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POLITICS

The Black Family in the Age of Mass

Incarceration
American politicians are now eager to disown a failed criminal-justice system
thats left the U.S. with the largest incarcerated population in the world. But
they've failed to reckon with history. Fifty years after Daniel Patrick
Moynihans report The Negro Family tragically helped create this system,
it's time to reclaim his original intent.

Clara Newton at her home outside Baltimore, holding a picture of her son Odell, who has been in prison for 41
years for a crime he committed when he was 16. State officials have recommended Odell for release three times
since 1992, but he has not been freed. August 4, 2015.
Greg Kahn

TA-NEHISI COATES
OCTOBER 2015 ISSUE
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Nevermarryagaininslavery.
MargaretGarner,1858
Whereverthelawis,crimecanbefound.
AleksandrSolzhenitsyn,1973
CHAPTERS

I. Lower-class behavior in our cities is shaking them apart.

II. We are incarcerating too few criminals.
III. You dont take a shower after 9 oclock.
IV. The crime-stained blackness of the Negro
V. The baddest generation any society has ever known.
VI. Its like Im in prison with him.
VII. Our value system became surviving versus living.
VIII. The Negro poor having become more openly violent.
IX. Now comes the proposition that the Negro is entitled to damages.

I.
LOWER-CLASS BEHAVIOR IN OUR CITIES IS SHAKING THEM APART.
Byhisownlights,DanielPatrickMoynihan,ambassador,senator,
sociologist,anditinerantAmericanintellectual,was theproductofabroken
homeandapathologicalfamily[1] .Hewasborn
[1] James Pattersons Freedom Is

Not Enough furnished much of the

biographical information in this
section. Pattersons book is
deeply sympathetic to Moynihan in
ways that I dont quite agree with,

in1927inTulsa,Oklahoma,butraisedmostlyin
NewYorkCity.WhenMoynihanwas10years
old,hisfather,John,leftthefamily,plungingit
intopoverty.Moynihansmother,Margaret,

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but I found it invaluable for

understanding Moynihan as a
human.

remarried,hadanotherchild,divorced,movedto
Indianatostaywithrelatives,thenreturnedto
NewYork,wheresheworkedasanurse.

Moynihanschildhoodatangleofpoverty,remarriage,relocation,and
singlemotherhoodcontrastedstarklywiththeidyllicAmericanfamilylife
hewouldlaterextol.Myrelationsareobviouslythoseofdividedallegiance,
Moynihanwroteinadiaryhekeptduringthe1950s.ApparentlyIlovedthe
oldmanverymuchyethadtotakesideschoosingmominspiteofloving
pop.Inthesamejournal,Moynihan,subjectinghimselftothesortof
analysistowhichhewouldsoonsubjectothers,wrote,Bothmymotherand
fatherTheyletmedownbadlyIfindthroughtheyearsthisenormous
emotionalattachmenttoFathersubstitutesofwhomtheleastrejectionwas
causeforuntoldagoniestheonlyansweristhatIhaverepressedmyfeelings
towardsdad.

More from Ta-Nehisi Coatess October cover story

Read more

Asateenager,Moynihandividedhistimebetweenhisstudiesandworkingat
thedocksinManhattantohelpouthisfamily.In1943,hetestedintotheCity
CollegeofNewYork,walkingintotheexaminationroomwitha
longshoremansloadinghookinhisbackpocketsothathewouldnotbe
mistakenforanysissykid.AfterayearatCCNY,heenlistedintheNavy,
whichpaidforhimtogotoTuftsUniversityforabachelorsdegree.He
stayedforamastersdegreeandthenstartedadoctorateprogram,which
tookhimtotheLondonSchoolofEconomics,wherehedidresearch.In
1959,MoynihanbeganwritingforIrvingKristolsmagazineTheReporter,
coveringeverythingfromorganizedcrimetoautosafety.TheelectionofJohn
F.Kennedyaspresident,in1960,gaveMoynihanachancetoputhisbroad
curiositytopracticaluse;hewashiredasanaideintheDepartmentofLabor.
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Moynihanwas,bythen,ananticommunistliberalwithastrongbeliefinthe
powerofgovernmenttobothstudyandsolvesocialproblems.Hewasalso
somethingofascenester.Hisfearofbeingtakenforasissykidhad
diminished.InLondon,hedcultivatedaloveofwine,finecheeses,tailored
suits,andthemannerismsofanEnglisharistocrat.Hestoodsixfeetfive
inchestall.Aculturedcivilservantnottothemanorborn,Moynihanwitty,
colorful,loquaciouscharmedtheWashingtonelite,movingeasilyamong
congressionalaides,politicians,andjournalists.AsthehistorianJames
PattersonwritesinFreedomIsNotEnough,hisbookaboutMoynihan,hewas
possessedbytheoptimismofyouth.Hebelievedinthemarriageof
governmentandsocialsciencetoformulatepolicy.Allmanneroflater
experiencesinpoliticsweretotestthisyouthfulfaith.
MoynihanstayedonattheLaborDepartmentduringLyndonB.Johnsons
administration,butbecameincreasinglydisillusionedwithJohnsonsWaron
Poverty.Hebelievedthattheinitiativeshouldberunthroughanestablished
societalinstitution:thepatriarchalfamily.Fathersshouldbesupportedby
publicpolicy,intheformofjobsfundedbythegovernment.Moynihan
believedthatunemployment,specificallymaleunemployment,wasthe
biggestimpedimenttothesocialmobilityofthepoor.Hewas,itmightbe
said,aconservativeradicalwhodisdainedserviceprogramssuchasHead
StartandtraditionalwelfareprogramssuchasAidtoFamiliesWith
DependentChildren,andinsteadimaginedabroadnationalprogramthat
subsidizedfamiliesthroughjobsprogramsformenandaguaranteed
minimumincomeforeveryfamily.

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Daniel Patrick Moynihan, as an adviser to President Nixon, promoted a guaranteed minimum income
for all families, in part to help unravel the tangle of pathology he had famously diagnosed in his
report on The Negro Family. August 25, 1969. (Associated Press)

Influencedbythecivil-rightsmovement,Moynihanfocusedontheblack
family.Hebelievedthatanundueoptimismaboutthependingpassageof
civil-rightslegislationwasobscuringapressingproblem:adeficitof
employedblackmenofstrongcharacter.Hebelievedthatthisdeficitwenta
longwaytowardexplainingtheAfricanAmericancommunitysrelative
poverty.Moynihanbegansearchingforawaytopressthepointwithinthe
Johnsonadministration.IfeltIhadtowriteapaperabouttheNegrofamily,
Moynihanlaterrecalled,toexplaintothefellowshowtherewasaproblem
moredifficultthantheyknew.InMarchof1965,Moynihanprintedup100
copiesofareportheandasmallstaffhadlaboredoverforonlyafewmonths.
RELATED STORY

The Moynihan Report: An Annotated Edition

ThereportwascalledTheNegroFamily:TheCaseforNationalAction.
Unsigned,itwasmeanttobeaninternalgovernmentdocument,withonly
onecopydistributedatfirstandtheother99keptlockedinavault.Running
againstthetideofoptimismaroundcivilrights,TheNegroFamilyargued
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thatthefederalgovernmentwasunderestimatingthedamagedonetoblack
familiesbythreecenturiesofsometimesunimaginablemistreatmentas
wellasaracistvirusintheAmericanbloodstream,whichwouldcontinue
toplagueblacksinthefuture:

ThattheNegroAmericanhassurvivedatallisextraordinarya
lesserpeoplemightsimplyhavediedout,asindeedothershave
ButitmaynotbesupposedthattheNegroAmericancommunity
hasnotpaidafearfulpricefortheincrediblemistreatmentto
whichithasbeensubjectedoverthepastthreecenturies.

ThatpricewascleartoMoynihan.TheNegrofamily,batteredandharassed
bydiscrimination,injustice,anduprooting,isinthedeepesttrouble,he
wrote.WhilemanyyoungNegroesaremovingaheadtounprecedented
levelsofachievement,manymorearefallingfurtherandfurtherbehind.
Out-of-wedlockbirthswereontherise,andwiththem,welfaredependency,
whiletheunemploymentrateamongblackmenremainedhigh.Moynihan
believedthatatthecoreofalltheseproblemslayablackfamilystructure
mutatedbywhiteoppression:

Inessence,theNegrocommunityhasbeenforcedintoa
matriarchalstructurewhich,becauseitissooutoflinewiththerest
oftheAmericansociety,seriouslyretardstheprogressofthegroup
asawhole,andimposesacrushingburdenontheNegromaleand,
inconsequence,onagreatmanyNegrowomenaswell.

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Moynihanbelievedthismatriarchalstructurerobbedblackmenoftheir
birthrightTheveryessenceofthemaleanimal,fromthebantamroosterto
thefour-stargeneral,istostrut,hewroteanddeformedtheblackfamily
and,consequently,theblackcommunity.Inwhatwouldbecomethemost
famouspassageinthereport,Moynihanequatedtheblackcommunitywitha
diseasedpatient:

Inaword,mostNegroyouthareindangerofbeingcaughtupinthe
tangleofpathologythataffectstheirworld,andprobablya
majorityaresoentrapped.Manyofthosewhoescapedosoforone
generationonly:asthingsnoware,theirchildrenmayhavetorun
thegauntletalloveragain.Thatisnottheleastviciousaspectofthe
worldthatwhiteAmericahasmadefortheNegro.
RELATED STORY

The Other Half of the Moynihan Report

Despiteitsalarmingpredictions,TheNegroFamilywasacurious
governmentreportinthatitadvocatednospecificpoliciestoaddressthe
crisisitdescribed.Thiswasintentional.Moynihanhadlotsofideasabout
whatgovernmentcoulddoprovideaguaranteedminimumincome,
establishagovernmentjobsprogram,bringmoreblackmenintothemilitary,
enablebetteraccesstobirthcontrol,integratethesuburbsbutnoneofthese
ideasmadeitintothereport.Aseriesofrecommendationswasatfirst
included,thenleftout,Moynihanlaterrecalled.Itwouldhavegotinthe
wayoftheattention-arousingargumentthatacrisiswascomingandthat
familystabilitywasthebestmeasureofsuccessorfailureindealingwithit.
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PresidentJohnsonofferedthefirstpublicpreviewoftheMoynihanReportin
aspeechwrittenbyMoynihanandtheformerKennedyaideRichard
GoodwinatHowardUniversityinJuneof1965,inwhichhehighlightedthe
breakdownoftheNegrofamilystructure.Johnsonleftnodoubtabout how
thisbreakdownhadcomeabout[2] .Forthis,
[2] In the quest to understand the
politics around the Moynihan
Report, and how it was written,
Lee Rainwater and William L.
Yanceys investigation, The

Moynihan Report and the Politics

of Controversy proved key. It has
the advantage of being both wellresearched and contemporaneous
the book was published two
years after the Moynihan Report. It

mostofall,whiteAmericamustaccept
responsibility,Johnsonsaid.Familybreakdown
flowsfromcenturiesofoppressionand
persecutionoftheNegroman.Itflowsfromthe
longyearsofdegradationanddiscrimination,
whichhaveattackedhisdignityandassaultedhis
abilitytoproduceforhisfamily.

was a rich source of primary

documents, collecting the
responses to the report for and
against around the time of
publication.

ThepressdidnotgenerallygreetJohnsons
speechasaclaimofwhiteresponsibility,but
ratherasacondemnationofthefailureofNegro
familylife,asthejournalistMaryMcGroryput

it.Thisinterpretationwasreinforcedassecond-andthirdhandaccountsof
theMoynihanReport,whichhadnotbeenmadepublic,beganmakingthe
rounds.OnAugust18,thewidelysyndicatednewspapercolumnistsRowland
EvansandRobertNovakwrotethatMoynihansdocumenthadexposedthe
breakdownoftheNegrofamily,withitshighratesofbrokenhomes,
illegitimacy,andfemale-orientedhomes.Thesedispatchesfellonall-tooreceptiveears.Aweekearlier,thedrunk-drivingarrestofMarquetteFrye,an
AfricanAmericanmaninLosAngeles,hadsparkedsixdaysofriotinginthe
city,whichkilled34people,injured1,000more,andcausedtensofmillions
ofdollarsinpropertydamage.Meanwhile,crimerateshadbeguntorise.
Peoplewhoreadthenewspapersbutwerenotabletoreadthereportcould
anddidconcludethatJohnsonwasconcedingthatnogovernmenteffort
couldmatchthetangleofpathologythatMoynihanhadsaidbesetthe
blackfamily.MoynihansaiminwritingTheNegroFamilyhadbeento
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mustersupportforanall-outgovernmentassaultonthestructuralsocial
problemsthatheldblackfamiliesdown.(Familyasanissueraisedthe
possibilityofenlistingthesupportofconservativegroupsforquiteradical
socialprograms,hewouldlaterwrite.)Insteadhisreportwasportrayedas
anargumentforleavingtheblackfamilytofendforitself.

