allowed to settle. The settlings, called
foots, are collected and sold as soapstock.
Professor Bassam El Ali

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OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
After the oil has been refined, it is usually washed

with water to remove traces of alkali and soapstock.

After water washing, the oil may be dried by heating

in a vacuum or by filtering through a dry filter and

material.
In the Enzymatic degumming process, part of the
hydratable phosphatides are enzymatically modified
by removing the fatty acid on the C-2 position of the
glycerol, using a phospholipase A2 enzyme as
biocatalyst. These modified phosphatides facilitate
the removal of the remaining NHP.
Professor Bassam El Ali

64

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
H 2 C-O-OC-R 1

H-C-O-OC-R 2
O
H 2C-O-P-O-X

H 2C-O-OC-R 1

+ H 2O

Phospholipase A2

H-C-OH

O
Buffer Ca/NaOH
(pH = 5)
H 2 C-O-P-O-X
Reaction time min. 3 hrs

HOOC-R 2

OH

OH
Phosphatide

Lyso-lecithin

Professor Bassam El Ali

65

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)

In the soft degumming process, a chelating agent (EDTA)

is added to the oil to remove the cations from the nonhydratable phosphatides.

(phosphatide)2- M++ + EDTA

"catalyst"

phosphatide + EDTA-M++

M++= Ca++, Mg++, Fe++

Professor Bassam El Ali

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OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
T ab le 4.10 - E xa m p le o f E n zy m a tic D eg u m m in g
R ap eseed O il

C ru d e O il

D egu m m ed O il

P h osph olip ids

0 .6%

0 .01-0.02%

24 0 pp m

4-8 pp m

H 2O

0 .1%

0.3%

N ote: P -co nten t = ph osph atide con tent x 10 4 t/25

T able 4.11- Exam ple of Soft D egum m ing

Soybean O il

C rude O il

Phospholipids

0.3%

D egum m ed O il
0.01%

120 ppm

3-5 ppm

Ca

59

0.1

Mg

35

0.02

Fe

1.6

0.04

Professor
BassamxEl10
Ali 4 /25
N ote: P-content = phosphatide
content

67

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
Lecithins

Crude Oil
Water

Drying

Mixing
Separation

hydratable phospholipids (HP)

Water degummed oil

Acid (citric / phosphoric acid):NHP

HP

Mixing

Generalized Flow Sheet

for degumming Process

Mixing

NaOH (pH
FFA

Separation

5)
Soaps
non-hydratable phospholipids (NHP)

Acid degummed oil

Professor Bassam El Ali

Bleaching

68

Deodorisation

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
The refined oils are usually dark in color due to the

presence of some pigmented materials such as

chlorophyll or carotenoids and minor impurities like
residual phosphatides, soaps, metals and oxidation
products.
Bleaching reduces the color by absorbing these

colorants on bleaching earth (bentonite clays) and/or

activated charcoal.
Bleaching clay also absorbs suspended matter and

other minor impurities.

Professor Bassam El Ali

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OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
Natural bleaching clays are aluminum silicates,

containing relatively high amounts of Mg, Ca or Fe.

The clays are generally activated by heat treatment.
The high metal content limits the adsorptive activity of

these clays.
The metals can be removed from the reactive spots

by means of acid treatment, yielding clays with much

higher adsorptive capacity.

Professor Bassam El Ali

70

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Refining (Degumming and Neutralization)
In some cases active carbon is added in the course of

bleaching to improve the removal of blue and green

pigments as well as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Due to high cost and high oil retention, active carbon

is used only in specific cases (e.g. coconut and palm

kernel oil), in combination with bleaching clays,
mostly in a ratio of 1/10 to 1/20.
Bleaching is by far the most expensive process in

refining in terms of utilities cost.

Professor Bassam El Ali

71

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Deodorization

Most fats and oils, even after refining, have characteristic

flavors and odors due to the presence of minor amounts of
free fatty acids, aldehydes, ketones and other compounds.
The concentration of these undesirable substances, found
in most oils, is generally low, between 0.2 and 0.5%.
The efficient removal of undesirable substances depend
on
the vapor pressure of the different minor compounds,
the deodorizing conditions (temperature, pressure,
residence time),
the amount of stripping steam and
the geometry of the vessel.
Professor Bassam El Ali

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OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is used to convert liquid fats to plastic

fats, thereby making them suitable for the

manufacture of margarine or shortening.
Hydrogenated oils and fats also exhibit improved

oxidative stability and color.