An interview with Ta-Nehisi Coates, exploring the myth of black criminality.

Moynihanhimselfwaspartlytoblameforthis.Initsbombasticlanguage,its
omissionofpolicyrecommendations,itsimplicationthatblackwomenwere
obstaclestoblackmensassumingtheirproperstation,anditsunnecessarily
coverthandling,theMoynihanReportmilitatedagainstitsauthorsaims.
JamesFarmer,thecivil-rightsactivistandaco-founderoftheCongressof
RacialEquality,attackedthereportfromtheleftasamassiveacademiccopoutforthewhiteconscience.WilliamRyan,thepsychologistwhofirst
articulatedtheconceptofblamingthevictim,accusedMoynihansreport
ofdoingjustthat.MoynihanhadlefttheJohnsonadministrationinthe
summertorunforpresidentoftheNewYorkCityCouncil.Thebidfailed,
andliberalrepudiationsofthereportkeptrainingdown.Iamnowknownas
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aracistacrosstheland,hewroteinalettertothecivil-rightsleaderRoy
Wilkins.

The United States now accounts for less than 5 percent

of the worlds inhabitantsand about 25 percent of its
incarcerated inhabitants.
Infact,thecontroversytransformedMoynihanintooneofthemost
celebratedpublicintellectualsofhisera.Inthesummerof1966,Moynihan
wasfeaturedinTheNewYorkTimes.Inthefallof1967,afterDetroithad
explodedintoriots,LifemagazinedubbedhimtheIdeaBrokerintheRace
Crisis,declaring,AtroublednationturnstoPatMoynihan.Between1965
and1979,TheNewYorkTimesMagazineranfivefeaturesonMoynihan.His
ownwritingwasfeaturedinTheAtlantic,TheNewYorker,Commentary,The
AmericanScholar,TheSaturdayEveningPost,ThePublicInterest,and
elsewhere.Yetdespitethepositivecoverage,Moynihanremaineddistressed
nottohaveanyinfluenceonanybodyinWashington,asheputitina1968
lettertoHarryMcPherson,aJohnsonaide.
Meanwhile,thecivil-rightsmovementwasfadingandtheradicalNewLeft
wasrising.InSeptemberof1967,worriedaboutpoliticalinstabilityinthe
country,Moynihangaveaspeechcallingforliberalsandconservativesto
unitetopreservedemocraticinstitutionsfromtheloomingforcesofthe
authoritarianleftandright.Impressedbythespeech,RichardNixonoffered
MoynihanapostintheWhiteHousethefollowingyear. Moynihanwas,by
then,embitteredbytheattackslaunchedagainsthim[3] and,likeNixon,
horrifiedbythelate-60sradicalspirit.
[3] Two books proved helpful in
understanding Moynihan in his
post-Johnson years. Daniel Patrick

Moynihan: A Portrait in Letters of

ButMoynihanstillprofessedconcernforthe
family,andfortheblackfamilyinparticular.He

an American Visionary edited by

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Steven R. Weisman, and The

Professor and the President:

beganpushingforaminimumincomeforall

Daniel Patrick Moynihan in the

Americanfamilies.NixonpromotedMoynihans

Nixon White House by Stephen

proposalcalledtheFamilyAssistancePlan

Hess. The first is a compilation of

primary sources on Moynihan that

beforetheAmericanpublicinatelevisionaddress

allows one to get past the rhetoric

inAugustof1969,andofficiallypresenteditto

and get to the man, himself.

Weismans book is a sympathetic

CongressinOctober.Thiswasapersonalvictory

memoir of Nixon and Moynihans

forMoynihanatriumphinanargumenthehad

time together in the White House.

beenwagingsincetheWaronPovertybegan,
overtheneedtohelpfamilies,notindividuals.I

feltIwasfinallyridofasubject.Asubjectthatjustspoiledmylife,
MoynihantoldTheNewYorkTimesthatNovember.Fourlongyearsof
beingcalledawfulthings.Thepeopleyouwouldmostwanttoadmireyou
detestingyou.Beinganathematizedandstigmatized.AndIsaid,Well,the
Presidentsdonethis,andnowImridofit.
Buthewasnotridofit.TheFamilyAssistancePlandiedintheSenate.Ina
1972essayinThePublicInterest,Moynihan,whohadbythenlefttheWhite
HouseandwasaprofessoratHarvard,railedagainstthepoverty
professionalswhohadfailedtosupporthiseffortsandtheupper-class
liarswhohadfailedtoseehisperspective.Hepointedoutthathispessimistic
predictionswerenowbecomingreality.Crimewasincreasing.Sowerethe
numberofchildreninpoor,female-headedfamilies.Moynihanissuedadire
warning:Lower-classbehaviorinourcitiesisshakingthemapart.
ButAmericahadanappforthat.
Fromthemid-1970stothemid-80s,Americasincarcerationratedoubled,
fromabout150peopleper100,000toabout300per100,000.Fromthe
mid-80stothemid-90s,itdoubledagain.By2007,ithadreachedahistoric
highof767peopleper100,000,beforeregisteringamodestdeclineto707
peopleper100,000in2012.Inabsoluteterms,Americasprisonandjail
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populationfrom1970untiltodayhasincreasedsevenfold,fromsome
300,000peopleto2.2million.TheUnitedStatesnowaccountsforlessthan
5percentoftheworldsinhabitantsandabout25percentofitsincarcerated
inhabitants.In2000,onein10blackmalesbetweentheagesof20and40
wasincarcerated10timestherateoftheirwhitepeers.In2010,athirdof
allblackmalehigh-schooldropoutsbetweentheagesof20and39were
imprisoned,comparedwithonly13percentoftheirwhitepeers.
OurcarceralstatebanishesAmericancitizenstoagraywastelandfarbeyond
thepromisesandprotectionsthegovernmentgrantsitsothercitizens.
Banishmentcontinueslongafteronesactualtimebehindbarshasended,
makinghousingandemploymenthardtosecure.Andbanishmentwasnot
simplyawell-intendedresponsetorisingcrime.Itwasthemethodbywhich
wechosetoaddresstheproblemsthatpreoccupiedMoynihan,problems
resultingfromthreecenturiesofsometimesunimaginablemistreatment.
Atacostof$80billionayear,Americancorrectionalfacilitiesareasocialserviceprogramprovidinghealthcare,meals,andshelterforawholeclass
ofpeople.
Asthecivil-rightsmovementwounddown,Moynihanlookedoutandsawa
blackpopulationreelingundertheeffectsof350yearsofbondageand
plunder.Hebelievedthattheseeffectscouldbeaddressedthroughstate
action.Theywerethroughthemassincarcerationofmillionsofblack
people.

II.
WE ARE INCARCERATING TOO FEW CRIMINALS.
TheGrayWastesourcarceralstate,asprawlingnetherworldofprisonsand
jailsarearelativelyrecentinvention.Throughthemiddleofthe20th
century,Americasimprisonmentratehoveredatabout110peopleper
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100,000.Presently,Americasincarcerationrate(whichaccountsforpeople
inprisonsandjails)isroughly12timestherateinSweden,eighttimesthe
rateinItaly,seventimestherateinCanada,fivetimestherateinAustralia,
andfourtimestherateinPoland.Americasclosestto-scalecompetitoris
RussiaandwithanautocraticVladimirPutinlockingupabout450people
per100,000,comparedwithour700orso,itisntmuchofacompetition.
ChinahasaboutfourtimesAmericaspopulation,butAmericanjailsand
prisonsholdhalfamillionmorepeople.Inshort,anauthoritativereport
issuedlastyearbytheNationalResearchCouncilconcluded,thecurrent
U.S.rateofincarcerationisunprecedentedbybothhistoricaland
comparativestandards.
Whatcausedthis?Crimewouldseemtheobviousculprit:Between1963and
1993,themurderratedoubled,therobberyratequadrupled,andthe
aggravated-assaultratenearlyquintupled.Buttherelationshipbetween
crimeandincarcerationismorediscordantthanitappears.Imprisonment
ratesactuallyfellfromthe1960sthroughtheearly70s,evenasviolent
crimeincreased.Fromthemid-70stothelate80s,bothimprisonmentrates
andviolent-crimeratesrose.Then,fromtheearly90stothepresent,
violent-crimeratesfellwhileimprisonmentratesincreased.

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(Robert Sampson. Data from: Bureau of Justice Statistics; Sourcebook of Criminal Justice
Statistics; Uniform Crime Reporting System.)

Theincarcerationrateroseindependentofcrimebutnotofcriminal-justice
policy.[4] DerekNeal,aneconomistatthe
[4] For more, see Derek Neal and
Armin Ricks working paper The
Prison Boom & the Lack of Black
Progress after Smith and Welch.
Its a very technical paper, but
indispensable for understanding
how we got here.

UniversityofChicago,hasfoundthatbytheearly
2000s,asuiteoftough-on-crimelawshadmade
prisonsentencesmuchmorelikelythaninthe
past.Examiningasampleofstates,Nealfound
thatfrom1985to2000,thelikelihoodofalong
prisonsentencenearlydoubledfordrug

possession,tripledfordrugtrafficking,andquintupledfornonaggravated
assault.
Thatexplosioninratesanddurationofimprisonmentmightbejustifiedon
groundsofcoldpragmatismifapolicyofmassincarcerationactuallycaused
crimetodecline.Whichispreciselywhatsomepoliticiansandpolicymakers
ofthetough-on-crime90swereclaiming.Askmanypoliticians,newspaper
editors,orcriminaljusticeexpertsaboutourprisons,andyouwillhearthat
ourproblemisthatweputtoomanypeopleinprison,a1992Justice
Departmentreportread.Thetruth,however,istothecontrary;weare
incarceratingtoofewcriminals,andthepublicissufferingasaresult.
Historyhasnotbeenkindtothisconclusion.[5]
[5] For more see Michael Tonry
and David P. Farringtons
Punishment and Crime across

Theriseandfallincrimeinthelate20thcentury
wasaninternationalphenomenon.Crimerates

Space and Time. For calculations

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on the effects of mass

incarceration on crime, see Bruce

roseandfellintheUnitedStatesandCanadaat

Western Punishment and

roughlythesameclipbutinCanada,

Inequality in America, Chapter 7

imprisonmentratesheldsteady.Ifgreatly

Did the Prison Boom Cause the

Crime Drop? Beyond the

increasedseverityofpunishmentandhigher

numbers on this, Westerns text

imprisonmentratescausedAmericancrimerates

was indispensible in helping me

understand the mechanics of mass

tofallafter1990,theresearchersMichael

incarceration and how it affected

TonryandDavidP.Farringtonhavewritten,then

the lives of young black men.

whatcausedtheCanadianratestofall?The
riddleisnotparticulartoNorthAmerica.Inthe

latterhalfofthe20thcentury,crimeroseandthenfellinNordiccountriesas
well.Duringtheperiodofrisingcrime,incarcerationratesheldsteadyin
Denmark,Norway,andSwedenbutdeclinedinFinland.Ifpunishment
affectscrime,Finlandscrimerateshouldhaveshotup,Tonryand
Farringtonwrite,butitdidnot.AfterstudyingCaliforniastoughThree
StrikesandYoureOutlawwhichmandatedatleasta25-yearsentencefor
athirdstrikeableoffense,suchasmurderorrobberyresearchersatUC
BerkeleyandtheUniversityofSydney,inAustralia,determinedin2001that
thelawhadreducedtherateoffelonycrimebynomorethan2percent.
BruceWestern,asociologistatHarvardandoneoftheleadingacademic
expertsonAmericanincarceration,lookedatthegrowthinstateprisonsin
recentyearsandconcludedthata66percentincreaseinthestateprison
populationbetween1993and2001hadreducedtherateofseriouscrimeby
amodest2to5percentatacosttotaxpayersof$53billion.