Close control of hydrogenation results in highly

specific results. For example, salad and cooking oils

can be improved by controlled hydrogenation.
The most unsaturated fatty acid groups are most

easily hydrogenated.
Professor Bassam El Ali

73

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Hydrogenation

Raney nickel-type and copper-containing catalysts are

normally used.
Variables affecting hydrogenation include the catalyst,
temperature, hydrogen pressure and amount of agitation.
The catalytic hydrogenation is frequently accompanied by
isomerization with a significant increase of melting point,
caused, for example, by oleic (cis) isomerizing to
olaidic (trans) acid.
The trans isomers are much higher melting than natural
cis forms.
H
C
R

H
R'

B
+

H2

H
H C
R

H
C

H
R'

Professor Bassam El Ali

74

OILS AND FATS PROCESSING AND REFINING

Winterization

Winterization is an operation that consists in removing

from certain oils the components that solidify at low
temperatures and therefore a source of turbidity or settling
in the bottle.
The process consists in filtering cooled oil under strict
control.
Winterizing is not practiced so widely in hot countries and
its application is restricted mainly to sunflower, maize,
cotton, olive, ricebran and partially hydrogenated soybean
oils.
A winterized oil should remain clear for at least 24 hrs at
0C. This corresponds to a wax content of below 50 ppm.
Professor Bassam El Ali

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CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

76

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS
Fats and oil stability: the capability of a fat, oil, or fatty

food to maintain a fresh taste and odor during storage

and use.
The ester linkages of triglycerides can be subjected to
hydrolysis liberating free fatty acids (lipolysis), or may
undergo oxidation forming peroxides and aldehydes
(oxidation).
Lipolytic spoilage is known as lipolytic rancidity, or
hydrolytic rancidity.
Lipolysis can occur from chemical, enzymatic, or
thermal stress actions.
Professor Bassam El Ali

77

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS

Fats and oils also can become rancid due to oxidation

and this oxidative spoilage is known as oxidative rancidity.

Lipolytic rancidity usually poses less of a flavor problem

than oxidative rancidity.

Oxidation of fats and oils is the major cause by which the

ester linkages of triglycerides in polyunsaturated oil
deteriorate.

The reaction of oxygen with unsaturated fatty acids in fats

and oils proceeds through a free-radical chain reaction
mechanism involving three stages: (1) initiation-formation
of free radicals; (2) propagation-free-radical chain
reaction; (3) termination-formation of nonradical products.
Professor Bassam El Ali

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FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS

Hydroperoxides are the major initial reaction products of

fatty acids with oxygen.

The initiation step is the removal of weakly held methylene

hydrogen to produce an allylic radical RH R + H, while
oxygen adds to the double bond to form a diradical.

H
R'

+ O

H
C

R'

O.

Professor Bassam El Ali

79

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS

During propagation, the chain reaction is continued by

R + O2 ROO and ROO + RH ROOH + R and
hydroperoxides, and new hydrocarbon radicals.
The new radical formed then contributes to the chain by
reacting with another oxygen molecule.
Termination occurs when the radicals interact as follows:
R + R RR
ROO + R ROOR
Non radical products
ROO + ROO ROOR + O2

Professor Bassam El Ali

80

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS

Trace metals, especially copper, catalyze autoxidation by

reacting with hydroperoxides to create new free radicals and
initiate new chain reactions.
M+ + ROOH RO + OH- + M2+ (metal ion is oxidized)
M2+ + ROOH ROO + H+ + M+ (metal ion is reduced)
2 ROOH RO + ROO + H2O : Net reaction

Citric acid is often added as a metal sequestrant to effectively

inactivate trace metal ions.

Antioxidants are used to stabilize fats and fat-containing

products against oxidation and thereby prolong their stability and
storage time.

Professor Bassam El Ali

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27

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS

An antioxidant (AH) acts as free radical traps to terminate

oxidation chain reactions:
R + AH RH + A
RO + AH ROH + A
ROO + AH ROOH + A
R + A RA
RO + A ROA
The major food grade synthetic antioxidants used include
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), propyl gallate (PG), and 2, 4,5-tri hydroxy
butylophenone (THBP).

Professor Bassam El Ali

82

FATS AND OILS STABILITY AND

ANTIOXIDANTS
OH
(a)

OH

CO O R

OH
(b)

C(CH 3 ) 3

(CH 3 ) 3 C

C(CH 3 ) 3
HO

C(CH 3 ) 3
O CH 3

OCH3

BHA
B utylated H ydroxyanisole
(a) 2-teritary-4-hy droxyanisol
(b) 3-tertiary-4-hydroxy anisol
OH

OH
OH

O CH 3
BH T
B utylated hydroxy toluene

G allates
Esters of 3,4,5-tri-hy droxybenzoic acid
R = C 3 H 7 (Propy l)
= C 8 H 17 (O ctyl)
= C 12 H 25 (D odecy l)

2,6-ditertiary-buty l-4-m ethy lphenol

C O (C H 2 ) 3 C H 3
C (C H 3 ) 3

CH 3
OH

OH

C 2H 5 O
C (C H 3 ) 3

(C H 3 ) 3 C
HO

OH

OH

Ethoxyquin

C(CH 3 ) 3

(C H 3 ) 3 C
HO

(C H 3 ) 2

C H 2O H
TB H Q
TH BP
Ionox-100
Tertiary butylhydroquinone Trihydroxybutyrophenone
2,4,5-trihydroxy butyrophenone

CH2

CH2

OH

C(CH 3 ) 3
Ionox-201
Professor Bassam El Ali
Structures of som e synthetic antioxidants

(C H 3 ) 3 C

83

CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

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28

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis
Gas chromatography of fatty acids and the HPLC of

triglycerides are used to estimate the selected

functional groups or calculate the oils or fats contents.
Saponification Number (SN)
This is the weight of KOH (in mg) needed to

hydrolyze a one-gram sample of an oil or fat.

The higher the SN, the lower the average molecular

weight of the fatty acid in the triglycerides.

Professor Bassam El Ali

85

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis
Acid Value (AV)
This value is important for determination of free fatty
acids (FFA) in crude and refined oils and fats.
It is the number of milligrams of KOH needed to
neutralize the organic acids present in 1 g of oil or fat.
FFA is calculated as free oleic acid and reported as a
percentage. The AV is determined by multiplying %
FFA with a factor of 1.99.

Professor Bassam El Ali

86

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis

Table 4.12- Iodine (IN) and

Saponification Numbers (SN) of
Various Edible Fats and Oils

Oil/Fat

IN

Coconut

256

Palm Kernel

250

17

Cocoa

194

37

Palm

199

55

Olive

190

84

Peanut

192

156

Rapeseed

225

30

Sunflower

190

132

Soya

192

134

Butter

225

30

Professor Bassam El Ali

SN

87

29

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis
Hydroxyl Number (OHN)
This number reflects the content of hydroxy fatty acids,
fatty alcohols, mono- and diacylglycerols and free glycerol.
Color Reactions
The Halphen test for detecting cottonseed oil is one
example.
This test estimates the presence of cottonseed oil in
vegetable or animal fats or oils as the result of a pink color
formed between the reagent (sulfur and carbon disulfide)
and cyclopropenoic fatty acids normally present in
cottonseed oil.
Professor Bassam El Ali

88

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis
Composition of Fatty Acids

The saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with 8 to 24

carbon atoms in animal fats, vegetable oils, marine oils
and fatty acids are quantitatively determined by gas
chromatography (GC) after conversion to their methyl
ester forms.

Free fatty acid analysis is also possible by using specially

selected stationary solid phases. A capillary gas liquid
chromatographic method is also used to measure fatty
acid composition and levels of trans unsaturation and cis,
cis methylene-interrupted unsaturation of vegetable oils.
Professor Bassam El Ali

89

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Identification and Compositional Analysis
Physical Tests for identification
Specific density, index of refraction, color, viscosity
and melting point tests are used to identify fats and
oils.
The Solid Fat Index (SFI) estimates the percent of
solids in a semisolid fat on the basis of changes in
volume with temperatures. This is of importance in
fat hydrogenation and interesterification processes.

Professor Bassam El Ali

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30

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Quality Control Tests
Lipolysis
Free fatty acids (FFA) results from lipolysis
(hydrolysis) of oils and fats. This is determined by the
FFA or Acid Value.
The crude oils and animal fats usually have a FFA
content exceeding 1%.
The FFA content is lowered to less than 0.1% by the
refining of oil or fat.

Professor Bassam El Ali

91

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Quality Control Tests
Peroxide Value
The method for determination of peroxide
concentration is based on the reduction of the
hydroperoxide group with HI (or KI) to liberate free
iodine, which may be titrated.
The peroxide value is expressed in terms of a
milliequivalent of iodine formed per kilogram of fat.

Professor Bassam El Ali

92

METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF

FATS AND OILS
Quality Control Tests
Shelf Stability Test
Shelf life prediction is determined by Active Oxygen
Method (AOM).
The fat or oil is subjected to an accelerated oxidation
test under standardized conditions so that the signs
of deterioration are revealed within several hours or
days.
The sample is heated at 97.8C while air is blown
through it. The AOM Value is reported as the number
of hours to reach a peroxide value of 100 meq/kg.
Professor Bassam El Ali

93

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CHAPTER 4
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCERIDES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIGLYCERIDES
SOURCES OF EDIBLE OILS AND MAIN FATS
OILS AND FATS-PROCESSING AND REFINING
OILS AND FATS STABILITY AND ANTIOXIDANTS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF OILS

AND FATS
Professor Bassam El Ali

94

32