From the mid-1970s to the mid-80s, Americas

incarceration rate doubled. From the mid-80s to the
mid-90s, it doubled again. Then it went still higher.
Thisbloatingoftheprisonpopulationmaynothavereducedcrimemuch,but
itincreasedmiseryamongthegroupthatsoconcernedMoynihan.Amongall
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blackmalesbornsincethelate1970s,oneinfourwenttoprisonbytheir
mid-30s;amongthosewhodroppedoutofhighschool,sevenin10did.
Prisonisnolongerarareorextremeeventamongournationsmost
marginalizedgroups,DevahPager,asociologistatHarvard,haswritten.
Ratherithasnowbecomeanormalandanticipatedmarkerinthetransition
toadulthood.
Theemergenceofthecarceralstatehashadfar-reachingconsequencesfor
theeconomicviabilityofblackfamilies.Employmentandpovertystatistics
traditionallyomittheincarceratedfromtheofficialnumbers.WhenWestern
recalculatedthejoblessratesfortheyear2000toincludeincarceratedyoung
blackmen,hefoundthatjoblessnessamongallyoungblackmenwentfrom
24to32percent;amongthosewhoneverwenttocollege,itwentfrom30to
42percent.Theupshotisstark.Eveninthebooming90s,whennearlyevery
Americandemographicgroupimproveditseconomicposition,blackmen
wereleftout.TheillusionofwageandemploymentprogressamongAfrican
Americanmaleswasmadepossibleonlythroughtheerasureofthemost
vulnerableamongthemfromtheofficialstatistics.
Theseconsequencesforblackmenhaveradiatedouttotheirfamilies.By
2000,morethan1millionblackchildrenhadafatherinjailorprisonand
roughlyhalfofthosefatherswerelivinginthesamehouseholdastheirkids
whentheywerelockedup.Paternalincarcerationisassociatedwithbehavior
problemsanddelinquency,especiallyamongboys.

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Baltimore police respond to a call at the Gilmor Homes, where Freddie Gray was arrested before
sustaining a fatal spinal injury in April while in police custody. July 28, 2015. (Greg Kahn)

Morethanhalfoffathersinstateprisonreportbeingtheprimary
breadwinnerintheirfamily,theNationalResearchCouncilreportnoted.
Shouldthefamilyattempttostaytogetherthroughincarceration,thelossof
incomeonlyincreases,asthemothermustpayforphonetime,travelcosts
forvisits,andlegalfees.Theburdencontinuesafterthefatherreturnshome,
because acriminalrecordtendstoinjureemploymentprospects.[6] Through
itall,thechildrensuffer.
[6] For more the National Research
Councils The Growth of
Incarceration in the United States
is really an atlas of the Gray
Wastes. Written by a committee of
some of the most distinguished
scholars on the subject, the report
addresses any question you could
possibly have about mass
incarceration. You can read it
straight through. But it works just
as well as an encyclopedia.

Manyfatherssimplyfallthroughthecracksafter
theyrereleased.Itisestimatedthatbetween30
and50percentofallparoleesinLosAngelesand
SanFranciscoarehomeless.Inthatcontext
employmentprospectsdiminished,cutofffrom
oneschildren,nowheretoliveonecanreadily
seethedifficultyofeludingtheever-present
graspofincarceration,evenonceanindividualis

physicallyoutofprison.Manydonoteludeitsgrasp.In1984,70percentof
allparoleessuccessfullycompletedtheirtermwithoutarrestandwere
grantedfullfreedom.In1996,only44percentdid.Asof2013,33percent
do.

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TheGrayWastesdifferinbothsizeandmissionfromthepenalsystemsof
earliereras.AsAfricanAmericansbeganfillingcellsinthe1970s,
rehabilitationwaslargelyabandonedinfavorofretributiontheideathat
prisonshouldnotreformconvictsbutpunishthem.Forinstance,inthe
1990s,SouthCarolinacutbackonin-prisoneducation,bannedair
conditioners,jettisonedtelevisions,anddiscontinuedintramuralsports.
Overthenext10years,CongressrepeatedlyattemptedtopassaNoFrills
PrisonAct,whichwouldhavegrantedextrafundstostatecorrectional
systemsworkingtopreventluxuriousconditionsinprisons.Agoalofthis
penalharmmovement,onecriminal-justiceresearcherwroteatthetime,
wastofindcreativestrategiestomakeoffenderssuffer.

III.
YOU DONT TAKE A SHOWER AFTER 9 OCLOCK.
Lastwinter,IvisitedDetroittotakethemeasureoftheGrayWastes.
Michigan,withanincarcerationrateof628peopleper100,000,isabout
averageforanAmericanstate.IdrovetotheEastSidetotalkwithawoman
IllcallTonya,whohaddone18yearsformurderandagunchargeandhad
beenreleasedfivemonthsearlier.Shehadanenergeticsmileandanedgeto
hervoicethatevidencedthetimeshedspentlockedup.Violence,forher,
commencednotinthestreets,butathome.Therewasabuseinmy
grandmothershome,andIwenttoschoolandItoldmyteacher,she
explained.IhadaspotonmynosebecauseIhadalitcigarettestuckonmy
nose,andwhenItoldher,theysentmetoatemporaryfoster-carehome
Thefosterparentwasalsoabusive,soIjustranawayfromherandjuststayed
onthestreets.
Tonyabeganusingcrack.Onenightshegatheredwithsomefriendsfora
party.Theysmokedcrack.Theysmokedmarijuana.Theydrank.Atsome
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point,thewomanhostingthepartyclaimedthatsomeonehadstolenmoney
fromherhome.AnotherwomanaccusedTonyaofstealingit.Afightensued.
Tonyashotthewomanwhohadaccusedher.Shegot20yearsforthemurder
andtwoforthegun.Afterthetrial,thetruthcameout.Thehosthadhidden
themoney,butwassohighthatshedforgotten.
Whenthedoorsfinallycloseandonefindsoneselffacingbanishmenttothe
carceralstatetheyears,thewalls,therules,theguards,theinmates
reactionsvary.Someexperienceanintensesickeningfeeling.Others,a
strongdesiretosleep.Visionsofsuicide.Adeepshame.Aragedirected
towardguardsandotherinmates.Utterdisbelief.Theincarceratedattempt
toholdontofamilyandoldsocialtiesthroughphonecallsandvisitations.At
first,friendsandfamilydotheirbesttokeepup.Butphonecallstoprisonare
expensive,andmanyprisonsarelocatedfarfromoneshometown.

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Over the past half century, deindustrialization has ravaged much of Detroit. African Americans have
had to deal not just with vanishing jobs but with persistent racism. (Greg Kahn)

FirstIwouldgetone[visit]likeeveryfourmonths,Tonyaexplainedtome.
AndthenIwouldntgetnoneforlikemaybeayear.Youknow,becauseit
wastoofaraway.AndIstartedtohavelosses.Ilostmymom,mybrothers
Soitwashard,youknow,formetogetvisits.
Asthevisitsandphonecallsdiminish,theincarceratedbeginstoadjusttothe
factthatheorsheis,indeed,aprisoner.Newsocialtiesarecultivated.New
rulesmustbeunderstood.Ablizzardofacronyms,sayings,andjargonPBF,
CSC,ERD,lettersbutnonumbersmustbecomprehended.Iftheprisoner
islucky,someoneacellmate,anolderprisonerhailingfromthesame
neighborhoodtakeshimunderhiswing.Thiscanbethedifferencebetween
survivalandcatastrophe.OnRichardBracefulsfirstnightinCarsonCity
CorrectionalFacility,incentralMichigan,wherehehadbeensentawayat
age29forarmedrobbery,hedecidedtotakeashower.Itwas10p.m.His
cellmatestoppedhim.Whereareyougoing?thecellmateasked.Im
goingtotakeashower,Bracefulresponded.Hiscellmate,a14-yearveteran
oftheprisonsystem,blockedhiswayandsaid,Yourenotgoingtotakea
shower.Braceful,readingthesigns,feltafightwasimminent.Calm
down,hiscellmatetoldhim.Youdonttakeashowerafter9oclock.
Peoplethataresexualpredators,peoplethatarerapists,theygointhe
showersrightbehindyou.Bracefulandtheveteransatdown.Theveteran
lookedathim.Itsyourfirsttimebeinglockedup,aintit?hesaid.Yeah,it
is,Bracefulresponded.Theveteransaidtohim,Listen,thisiswhatyou
havetodo.Forthenextcoupleofweeks,juststaywithme.Ivebeenherefor
14years.Illlookoutforyouuntilyoulearnhowtomovearoundinhere
withoutgettingyourselfhurt.
Michiganprisonsassigneachinmatetoalevelcorrespondingtothesecurity
risktheinmateisbelievedtopose.Asthelevelsdecrease,privilegesyard
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time,forinstanceincrease.LevelVismaximumsecurity.LevelIisfor
prisonerswhowillsoonbereleased.AtLevelIV,youwillfindmanyprisoners
withlifesentencesandnotmanyprisonerswithfewerthanfiveyearsleftto
serve.AprisonerwithalifesentencewhohasreachedLevelIIhasgenerally
provedthatheorsheisnotadangertoothers.Butthereareveryfewsuch
prisoners,becauseitisveryhardtoremainatthemoredraconianlevels
withoutacquiringticketsdemeritsforviolatingprisonprotocol,often
involvingfighting.Itshardtostayticket-freefor10yearswithout
somebodygettingstabbed,somebodygettingintoafight,Braceful,whois
nowoutofprison,explainedtomewhenIvisitedhiminDetroitlast
December.Becausetherearepeoplethataretherewhomightlookatyou
andgo,Hesasmallguy.Imgonnatakeadvantageofhim.
Whenthishappens,aprisonercandecideeithertodefendhimselfortolock
upthatis,toreporttotheguardsthathefearsforhissafety.Theguards
willthenplacetheprisonerinsolitaryconfinementforhisownprotection.
Thosearemyonlytwochoices,Bracefulexplained.Andifyoulockup,
everybodyknowyoulockup.Whenyoucomebackout,yougonnahavea
biggerproblem.
Becauseyoureprey,Isaid.
Exactly,heresponded.Soyoufight,youknow.Andwhenthefightgets
seriousenough,yougottafindsomethingtostabwith,yougottafind
something,youknow,yougottamakeyourweapon,yougottado
something.

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Richard Braceful, who served several years in the Michigan prison system, photographed at his home
in Detroit. August 9, 2015. (Greg Kahn)

Michiganleadsthecountryintheaveragelengthofaprisonstay4.3years
yetmostprisonersdoeventuallysaygoodbye.Theblissoffreedom,thejoyof
familyreunion,canquicklybetemperedbythechallengeofstayingfree.The
transitioncanbejarring.Ipanicked,Tonyatoldme,speakingofhowitfelt
tobeoutofprisonafter18years.Iwasonlyusedtoacellasopposedto
havingmultiplerooms,andtherewasalwayssomebodytherewithmeinthe
cellwhetheritwasabunkieorofficer,somebodysalwaysinthisbuilding.
Togofromthattothis?Istayedonthephone.Imadepeoplecallme,you
know.Itwasscary.AndIstillexperiencethattothisday.Everybodylooks
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suspecttome.Imlike,Hesuptosomething.Afriendofminetoldme,
Youvebeengonealongtime,overadecade,soitsgonnatakeyouabout
twoyearsforyoutoreadjust.
Thechallengesofhousingandemploymentbedevilmanyex-offenders.Its
verycommonforthemtogohomeless,LindaVanderWaal,theassociate
directorofprisonerreentryatacommunity-actionagencyinMichigan,told
me.Inthewinter,VanderWaalsays,shehasaparticularlyhardtimefinding
placestoaccommodateallthehomelessex-prisoners.Thosewhodofinda
placetoliveoftenfinditdifficulttopaytheirrent.
Thecarceralstatehas,ineffect,becomeacredentialinginstitutionas
significantasthemilitary,publicschools,oruniversitiesbutthe
credentialingthatprisonorjailoffersisnegative.Inherbook,Marked:Race,
Crime,andFindingWorkinanEraofMassIncarceration,DevahPager,the
Harvardsociologist,notesthatmostemployerssaythattheywouldnothirea
jobapplicantwithacriminalrecord.Theseemployersappearlessconcerned
aboutspecificinformationconveyedbyacriminalconvictionanditsbearing
onaparticularjob,Pagerwrites,butratherviewthiscredentialasan
indicatorofgeneralemployabilityortrustworthiness.

One in four black men born since the late 1970s has
spent time in prison.
Ex-offendersareexcludedfromawidevarietyofjobs,runningthegamut
fromseptic-tankcleanertobarbertoreal-estateagent,dependingonthe
state.Andinthelimitedjobpoolthatex-offenderscanswimin,blacksand
whitesarenotequal.Forherresearch,Pagerpulledtogetherfourtestersto
poseasmenlookingforlow-wagework.Onewhitemanandoneblackman
wouldposeasjobseekerswithoutacriminalrecord,andanotherblackman
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andwhitemanwouldposeasjobseekerswithacriminalrecord.Thenegative
credentialofprisonimpairedtheemploymenteffortsofboththeblackman
andthewhiteman,butitimpairedthoseoftheblackmanmore.Startlingly,
theeffectwasnotlimitedtotheblackmanwithacriminalrecord.Theblack
manwithoutacriminalrecordfaredworsethanthewhitemanwithone.
Highlevelsofincarcerationcastashadowofcriminalityoverallblackmen,
implicatingeventhose(inthemajority)whohaveremainedcrimefree,
Pagerwrites.Effectively, thejobmarketinAmericaregardsblackmenwho
haveneverbeencriminalsasthoughtheywere[7] .
[7] Devah Pagers book Marked
gives some sense of how the
effects of mass incarceration have
spread beyond the prisons, and
even beyond the previously
imprisoned, and now affect those
who are thought to have been
imprisoned. One of the great
challenges reformers will have to
face is not merely reforming the
prison system, but reckoning with
the broad secondary damage

Justasex-offendershadtolearntoacculturate
themselvestoprison,theyhavetolearntoreacculturatethemselvestotheoutside.Butthe
attitudethathelpsonesurviveinprisonisalmost
theoppositeofthekindneededtomakeit
outside.CraigHaney,aprofessoratUCSanta
Cruzwhostudiesthecognitiveandpsychological
effectsofincarceration, hasobserved:[8]

wrought by our policies.

[8] From Craig Haneys book

Reforming Punishment:
Psychological Limits to the Pains
of Imprisonment

Atoughveneerthatprecludesseekinghelp
forpersonalproblems,thegeneralized
mistrustthatcomesfromthefearof
exploitation,andatendencytostrikeoutin

responsetominimalprovocationsarehighlyfunctionalinmany
prisoncontextsbutproblematicvirtuallyeverywhereelse.

LindaVanderWaaltoldmethatre-acculturationisessentialtothrivinginan
alreadycompromisedjobmarket.Ihatetosaythis,butitsareality,she
said.Makingeyecontact,thewaytheywalkpeoplejudgeyouthemoment
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youwalkinthedoorsforaninterviewWeliterallypracticeeyecontact,
smiling,handshaking,howyouresitting.

The sociologist Bruce Western explains the current inevitability of prison for certain demographics
of young black men.

InAmerica,themenandwomenwhofindthemselveslostintheGrayWastes
arenotpickedatrandom.Aseriesofriskfactorsmentalillness,illiteracy,
drugaddiction,povertyincreasesoneschancesofendingupintheranksof
theincarcerated.Roughlyhalfoftodaysprisoninmatesarefunctionally
illiterate,RobertPerkinson,anassociateprofessorofAmericanstudiesat
theUniversityofHawaiiatMnoa, hasnoted[9] .
[9] The quote is from Robert
Perkinsons Texas Tough: The

Rise of Americas Prison Empire, a

deeply disturbing history of the
modern era of mass incarceration.
There is good deal of sociological
and economic study on mass
incarceration, but considerably
less in the way of history. What I
would love to see is a book that
took the long view of
incarceration, crime, and racism.

Fouroutoffivecriminaldefendantsqualifyas
indigentbeforethecourts.Sixty-eightpercentof
jailinmateswerestrugglingwithsubstance
dependenceorabusein2002.Onecanimaginea
separateworldwherethestatewouldseethese
maladiesthroughthelensofgovernment
educationorpublic-healthprograms.Insteadit
hasdecidedtoseethemthroughthelensof

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Too many accounts begin in the

1960s. At any rate Perkinsons

criminaljustice.Asthenumberofprisonbedshas

book is a crucial contribution to

riseninthiscountry,thenumberofpublic-

the literature in that it tells us

psychiatric-hospitalbedshasfallen.TheGray

precisely how we got here.

Wastesdrawfromthemostsocioeconomically
unfortunateamongus,andthustakeparticular

interestinthosewhoareblack.

IV.
THE CRIME-STAINED BLACKNESS OF THE NEGRO
ItisimpossibletoconceiveoftheGrayWasteswithoutfirstconceivingofa
largeswathofitsinhabitantsasbothmorethancriminalandlessthan
human.Theseinhabitants,blackpeople,arethepreeminentoutlawsofthe
Americanimagination.BlackcriminalityisliterallywrittenintotheAmerican
ConstitutiontheFugitiveSlaveClause,inArticleIVofthatdocument,
declaredthatanyPersonheldtoServiceorLabourwhoescapedfromone
statetoanothercouldbedelivereduponClaimofthePartytowhomsuch
ServiceorLabourmaybedue.FromAmericasveryfounding,thepursuitof
therighttolabor,andtherighttolivefreeofwhippingandofthesaleofones
children,wereverbotenforblacks.
Thecrimeofabscondingwasthoughttobelinkedtoothercriminal
inclinationsamongblacks.Pro-slaveryintellectualssoughttodefendthe
systemascommandedbyGodandapprovedbyChrist.In1860,The
NewYorkHeraldofferedupadispatchonthedoingsofrunawayslaves
residinginCanada.Thecriminalcalendarswouldbebareofaprosecution
butforthenegroprisoners,thereportclaimed.Deprivedofslaverys
blessings,blacksquicklydevolvedintocriminaldeviantswhopliedtheir
tradewithasavageferocitypeculiartotheviciousnegro.Blacks,thereport
stated,werepreternaturallyinclinedtorape:Whenthelustcomesover
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themtheyareworsethanthewildbeastoftheforest.Nearlyacenturyanda
halfbeforetheinfamyofWillieHorton,aportraitemergedofblacksashighly
pronetocriminality,andgenerallybeyondthescopeofrehabilitation.Inthis
fashion,blackvillainyjustifiedwhiteoppressionwhichwasseennotas
oppressionbutas thecorner-stoneofourrepublicanedifice.[10]
[10] Taken from Cotton Is King, and

Pro-Slavery Arguments, crucial

text in understanding the
perspective of pro-slavery
intellectuals. Michelle Alexander
has taken some criticism for
asserting, in her book The New

Jim Crow, the connections

between slavery, Jim Crow, and
mass incarceration. Honestly, I
was one of skeptics. But having
finished this research, I really have
to applaud Alexanders attempt to
connect mass incarceration with
American history. I dont totally
agree with the book (I think linking
crime and black struggle is even
older than she does, for instance)
but I think The New Jim Crow
pursues the right line of
questioning. I dont think mass
incarceration happens without the
rise in crime. But there are all
kinds of ways one can respond to
a crime surge. Mass incarceration
is appropriate only if you already
believe that certain people
werent really fit for freedom in the
first place.

Tofortifytherepublicanedifice,acts
consideredlegalwhencommittedbywhiteswere
judgedcriminalwhencommittedbyblacks.In
1850,aMissourimannamedRobertNewsom
purchasedagirlnamedCelia,whowasabout14
yearsold.Forthenextfiveyears,herepeatedly
rapedher.Celiabirthedatleastonechildby
Newsom.Whenshebecamepregnantagain,she
beggedNewsomtoquitforcingherwhileshe
wassick.Herefused,andonedayinJuneof
1855informedCeliathathewascomingtoher
cabinthatnight.WhenNewsomarrivedand
attemptedtorapeCeliaagain,shegrabbedastick
aboutaslargeastheupperpartofaWindsor
chairandbeatNewsomtodeath.Ajudge
rejectedCeliasself-defenseclaim,andshewas
foundguiltyofmurderandsentencedtodeath.
Whileshewasinjail,shegavebirthtothechild,
whoarrivedstillborn.Notlongafter,Celiawas
hanged.

Celiasstatusblack,enslaved,femaletransformedanactofself-defense
intoanactofvillainy.RandallKennedy,alawprofessoratHarvard,writes
thatmanyjurisdictionsmadeslavesintocriminalsbyprohibitingthem
frompursuingawiderangeofactivitiesthatwhitesweretypicallyfreeto
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pursue.Amongtheseactivitieswere:

learningtoread,leavingtheirmasterspropertywithoutaproper
pass,engaginginunbecomingconductinthepresenceofawhite
female,assemblingtoworshipoutsidethesupervisorypresenceof
awhiteperson,neglectingtostepoutofthewaywhenawhite
personapproachedonawalkway,smokinginpublic,walkingwith
acane,makingloudnoises,ordefendingthemselvesfrom
assaults.

AntebellumVirginiahad73crimesthatcouldgarnerthedeathpenaltyfor
slavesandonlyoneforwhites.
Theendofenslavementposedanexistentialcrisisforwhitesupremacy,
becauseanopenlabormarketmeantblackscompetingwithwhitesforjobs
andresources,andmostfrighteningblackmencompetingforthe
attentionofwhitewomen.PostbellumAlabamasolvedthisproblemby
manufacturingcriminals.Blackswhocouldnotfindworkwerelabeled
vagrantsandsenttojail,wheretheywereleasedaslabortotheverypeople
whohadonceenslavedthem.Vagrancylawswerenominallycolor-blindbut,
Kennedywrites,appliedprincipally,ifnotexclusively,againstNegroes.
SomevagrancylawswererepealedduringReconstruction,butaslateasthe
GreatDepression,cash-strappedauthoritiesinMiamiwerefoundrounding
upblackvagrantsandimpressingthemintosanitationwork.

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Pitchfork Ben Tillman, a U.S. senator from

South Carolina, who advocated lynching black
men to keep them from raping white women.
(Library of Congress)

Fromthe1890sthroughthefirstfourdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,
writesKhalilGibranMuhammad,thedirectoroftheSchomburgCenterfor
ResearchinBlackCultureattheNewYorkPublicLibrary,blackcriminality
wouldbecomeoneofthemostcommonlycitedandlongest-lasting
justificationsforblackinequalityandmortalityinthemodernurbanworld.
Blackswerecriminalbrutesbynature,andsomethingmorethanthelawof
civilizedmenwasneededtoprotectthewhitepublic.[11] Societymust
defenditselffromcontaminationbythecrime[11] Without the work of Khalil
Gibran Muhammad, this section
would not be possible.
Muhammads book The
Condemnation of Blackness is a
history of late 19th and 20th
century social scientists,
intellectuals, and reformers
elevating the problem of black
criminality. This debate did not
take place on dispassionate,
objective grounds. Instead the
charge was a weapon wielded to
claim that blacks were not entitled

stainedblacknessofthenegro,assertedHinton
RowanHelper,aSouthernwhite-supremacist
writer,in1868.Blackswerenaturally
intemperate,onephysicianclaimedinTheNew
YorkMedicalJournalin1886,pronetoindulging
everyappetitetoofreely,whetherforfood,
drink,tobacco,orsensualpleasures,and
sometimestosuchanextentastoappearmoreof
abrutethanhuman.

to the same rights as others. When

Frederick Ludwig Hoffman asserts
in 1896 that the criminality of the
negro exceeds that of any other
race of any numerical importance
in this country, he is arguing
against the franchise for blacks.
Hoffman believed that blacks

Rape,accordingtothemythologyoftheday,
remainedthecrimeofchoiceforblacks.Thereis
somethingstrangelyalluringandseductiveto
[blackmen]intheappearanceofawhite
woman,assertedPhilipAlexanderBruce,a

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should be disqualified from the

higher level of citizenship, the first

19th-centurysecretaryoftheVirginiaHistorical

duty of which is to obey the laws

Society.Itmovesthemtogratifytheirlustatany

and respect the lives and property

costandinspiteofeveryobstacle.These

of others.Muhammads works lets

us see how the psychological and

outragesweremarkedbyadiabolical

rhetorical groundwork was laid for

persistencethatcompelledblackmentoassault

mass incarceration. Another

essential text.

whitewomenwithamalignantatrocityofdetail
that[has]noreflectioninthewholeextentofthe

naturalhistoryofthemostbestialandferociousanimals.
BeforeEmancipation,enslavedblackswererarelylynched,becausewhites
wereloathetodestroytheirownproperty.ButaftertheCivilWar,the
numberoflynchingsrose,peakedattheturnofthecentury,thenpersistedat
ahighleveluntiljustbeforetheSecondWorldWar,notpeteringoutentirely
untiltheheightofthecivil-rightsmovement,inthe1960s.Thelethalwave
wasjustifiedbyafamiliararchetypetheshadowoftheNegrocriminal,
which,accordingtoJohnRankin,acongressmanfromMississippispeakingin
1922,hungliketheswordofDamoclesovertheheadofeverywhite
woman.Lynching,thoughextralegal,foundsupportinthelocal,state,and
nationalgovernmentsofAmerica.IledthemobwhichlynchedNelse
Patton,andImproudofit,declaredWilliamVanAmbergSullivan,aformer
UnitedStatessenatorfromMississippi,onSeptember9,1908,thedayafter
Pattonslynching.Idirectedeverymovementofthemob,andIdid
everythingIcouldtoseethathewaslynched.StandingbeforetheSenateon
March23,1900,PitchforkBenTillman,ofSouthCarolina,declaredtohis
colleaguesthatterrorizedblackswerethevictimsnotoflynching,butof
theirownhot-headedness.Lynchingwasaprudentactofself-defense.
Wewillnotsubmitto[theblackmans]gratifyinghislustonourwivesand
daughterswithoutlynchinghim,Tillmansaid.In1904,defendingsouthern
stateslackofinterestineducationfundingforblacks,JamesK.Vardaman,
thegovernorofMississippi,offeredasimplerationale,asonereportnoted:
Thestrengthof[crime]statistics.
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James K. Vardaman, governor of Mississippi,

who said in 1904 that crime statistics
disinclined southern states to invest in
educating African Americans. (Library of
Congress)

EvenasAfricanAmericanleaderspetitionedthegovernmenttostopthe
lynching,theyconcededthattheVardamansoftheworldhadapoint.[12] In
an1897lecture,W.E.B.DuBoisdeclared,The
[12] Some of the most painful
moments in this research came in
looking at the black response to
lynching. Mary Church Terrell
claimed that black criminals guilty
of assault were ignorant,
repulsive in appearance and as
near the brute creation as it is
possible for a human being to be.
William J. Edwards, a black rural
Alabama school director,
condemned poor blacks as often
ferocious or dangerous and
prone to becoming a criminal of
the lowest type. Edwards
believed that there were criminals
in the Negro race for whom no
legal form of punishment is too
severe. But white supremacists
were not in the habit of sorting
good blacks from bad. Little in
these appraisals of black
criminality by African Americans
would have comforted southern

firstandgreateststeptowardthesettlementof
thepresentfrictionbetweentheraces
commonlycalledtheNegroproblemliesinthe
correctionoftheimmorality,crime,andlaziness
amongtheNegroesthemselves,whichstill
remainsasaheritagefromslavery.DuBois
languageanticipatedtherespectabilitypoliticsof
ourownera.Therestillremainenoughwell
authenticatedcasesofbrutalassaultonwomen
byblackmeninAmericatomakeeveryNegro
bowhisheadinshame,DuBoisclaimedin
1904.Thiscrimemustatallhazardsstop.
Lynchingisawful,andinjusticeandcasteare
hardtobear;butiftheyaretobesuccessfully
attackedtheymustceasetohaveeventhis
terriblejustification.KellyMiller,whowasthen

whites, writes historian Robert W.

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Thurston in his book Lynching,

who of course paid scant

aleadingblackintellectualandaprofessorat

attention to black leaders ideas in

HowardUniversity,presagedthecallforblacksto

the first place. Thurstons book

betwiceasgood,assertingin1899thatitwas

led me to all of the primary

sources cited in this regard.

notenoughforninety-fiveoutofeveryhundred
Negroestobelawful.Theninety-fivemust

bandthemselvestogethertorestrainorsuppresstheviciousfive.
Inthisclimateofwhiterepressionandparalyzedblackleadership, the
federalgovernmentlaunched,in1914,itsfirstwarondrugs[13] ,passingthe
HarrisonNarcoticsTaxAct,whichrestrictedthe
[13] When people discuss the drug
war, they are usually referring to
the one that began in the 1970s,
without realizing that this was, at
least, our third drug war in the
20th century. I found David F.
Mustos The American Disease:

Origins of Narcotic Control to be

extremely helpful on the subject. It
was depressing to see that drug
wars, in this country, are almost
never launched purely out of
concern for public health. In
almost every instance that Musto
looks at there is some fear of an
outsiderblacks and cocaine,
Mexican-Americans and marijuana,
Chinese-Americans and opium. I
feel compelled to also mention
Kathleen J. Frydls book The Drug

Wars in America, 1940-1973. It was

on my list, but unfortunately, I
didnt get to it. At any rate, I have
great respect for Frydls work and
look forward to reading it in the
future.

saleofopiatesandcocaine.Thereasoningwas
unoriginal.Theuseofcocainebyunfortunate
womengenerallyandbynegroesincertainparts
ofthecountryissimplyappalling,theAmerican
PharmaceuticalAssociationsCommitteeonthe
AcquirementoftheDrugHabithadconcludedin
1902.TheNewYorkTimespublishedanarticleby
aphysiciansayingthattheSouthwasthreatened
bycocaine-crazednegroes,towhomthedrug
hadawardedexpertmarksmanshipandan
immunitytobulletslargeenoughtokillany
gameinAmerica.Anotherphysician,Hamilton
Wright,thefatherofAmericannarcoticlaw,
reportedtoCongressthatcocainelent
encouragementtothehumblerranksofthe
negropopulationintheSouth.Shouldanyone
doubttheimplicationofencouragement,Wright
spelleditout:Ithasbeenauthoritativelystated

thatcocaineisoftenthedirectincentivetothecrimeofrapebythenegroesof
theSouthandothersectionsofthecountry.
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Thepersistentandsystematicnotionthatblackswereespeciallyproneto
crimeextendedeventothestatesviewofblackleadership.J.EdgarHoover,
theheadoftheFBIfornearlyhalfacentury,harassedthreegenerationsof
leaders.In1919,heattackedtheblacknationalistMarcusGarveyasthe
foremostradicalamonghisrace,thenruthlesslypursuedGarveyintojail
anddeportation.In1964,heattackedMartinLutherKingJr.asthemost
notoriousliarinthecountry,andhoundedhim,bugginghishotelrooms,his
office,andhishome,untilhisdeath.HooverdeclaredtheBlackPanther
Partytobethegreatestthreattotheinternalsecurityofthecountryand
authorizedarepressive,lethalcampaignagainstitsleadersthatculminated
intheassassinationofFredHamptoninDecemberof1969.
TodayHooverisviewedunsympatheticallyashavingstoodoutside
mainstreamideasoflawandorder.ButHooverspursuitofKingwasknown
tobothPresidentKennedyandPresidentJohnson,Kingsostensibleallies.
Moreover,HooverwasoperatingwithinanAmericantraditionof
criminalizingblackleadership.Initstime,theUndergroundRailroadwas
regardedbysupportersofslaveryasaninterstatecriminalenterprisedevoted
tothetheftofproperty.HarrietTubman,purloinerofmanythousandsof
dollarsinhumanbodies,wasconsideredabanditofthehighestorder.I
appearbeforeyouthiseveningasathiefandarobber,FrederickDouglass
toldhisaudiences.Istolethishead,theselimbs,thisbodyfrommymaster,
andranoffwiththem.
InDouglassstime,tostandupforblackrightswastocondoneblack
criminality.ThesamewastrueinKingstime.Thesameistruetoday.
AppearingonMeetthePresstodiscussthedeathofMichaelBrownin
Ferguson,Missouri,theformerNewYorkCitymayorRudyGiulianiinthe
fashionofmanyothersrespondedtoblackcriticsoflawenforcement
exactlyashisforebearswouldhave:Howaboutyoureducecrime?The
whitepoliceofficerswouldntbethereifyouwerentkillingeachother70to
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75percentofthetime.
ButeveninGiulianishometown,therelationshipbetweencrimeand
policingisnotasclearasthemayorwouldpresentit.AfterGiulianibecame
mayor,in1994,hispolicecommissionerWilliamBrattonprioritizeda
strategyofordermaintenanceincitypolicing.AsexecutedbyBratton,this
strategyreliedonapolicyofstop-and-frisk,wherebypoliceofficerscould
stoppedestriansonvaguepremisessuchasfurtivemovementsandthen
questionthemandsearchthemforgunsanddrugs.JeffreyFagan,a
ColumbiaUniversitylawprofessor,foundthatblacksandHispanicswere
stoppedsignificantlymoreoftenthanwhitesevenafteradjustingstoprates
fortheprecinctcrimeratesandothersocialandeconomicfactors
predictiveofpoliceactivity.DespiteGiulianisclaimthataggressivepolicing
isjustifiedbecauseblacksarekillingeachother,Faganfoundthatbetween
2004and2009,officersrecoveredweaponsinlessthan1percentofallstops
andrecoveredthemmorefrequentlyfromwhitesthanfromblacks.Yet
blackswere14percentmorelikelytobesubjectedtoforce.In2013the
policy,ascarriedoutunderGiulianissuccessor,MichaelBloomberg,was
ruledunconstitutional.
IfpolicinginNewYorkunderGiulianiandBloombergwascrimeprevention
taintedbyracistpresumptions,inotherareasofthecountryostensiblecrime
preventionhasmutatedintolittlemorethanopenpillage.WhentheJustice
DepartmentinvestigatedtheFergusonpolicedepartmentinthewakeof
MichaelBrownsdeath,itfoundapoliceforcethatdisproportionately
ticketedandarrestedblacksandviewedthemlessasconstituentstobe
protectedthanaspotentialoffendersandsourcesofrevenue.Thiswasnot
becausethepolicedepartmentwasuniquelyevilitwasbecauseFerguson
waslookingtomakemoney.Fergusonslawenforcementpracticesare
shapedbytheCitysfocusonrevenueratherthanbypublicsafetyneeds,the
reportconcluded.Thesefindingshadbeenauguredby thereportingofThe
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[14] The reporter for The

WashingtonPost[14] ,whichhadfoundafew

Washington Post deserves to be

monthsearlierthatsomesmall,cash-strapped

cited by nameRadley Balko,

whose writing and reporting on

municipalitiesintheSt.Louissuburbswere

the problems of modern policing

deriving40percentormoreoftheirannual

has greatly improved my own

understanding of the issue.

revenuefromvariousfinesfortrafficviolations,
loudmusic,uncutgrass,andwearingsaggy

pants,amongotherinfractions.Thiswasnotpublicsafetydrivingpolicyit
waslawenforcementtaskedwiththejobofmunicipalplunder.

The job market in America regards black men who

have never been criminals as though they were.
Itispatentlytruethatblackcommunities,hometoaclassofpeopleregularly
discriminatedagainstandimpoverished,havelongsufferedhighercrime
rates.ThehistorianDavidM.OshinskynotesinhisbookWorseThan
Slavery:ParchmanFarmandtheOrdealofJimCrowJusticethatfrom1900to
1930,AfricanAmericansinMississippicomprisedabout67percentofthe
killersinMississippiand80percentofthevictims.AsmuchasAfrican
Americanscomplainedofviolenceperpetratedbywhiteterrorists,thelackof
legalprotectionfromeverydayneighbor-on-neighborviolencewasnever
then,andhasneverbeen,farfromtheirminds.Law-abidingNegroespoint
outthattherearecriminalandtreacherousNegroeswhosecureimmunity
frompunishmentbecausetheyarefawningandsubmissivetowardwhites,
observedtheNobelPrizewinningeconomistGunnarMyrdalinhisfamous
1944bookaboutraceinAmerica,AnAmericanDilemma:TheNegroProblem
andModernDemocracy.SuchpersonsareadangertotheNegrocommunity.
LeniencytowardNegrodefendantsincasesinvolvingcrimesagainstother
Negroesisthusactuallyaformofdiscrimination.
Crimewithintheblackcommunitywasprimarilyseenasablackproblem,
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andbecameasocietalproblemmainlywhenitseemedtothreatenthewhite
population.TakethecaseofNewOrleansbetweentheworldwars,when,as
JeffreyS.Adler,ahistorianandcriminologistattheUniversityofFlorida,has
observed,anincreaseintheproportionofcrimescommittedbyblackson
thestreetsandinlocalshopsandbars,asopposedtoinblackhomesand
neighborhoods,producedanenduringmixoffearandfuryamongwhites.In
response,LouisianadistrictattorneyspromisedthatNegroslayersof
Negroeswillbethoroughlyprosecuted.Acommontoolinhomicidecases
wastothreatenblacksuspectswithcapitalpunishmenttoextractaguilty
plea,whichmandatedalifesentence.Soevenasviolentcrimedeclined
between1925and1940,Louisianasincarcerationrateincreasedbymore
than50percent.Twiceasmanyinmatesenteredstatecorrectionalfacilities
inlow-crime1940asinhigh-crime1925,Adlerwrites.AtAngolaState
PenalFarm,thewhitepopulationroseby39percentwhiletheAfrican
Americaninmatepopulationincreasedby143percent.
Theprincipalsourceoftheintensifyingwaroncrimewaswhiteanxietyabout
socialcontrol.In1927,theSupremeCourthadruledthataracial-zoning
schemeinthecitywasunconstitutional.TheblackpopulationofNew
Orleanswasgrowing.Andtherewasincreasingpressurefromsome
governmentofficialstospreadNewDealprogramstoblackpeople.Atno
timeinthehistoryofourState, thecitysdistrictattorneyclaimedin1935
[15] ,hasWhiteSupremacybeeningreater
[15] This account of mass
incarceration in Louisiana is drawn

danger.

from Jeffrey S. Adlers article Less

Crime, More Punishment:
Violence, Race, and Criminal
Justice in Early-Twentieth-Century
America. Again, this is a case
where things we take to be
completely new, are not. One can
not help but note the precedent to

Thestaggeringriseinincarcerationratesin
interwarLouisianacoincidedwithasenseamong
whitesthattheoldorderwasundersiege.Inthe
comingdecades,thisphenomenonwouldbe
replicatedonamassive,nationalscale.

cries against Black on Black

crime in the district attorney
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vowing to crack down on Negro

V.

slayers of Negroes.

THE BADDEST GENERATION ANY SOCIETY HAS

EVER KNOWN

TheAmericanresponsetocrimecannotbedivorcedfromahistoryof
equatingblackstruggleindividualandcollectivewithblackvillainy.And
soitisunsurprisingthatinthemidstofthecivil-rightsmovement,rising
crimewasrepeatedlylinkedwithblackadvancement. ElijahForrester,a
DemocraticcongressmanfromGeorgia,opposedtheEisenhower
administrations1956civil-rightsbill[16] onthe
[16] Much of Section V is indebted
to Naomi Murakawas The First

Civil Right: How Liberals Built

Prison America. I was not totally
convinced by the subtitle, but
some of the evidence that
Murakawa musters against
Democrats, some of whom are still
serving, is damning. Should Joe
Biden run for president, he has to
be asked about his time spent
cheerleading for more prisons.
Some of the quotes Murakawa
unearthsparticularly the ones
where Democrats know the bill is
bad, and vote anywayare little
more than cowardice and put the
lie to the notion that mass
incarceration is a well-intentioned
mistake.

groundsthatwheresegregationhasbeen
abolished,blackvillainysoonprospered.Inthe
DistrictofColumbia,thepublicparkshave
becomeofnoutilitywhatevertothewhiterace,
Forresterclaimed,fortheyenterattheriskof
assaultsupontheirpersonortherobberyoftheir
personaleffects.Unlesssegregationwas
immediatelyrestored,in10years,thenations
capitalwillbeunsafefortheminthedaytime.
Aroundthattime,BasilWhitener,aNorth
Carolinacongressman,dismissedtheNAACPas
anorganizationpledgedtotheassistanceof
Negrocriminals.
In1966,RichardNixonpickedupthecharge,

linkingrisingcrimeratestoMartinLutherKingscampaignofcivil
disobedience.Thedeclineoflawandordercanbetraceddirectlytothe
spreadofthecorrosivedoctrinethateverycitizenpossessesaninherentright
todecideforhimselfwhichlawstoobeyandwhentoobeythem.Thecure,
asNixonsawit,wasnotaddressingcriminogenicconditions,butlockingup
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morepeople.Doublingtheconvictionrateinthiscountrywoulddofarmore
tocurecrimeinAmericathanquadruplingthefundsfor[the]Waron
Poverty,hesaidin1968.
Aspresident,Nixondidjustthat:Duringhissecondterm,incarcerationrates
begantheirhistoricrise.DrugsinparticularattractedNixonsire.Heroin
dealerswereliterallytheslavetradersofourtime,hesaid,traffickersin
livingdeath.Theymustbehuntedtotheendoftheearth.
Nixonswaroncrimewasmorerhetoricthansubstance.Iwascrankingout
thatbullshitonNixonscrimepolicybeforehewaselected, wroteWhite
HousecounselJohnDean[17] ,inhismemoirof
[17] Citations from John Deans
memoir Blind Ambition, John
Ehrlichmans memoir, Witness to

Power, and H. R. Haldemans

Diaries. I wish I could claim to have
dug these up. I cannot. I first saw
the John Dean quote in
Perkinsons Texas Tough and the
Ehrlichman and Haldeman quotes
in Alexanders The New Jim Crow.

histimeintheadministration.Anditwas
bullshit,too.Weknewit.Indeed,ifsinking
crimeratesarethemeasureofsuccess,Nixons
waroncrimewasadismalfailure.Therateof
everytypeofviolentcrimemurder,rape,
robbery,aggravatedassaultwasupbytheendof
Nixonstenure.ThetruetargetofNixonswaron
crimelayelsewhere.DescribingtheNixon

campaignsstrategyforassemblingenoughvotestowinthe1972election,
NixonsaideJohnEhrlichmanlaterwrote,WellgoaftertheracistsThat
subliminalappealtotheantiblackvoterwasalwaysinNixonsstatements
andspeechesonschoolsandhousing.AccordingtoH.R.Haldeman,
anotherNixonaide,thepresidentbelievedthatwhenitcametowelfare,the
wholeproblem[was]reallytheblacks.Ofcourse,thecivil-rightsmovement
hadmadeitunacceptabletosaythisdirectly.Thekeyistodeviseasystem
thatrecognizesthiswhilenotappearingto,Haldemanwroteinhisdiary.
Buttherewasnoneedtodevisenewsystemsfromscratch:WhenNixon
proclaimeddrugspublicenemyNo.1,ordeclaredwaragainstthe
criminalelementswhichincreasinglythreatenourcities,ourhomes,andour
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lives,hedidntneedtonamethethreat.Acenturies-longlegacyofequating
blackswithcriminalsandmoraldegeneratesdidtheworkforhim.
In1968,whilecampaigningforpresident,Nixonwastapedrehearsinga
campaignad.Theheartoftheproblemislawandorderinourschools,he
said.Disciplineintheclassroomisessentialifourchildrenaretolearn.
Then,perhapstalkingtohimself,headded,Yep,thishitsitrightonthe
nose,thethingaboutthiswholeteacheritsallaboutlawandorderandthe
damnNegroPuertoRicangroupsoutthere.

I was cranking out that bullshit on Nixons crime

policy before he was elected. And it was bullshit, too.
We knew it.
Asincarcerationratesroseandprisontermsbecamelonger,theideaof
rehabilitationwasmostlyabandonedinfavorofincapacitation.Mandatory
minimumssentencesthatsetaminimumlengthofpunishmentforthe
convictedwereabipartisanachievementofthe1980sbackednotjustby
conservativessuchasStromThurmondbutbyliberalssuchasTedKennedy.
Conservativesbelievedmandatorysentencingwouldpreventjudgesfrom
exercisingtoomuchleniency;liberalsbelieveditwouldpreventracismfrom
infectingthebench.Butreformdidntjustprovidesentencingguidelinesit
alsocutbackonalternatives(parole,forinstance)andgenerallylengthened
timeserved.Beforereform,prisonerstypicallyserved40to70percentof
theirsentences.Afterreform,theyserved87to100percentoftheir
sentences.Moreover,despitewhatliberalshadhopedfor,biaswasnot
eliminated,becausediscretionnowlaywithprosecutors,whocould
determinethelengthofasentencebydecidingwhatcrimestocharge
someonewith.Districtattorneyswithreelectiontoconsidercould
demonstratetheirzealtoprotectthepublicwiththenumberofcriminals
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jailedandthelengthoftheirstay.
Prosecutorswerenotaloneintheirquesttoappeartoughoncrime.Inthe
1980sand90s,legislators,focusingonthescourgeofcrackcocaine,vied
withoneanothertoappeartoughest.Therewasnorealdoubtastowho
wouldbethetargetofthisnewfoundtoughness.Bythen,DanielPatrick
MoynihanhadgonefromtheWhiteHousetoaU.S.SenateseatinNewYork.
Hewasrespectedasascholarandrenownedforhisintellect.Buthis
preoccupationshadnotchanged.Wecannotignorethefactthatwhenwe
talkaboutdrugabuseinourcountry,inthemain,wearetalkingaboutthe
consequenceithasforyoungmalesininnercities,hetoldtheSenatein
1986.Thismightwellhavebeentrueasadescriptionofdrugenforcement
policies,butitwasnottrueofactualdrugabuse:Surveyshaverepeatedly
shownthatblacksandwhitesusedrugsatremarkablycomparablerates.
MoynihanhadbythelateReaganeraevidentlycometobelievetheworst
distortionsofhisown1965report.Gonewasanytalkofrootcauses;inits
placewassomethingdarker.Theyounginner-citymaleswhohadso
concernedMoynihanledwastedandruinedlivesandconstitutedathreat
thatcouldbringaboutthedestructionofwholecommunitiesandcities
acrossthisNation.
Inseemingtoabandonscholarshipforrhetoric,Moynihanhadplentyof
companyamongsocialscientistsandpoliticalpundits.JamesQ.Wilson,the
notedsocialscientistandaco-creatorofthebrokenwindowstheoryof
policing,retreatedtoabstractmoralizingandtautology.Druguseiswrong
becauseitisimmoral,heclaimed,anditisimmoralbecauseitenslavesthe
mindanddestroysthesoul.Otherswentfurther.Theinner-citycrack
epidemicisnowgivingbirthtothenewesthorror,theWashingtonPost
columnistCharlesKrauthammerdeclaimed:Abio-underclass,ageneration
ofphysicallydamagedcocainebabieswhosebiologicalinferiorityisstamped
atbirth.Inthisway,thecrime-stainedblacknessoftheNegrolivedonto
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hauntwhiteAmerica.
In1995,AdamWalinsky,apoliticallyliberallawyerwhohadbeenanaideto
SenatorRobertF.Kennedy,wroteacoverstoryforthismagazinethat,
drawingonMoynihans1965report,predicteddoom.Americanpolicy
towardtheblackfamilyhad,Walinskywrote,assuredthecreationofmore
veryviolentyoungmenthananyreasonablesocietycantolerate,andtheir
numberswillgrowinexorablyforeveryoneofthenexttwentyyears.The
solutionsWalinskyproposedincludedendingracism,buildingbetterschools,
andhiringmorepolice.Butthethrustofhisrhetoricwasmartial.Weshrink
infearofteenagethugsoneverystreet,hewrote.Moreimportant,we
shrinkevenfromcontemplatingtheforcefulcollectiveactionweknowis
required.
EvenasTheAtlanticpublishedthosewords,violentcrimehadbegunto
plunge.Butthoughtleaderswereslowtocatchup.In1996,WilliamJ.
Bennett,JohnP.Walters,andJohnJ.DiIulioJr.partneredtopublishperhaps
themostinfamoustractofthetough-on-crimeera,BodyCount:MoralPoverty
andHowtoWinAmericasWarAgainstCrimeandDrugs.Theauthors
(wrongly)predictedanewcrimewavedrivenbyinner-citychildrenwho
weregrowingupalmostcompletelyunmoralizedanddevelop[ing]character
traitsthatwouldleadthemintoalifeofilliteracy,illicitdrugs,andviolent
crimes.ThethreattoAmericafromwhattheauthorscalledsuperpredatorswasexistential.AshighasAmericasbodycountistoday,arising
tideofyouthcrimeandviolenceisabouttoliftitevenhigher,theauthors
warned.Anewgenerationofstreetcriminalsisuponustheyoungest,
biggest,andbaddestgenerationanysocietyhaseverknown.Incarceration
wasasolution,DiIuliowroteinTheNewYorkTimes,andahighlycosteffectiveone.Thecountryagreed.Forthenextdecade,incarcerationrates
shotupevenfurther.Thejustificationforresortingtoincarcerationwasthe
samein1996asitwasin1896.
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No one can say Im soft on crime. In 1994, Bill Clinton signed a bill that offered grants to states that
built prisons and cut back on parole, driving up the nations incarceration numbers. He now says he
regrets doing that. (Doug Mills/AP)

ManyAfricanAmericansconcurredthatcrimewasaproblem.WhenJesse
Jacksonconfessed,in1993,Thereisnothingmorepainfultomeatthis
stageinmylifethantowalkdownthestreetandhearfootstepsandstart
thinkingaboutrobbery,thenlookaroundandseesomebodywhiteandfeel
relieved,hewasspeakingtotheveryrealfearofviolentcrimethatdogs
blackcommunities.Theargumentthathighcrimeisthepredictableresultof
aseriesofoppressiveracistpoliciesdoesnotrenderthevictimsofthose
policiesbulletproof.Likewise,notingthatfearofcrimeiswellgroundeddoes
notmakethatfearasolidfoundationforpublicpolicy.
Thesuiteofdruglawsadoptedinthe1980sand90sdidlittletoreduce
crime,butalottonormalizeprisoninblackcommunities.Nosingleoffense
typehasmoredirectlycontributedtocontemporaryracialdisparitiesin
imprisonmentthandrugcrimes,DevahPager,theHarvardsociologist,has
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written.

Between1983and1997,thenumberofAfricanAmericans
admittedtoprisonfordrugoffensesincreasedmorethantwentysix-fold,relativetoasevenfoldincreaseforwhitesBy2001,
thereweremorethantwiceasmanyAfricanAmericansaswhites
instateprisonfordrugoffenses.

In2013,theACLUpublishedareportnotinga10-yearuptickinmarijuana
arrests.Theuptickwaslargelyexplainedasaresultoftheincreaseinthe
arrestratesofBlacks.Toreiterateanimportantpoint:Surveyshave
concludedthatblacksandwhitesusedrugsatroughlythesamerates.And
yetbythecloseofthe20thcentury,prisonwasamorecommonexperience
foryoungblackmenthancollegegraduationormilitaryservice.
Bythemid-90s,bothpoliticalpartieshadcometoendorsearrestand
incarcerationasaprimarytoolofcrime-fighting.Thisconclusionwas
reachednotwarily,butlustily.Asapresidentialcandidate,BillClintonflew
hometoArkansastopresideovertheexecutionofRickyRayRector,a
mentallydisabled,partiallylobotomizedblackmanwhohadmurderedtwo
peoplein1981.NoonecansayImsoftoncrime,Clintonwouldsaylater.
JoeBiden,thenthejuniorsenatorfromDelaware,quicklybecamethepoint
manforshowingthatDemocratswouldnotgosoftoncriminals.Oneofmy
objectives,quitefrankly,hesaid,istolockWillieHortonupinjail.Biden
castDemocratsasthetruepartywithoutmercy.Letmedefinetheliberal
wingoftheDemocraticParty,hesaidin1994.Theliberalwingofthe
DemocraticPartyisnowfor60newdeathpenaltiesTheliberalwingofthe
DemocraticPartyhas70enhancedpenaltiesTheliberalwingofthe
DemocraticPartyisfor100,000cops.TheliberalwingoftheDemocratic
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Partyisfor125,000newstateprisoncells.
InTexas,theDemocraticgovernor,AnnRichards,hadcometopowerin
1991advocatingrehabilitation,butsheendedupfollowingthenational
trend,curtailingthelatitudeofjudgesandtheparoleboardinfavoroffixed
sentencing,whichgavepowertoprosecutors.In1993,Texasrejectedabid
toinfuseitsschoolswith$750millionbutapproved$1billiontobuildmore
prisons.Bytheendofherterm,Richardshadpresidedoveroneofthe
biggestpublicworksprojectsinTexashistory,accordingtoRobert
PerkinsonsTexasTough:TheRiseofAmericasPrisonEmpire.InNewYork,
anotherliberalgovernor,MarioCuomo,foundhimselffacinganexploding
prisonpopulation.Aftervotersrejectedfundingformoreprisons,Cuomo
pulledthemoneyfromtheUrbanDevelopmentCorporation,anagencythat
wassupposedtobuildpublichousingforthepoor.Itdidinprison.Under
theavowedlyliberalCuomo,NewYorkaddedmoreprisonbedsthanunder
allhispredecessorscombined.
Thiswaspenalwelfarismatitsfinest.Deindustrializationhadpresentedan
employmentproblemforAmericaspoorandworkingclassofallraces.
Prisonpresentedasolution:jobsforwhites,andwarehousingforblacks.
Massincarcerationwidenedtheincomegapbetweenwhiteandblack
Americans,writesHeatherAnnThompson,ahistorianattheUniversityof
Michigan,becausetheinfrastructureofthecarceralstatewaslocated
disproportionatelyinall-whiteruralcommunities.Some600,000inmates
arereleasedfromAmericasprisonseachyear,morethantheentire
populationofAmericasprisonsin1970enoughpeople,accordingtoPager,
tofilleveryoneofthefast-foodjobopeningscreatedannuallynearlyfive
timesover.
Darkpredictionsofrisingcrimedidnotbearout.Likethebestialblacksofthe
19thcentury,super-predatorsprovedtobethestuffofmyth.Thisrealization
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cannotberegardedstrictlyasamatterofhindsight.AsthehistorianNaomi
Murakawahasshowninherbook,TheFirstCivilRight:HowLiberalsBuilt
PrisonAmerica,manyDemocratsknewexactlywhattheyweredoing
playingonfearforpoliticalgainanddiditanyway.VotingontheAntiDrug
AbuseActof1986,NickRahallII,acongressmanfromWestVirginia,
admittedthathehadreservationsaboutmandatoryminimumsbutasked,
Howcanyougetcaughtvotingagainstthem?CongresswomanPatricia
SchroederofColoradoaccusedhercolleaguesofusingthe1986billtoscore
pointsbeforeanelection.Intheend,shevotedforit.Rightnow,youcould
putanamendmentthroughtohang,draw,andquarter,saidClaudePepper,
ahistoricallyliberalcongressmanfromFlorida,referringtothesamelaw.
Pepperalsovotedforit.
In1994,PresidentClintonsignedanewcrimebill,whichofferedgrantsto
statesthatbuiltprisonsandcutbackonparole.Clintonrecentlysaidthathe
regretshispivotalroleindrivingupthecountrysincarcerationnumbers.I
signedabillthatmadetheproblemworse,hetoldtheNAACPinJuly.And
Iwanttoadmitit.Injustifyinghisactionsof20yearsearlier,hepointedto
theproblemsofgangwarfareandofinnocentbystandersshotdownin
thestreets.Thosewere,andare,realproblems.Butevenintryingtoexplain
hispolicies,Clintonneglectedtoretracttheassumptionunderlyingthem
thatincarceratinglargeswathsofonepopulationwasapurelywell-intended,
logical,andnonracistresponsetocrime.Evenatthetimeofitspassage,
DemocratsmuchliketheRepublicanNixonaquartercenturyearlierknew
thatthe1994crimebillwasactuallyaboutsomethingmorethanthat.
Writingaboutthebillin1993,ClintonsaidesBruceReedandJoseCerdaIII
urgedthepresidenttoseizetheissueatatimewhenpublicconcernabout
crimeisthehighestithasbeensinceRichardNixonstoletheissuefromthe
Democratsin1968.

VI.
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ITS LIKE IM IN PRISON WITH HIM.

OntheeveningofDecember19,1973,OdellNewton,whowasthen16
yearsold,steppedintoacabinBaltimorewithafriend,rodehalfablock,
thenshotandkilledthedriver,EdwardMintz.TheStateofMarylandcharged
Odellwithcrimesincludingmurderinthefirstdegreeandsentencedhimto
lifeinprison.Hehasnowspent41yearsbehindbars,butbyallaccountsheis
amanreformed.Hehasrepeatedlyexpressedremorseforhiscrimes.Hehas
notcommittedaninfractionin36years.
TheMarylandParoleCommissionhasrecommendedOdellforreleasethree
timessince1992.ButinMaryland,allreleaserecommendationsforlifersare
subjecttothegovernorsapproval.Inthe1970s,whenOdellcommittedhis
crime,thiswaslargelyaformality.Butinoureraofpenalcruelty,Maryland
haseffectivelyabolishedparoleforlifersevenjuvenileoffenderssuchas
Odell.In2010,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthatlifesentenceswithoutthe
possibilityofparoleforjuvenilesfoundguiltyofcrimesotherthanhomicide
wereunconstitutional.Twoyearslater,itheldthesameformandatorylife
sentenceswithoutparoleforjuvenilehomicideoffenders.ButtheCourthas
yettoruleonwhetherthatmorerecentdecisionwasretroactive.Fifteen
percentofMarylandsliferscommittedtheircrimesasjuvenilesthelargest
percentageinthenation,accordingtoa2015reportbytheMaryland
RestorativeJusticeInitiativeandthestatesACLUaffiliate.Thevastmajority
ofthem84percentareblack.
Thissummer,IvisitedOdellsmother,Clara;hissisterJackie;andhisbrother
TimatClarashomeinasuburbofBaltimore.Clarahadjustdrivenseven
hoursround-triptovisitOdellatEasternCorrectionalInstitution,onthe
EasternShoreofMaryland,andshewasfullofworry.Hewasbeingtreated
forhepatitis.Hedlost50pounds.Hehadsoresaroundhiseyes.

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Odell Newtons mother, Clara, with Odells sister-in-law Lavenia, his brother Tim, and his sister Jackie
at Claras home in Maryland. (Greg Kahn)

IaskedClarahowtheymanagedtovisitOdellregularly.Sheexplainedthat
familymemberstradevisits.Ittakesalotoutofthefamily,sheexplained.
Thenyoucomebackhome,[after]youveseenhimuptherelikethat,[and]
yourecrying.Igotsobadonetime,IwaslosingweightJustthinking,Was
itgonnabeallright?Wasitgonnakillhim?Washegonnadie?

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In framed photographs, Odell. (Greg Kahn)

ClarawasbornandraisedinWestmoreland,Virginia.Shehadherfirstchild,
Jackie,whenshewasonly15.ThenextyearshemarriedJackiesfather,John
IrvinNewtonSr.TheymovedtoBaltimoresothatJohncouldpursueajobata
bakery.Westuckitoutandmadethingswork,Claratoldme.Theywere
marriedfor53years,untilJohnpassedaway,in2008.
OdellNewtonwasbornin1957.Whenhewas4yearsold,hefellilland
almostdied.Thefamilytookhimtothehospital.Doctorsputaholeinhis
throattohelphimbreathe.TheytransferredOdelltoanotherhospital,where
hewasdiagnosedwithleadpoisoning.Itturnedoutthathehadbeenputting
hismouthonthewindowsill.
Wedidntsuenobody.Wedidntknownothingaboutthat,Claratoldme.
Andwhenwefinallyfoundoutthatyoucouldsue,Odellwas15.Andthey
saidtheycouldntdoanything,becausewewaitedtoolong.
Inprison,OdellhasrepeatedlyattemptedtogainhisG.E.D.,failingthetest
severaltimes.MypreviousgradeschoolteachernotedthatIshouldbe
placedinspecialeducation,Odellwroteina2014lettertohislawyer.Itis
unclearwhatrollchildhoodleadpoisoningplayedinmyanalytical
capabilities.

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InJuneof1964,thefamilymovedintoanicerhouse,inEdmondsonVillage.
Sometimearoundninthgrade,ClarabegantosuspectthatOdellwaslagging
behindtheotherkidsinhisclass.Wedidntfindoutthathewasreally
delayeduntilhewasalmostreadytoenterintohighschool,Jackietoldme.
Theyjustpassedhimonandpassedhimon.Aroundthistime,Clarasays,
Odellgotmixedupwiththewrongcrowd.Notuntilhewrotehisfirstletter
homefromprisondidClaraunderstandthedepthofhisintellectual
disability.Theletterreadasthoughithadbeenwrittenbyachildjust
startingpre-Korkindergarten,Claratoldme.Hecouldntreallyspell.And,
Idontknow,itjustdidntlooklikeapersonofhisageshouldbewritinglike
that.
OdellNewtonisnow57.Hehasspentthelionsshareofhislifedoingtime
understatesupervision.Thetimehesservedhasnotaffectedhimalone.If
menandwomenlikeOdellarecastdeepwithinthebarrensoftheGray
Wastes,theirfamiliesareheldinakindoforbit,ontheoutskirts,bythe
relentlessgravityofthecarceralstate.Forstarters,thefamilymustcontend
withthefinancialexpenseofhavingalovedoneincarcerated.Odellsparents
tookoutasecondmortgagetopayfortheirsonslawyers,andthenathird.
Beyondthat,therestheexpenseofhavingtomakelongdrivestoprisonsthat
arecommonlybuiltinruralwhiteregions,farfromtheincarceratedsfamily.
Therestheexpenseofphonecalls,andofconstantlyrestockinganinmates
commissary.Takentogether,theseeconomicfactorsfraymanyafamilys
bonds.
Andthenthereistheemotionalweight,amixofangerandsadness.WhileI
wasinDetroitlastwinter,IinterviewedPatriciaLowe,whosesonEdward
Spanhadbeenincarceratedatage16,sentencedtonineandahalfto15
yearsforcarjacking,amongotheroffenses.WhenImetwithPatricia,Edward
wasaboutthreeyearsintohissentence,andshewasasworriedforhimasshe
wasangryathim.Hedrecentlybeguncallinghomeandrequestinglarge
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sumsofmoney.Shewasafraidhewasbeingextortedbyotherprisoners.At
thesametime,shewasunhappyaboutcarryingtheburdenEdwardhad
placedonherafterallthehardworkshedputinasamother.Heneverate
schoollunch.Iwouldgetupinthemorningandmakesubs,sandwiches,
salads,spaghetti,friedchicken,shesaid.Wehaddysfunction,butwhat
familydont?Theresnoexcuseforhismisbehavior.Sowhateveryoudidout
there,youcantdoinhere.Youknowwhatitsabout.Itoldyououthere
whatsgoingtohappeninthere.Soyougavemeheartacheouthere.You
cantgiveittomeinthere.
Buttheheartachewasunavoidable.ItslikeIminprisonwithhim.Ifeel
likeImdoingeverydayofthatnine-and-a-halfto15.Whenhewas17,
Edwardwastakenfromjuveniledetentionandputinanadultprison.Evenin
juvenile,Edwardcouldntsleepatnight.Hefearedgoingtoprison,Patricia
toldme.Hecallshomeandtellsmehesokay.ButIknowdifferentbecause
hehasafemalefriendhecalls.Hecantsleep.Hesworriedabouthissafety.

Odell Newton was 16 when he killed a cab driver. Four decades later, his family is still hoping for
his release.

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OdellsbrotherTimgraduatedfromSalisburyStateCollegewithadegreein
sociologyin1982.Twoyearslater,hetookajobwiththeStateofMaryland
asacorrectionsofficer.For20years,whileoneson,Odell,servedtimeunder
thestate,anotherson,Tim,workedforit.ThisgaveTimafront-rowseatfor
observinghowMarylandscarceralsystemgrewmorepunitive.Whereas
inmateshadoncedonetheirtimeandgonetopre-releasefacilities,nowthey
werestayinglonger.Requirementsforreleasebecamemoreonerous.
Meanwhile,theprisonswerefillingtocapacityandbeyond.Theyjustkept
overcrowdingandovercrowdingandnotlettingpeoplegohome,Timtold
me.Theprisonsbeganholdingtwopeopleincellsmeantforone.Ifyourein
an8-by-10spacethatsonlybigenoughforonepersonandnowyougottwo
peopleinthere,itsjustmoreaggravation,Timsaid.Andthentheycutout
alotofthecollegeprogramsthattheydidhave.Theycutouttheweights
beingintheyard.
Theovercrowding,thestrippingofprogramsandresources,werepartofthe
nationalmovementtowardpunishinginmatesmoreharshlyandforlonger
periods.Officially,Marylandhastwokindsoflifesentenceslifewiththe
possibilityofparole,andlifewithout.Inthe1970s,Marylandsgovernor
paroled92lifers.ParoleforlifersdeclinedafterMarvinMandelslastterm
ended,in1979,andthengroundtoahaltin1993,whenRodneyStokesa
liferoutonworkreleasekilledhisgirlfriendandthenhimself.Parris
Glendening,theDemocraticgovernorelectedin1994,declared,Alife
sentencemeanslife.GlendeningsRepublicansuccessor,RobertL.Ehrlich
Jr.,commutedfiveliferssentencesandgrantedonlyasingleinstanceof
medicalparole.
In2006,MartinOMalley(whoscurrentlyvyingtobetheDemocrats
nomineeforpresidentin2016)defeatedEhrlichtobecomegovernor,buthe
tookanevenstricterstanceonlifersthanhispredecessor,failingtoacton
evenasinglerecommendationoftheParoleCommission.Recognizingthat
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thesystemhadbrokendown,theMarylandlegislaturechangedthelawin
2011sothatthecommissionsrecommendationswouldautomaticallybe
carriedoutifthegovernordidnotrejectthemwithin180days.Thischanged
almostnothing.Afterthelawspassage,OMalleyvetoednearlyevery
recommendationthatreachedhisdesk.
Thisisnotsoundpolicyforfightingcrimeorprotectingcitizens.InMaryland,
theaverageliferwhohasbeenrecommendedforbutnotgrantedreleaseis
60yearsold.Thesemenandwomenarepasttheageofcriminal
menopause,assomeputit,andmostposenothreattotheircommunity.
Evenso,theMarylandParoleCommissionsrecommendationisnoteasily
attained:Between2006and2014,itrecommendedonlyabout80outof
morethan2,100eligiblelifersforrelease.Almostnoneofthose80orsomen
andwomen,despitemeetingastringentsetofrequirements,wasgranted
releasebythegovernor.ThoughMarylandsParoleCommissionstilloffers
recommendationsforlifers,theyaredisregarded.Thechoicegiventojudges
tolevysentencesforlifeeitherwithorwithoutparolenolongerhasany
meaning.
Formorethanfiveyears,fromFebruary1988toJune1993,OdellNewton
workedinthecommunitythroughworkrelease;forpartofthatperiod,he
wasabletovisithisrelativesthroughthestatesfamily-leavepolicy.Reports
fromOdellsformerwork-releaseemployersareglowing.Hischaracteris
abovereproach,onewrotein1991.Anothersaid:Iconsideritaprivilege
tohaveMr.Newtonasanemployee,andwouldrehireOdellatanytime.
Withhisfamily,hewouldoftengoouttoeat,orhaveacookoutoraparty.
FamilyleavewassupposedtobeabridgetoOdellseventualrelease.Butthe
programwassuspendedforlifersinMayof1993,afteraconvictedmurderer
fledwhilevisitinghisson.TheStokeskillingfollowedjustweekslater.After
that,parolewaseffectivelytakenoffthetableforalllifers,andMaryland
endedworkreleaseforthemaswell.BelievingforyearsthatOdellwasonhis
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waytocominghome,andthenseeingtheroadtofreedomsnatchedaway,
frustratedthefamily.Icouldseeyoudoingittopeoplethatsstartingout
new,andthisisanewlawyoureputtingdown,hissisterJackietoldme.But
thisislikemebuyingahouseandIhaveitoneprice,thenwhenyoucomein
andsignthepapers,theyregoing,Ohno,Ichangedmymind,Iwant
$10,000moreforit.
IaskedOdellsfamilyhowtheycopedwiththeexperience.Youjusthaveto
prayandkeeppraying,hismothertoldme.
FormostofOdellstimeinprison,thepowertosignthepapershasrestedin
thehandsofDemocrats,whoinrecentdecadeshavetakenalineonlifersat
leastasharshasanyRepublicanhas.TheGlendeningadministrations
policies,andGov.MartinOMalleypoliciesmadeaparoleablelifesentencea
nonparoleablesentence,Odellwrotetohislawyer,andthatsnotright.

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Patricia Lowe and her son Uriah sit on the bed of Patricias other son Edward, who has been
incarcerated since he was 16. Edward is currently serving the fourth year of a 9.5-to-15-year sentence.
August 8, 2015. (Greg Kahn)

VII.
OUR VALUE SYSTEM BECAME SURVIVING VERSUS LIVING.
Borninthelate1950s,OdellNewtonwaspartofthegenerationthatso
troubledMoynihanwhenhewrotehisreportonTheNegroFamily.But
OdellhadtheverybulwarkthatMoynihantreasuredastablefamilyandit
didnotsavehimfromincarceration.Itwouldbewrongtoconcludefromthis
thatfamilyisirrelevant.Butfamiliesdontexistindependentoftheir
environment.Odellwasborninthemidstofaneraofgovernment-backed
housingdiscrimination.Indeed,Baltimorewasapioneerinthispracticein
1910,thecitycouncilhadzonedthecitybyrace.Blacksshouldbe
quarantinedinisolatedslums,J.BarryMahool,Baltimoresmayor,said.
AftertheU.S.SupremeCourtruledsuchexplicitracial-zoningschemes
unconstitutional,in1917, thecityturnedtoothermeansrestrictive
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covenants,civicassociations,andredliningtokeepblacksisolated[18] .
[18] I first saw this in Richard
Rothsteins excellent report From
Ferguson to Baltimore: The Fruits
of Government-Sponsored
Segregation. Rothstein is brilliant
and has the kind of fine
understanding of the machinery of
government policy as it relates to
housing that I deeply envy. You
can see that on display here in this
conversation with Terry Gross.

Theseeffortscurtailedtheabilityofblackpeople
tobuybetterhousing,tomovetobetter
neighborhoods,andtobuildwealth.Also,by
confiningblackpeopletothesame
neighborhoods,theseeffortsensuredthatpeople
whowerediscriminatedagainst,andhencehad
little,tendedtobeneighborsonlywithothers
whoalsohadlittle. Thuswhileanindividualin
thatcommunitymightbehigh-achieving,even

high-earning,hisorherabilitytoincreasethatachievementandwealthand
socialcapital,throughfriendship,marriage,orneighborhoodorganizations,
wouldalwaysbelimited.[19] Finally,racial
[19] A lot of this section depends
on the ever-insightful Robert
Sampson, and more broadly the
focus on neighborhood dynamics
in contemporary sociology. The
notion of compounded
deprivation, which Rob discusses
here, really elucidates the difficulty
in making easy comparisons
between blacks and whites. And
so talking about a white middle
class and a black middle class as

zoningcondemnedblackpeopletotheoldestand
worsthousinginthecitythekindwhereonewas
morelikelytobeexposed,asOdellNewtonwas,
tolead.Alawyerwhohandledmorethan4,000
lead-poisoningcasesacrossthreedecades
recentlydescribedhisclientlisttoThe
WashingtonPost:Nearly99.9percentofmy
clientswereblack.

though they are socio-economic

equals, or as though the only
difference is having to give their
children The Talk really misses
that these two groups live in
different worlds. Specifically, the
world of the black middle class is
because of policysignificantly
poorer. Thus to wonder about the

Thatfamiliesarebetteroffthestrongerandmore
stabletheyareisself-evidentlyimportant.Butso
isthenotionthatnofamilycaneverbemade
impregnable,thatfamiliesaresocialstructures
existingwithinlargersocialstructures.

difference in outcomes between

the black and white middle class,
is really to wonder about the
difference in weight between

RobertSampson,asociologistatHarvardwho
focusesoncrimeandurbanlife,notesthatin

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humans living on the Earth and

humans living on the moon.

Americasghettos,likethingstendtogo
together.Highratesofincarceration,singleparenthouseholds,droppingoutofschool,and

povertyarenotunrelatedvectors.Instead,takentogether,theyconstitute
whatSampsoncallscompoundeddeprivationentirefamilies,entire
neighborhoods,deprivedinmyriadways,mustnavigate,allatonce,atangle
ofinterrelatedandreinforcingperils.
Blackpeoplefacethistangleofperilsatitsdensest.Inarecentstudy,
Sampsonandaco-authorlookedattwotypesofdeprivationbeing
individuallypoor,andlivinginapoorneighborhood.Unsurprisingly,they
foundthatblackstendtobeindividuallypoorandtoliveinpoor
neighborhoods.Butevenblackswhoarenotthemselvesindividuallypoorare
morelikelytoliveinpoorneighborhoodsthanwhitesandLatinoswhoare
individuallypoor.Forblackpeople,escapingpovertydoesnotmeanescaping
apoorneighborhood.And blacksaremuchmorelikelythanallothergroups
tofallintocompoundeddeprivationlaterinlife[20] ,eveniftheymanagedto
avoiditwhentheywereyoung.
[20] Taken from a forthcoming
paper by Sampson and Kristin L.
Perkins, Compounded
Deprivation in the Transition to
Adulthood: The Intersection of
Racial and Economic Inequality
among Chicagoans, 1995-2013, in
the Russell Sage Foundation
Journal of the Social Sciences.

Itsnotjustbeingpoor;itsdiscriminationinthe
housingmarket,itssubprimeloans,itsdrug
addictionandthenallofthatfollowingyouover
time,Sampsontoldmerecently.Wetrytosplit
thingsoutandsay,Well,youcanbepoorbutstill
havetheseothercharacteristicsandqualities.

ItsthemythoftheAmericanDreamthatwithinitiativeandindustriousness,
anindividualcanalwaysescapeimpoverishedcircumstances.Butwhatthe
datashowisthatyouhavethesemultipleassaultsonlifechancesthatmake
transcendingthosecircumstancesdifficultandattimesnearlyimpossible.
OnabriskThursdaymorninglastDecember,IclimbedintoanSUVwithCarl
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S.TaylorandYusefBunchyShakuranddrovetotheWestSideofDetroit,
wherebothmenhadgrownup.Shakurisacommunityactivistandtheauthor
oftwobookschroniclinghisroadtoprison,hisexperienceinside,andhis
returntosociety.TaylorisasociologistatMichiganStateUniversity,where
heresearchesurbancommunitiesandviolenceandservesasanadviserto
Michigansprisonsandjuveniledetentioncenters.A24-yearagegap
separatesTaylorandShakur,agapthatsreflectedintheirvisionsofDetroit.
Shakur,whois42,recallsatownravagedbydeindustrialization,where
unemploymentwasrampant,socialinstitutionshadfailed,andgangshad
takentheirplace.Thecommunitycollapsed,Shakursaid.Ourvalue
systembecamesurvivingversusliving.Drugs,gangs,lackofeducationall
cametotheforefront.Andprisonandincarceration.

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After serving time in prison, Yusef Bunchy Shakur became a community activist in Detroit.
Photographed at his mothers home on the West Side of Detroit. August 8, 2015. (Greg Kahn)

Taylor,whois66,recallsamorehopefulcommunitywhereblack
professionalslivednextdoortoblackfactoryworkersandblackmaidsand
blackgangsters,andthestreetswerepackedwithbars,factories,and
restaurants.Allofthiswasfilled,Taylorsaid,pointingoutthecarwindow
atarowofabandonedhousing.Everybodywasworking.Itwassmaller
factoriesallupanddown.Butthestripwasherealso.ThelegendaryChit
ChatLoungewasdownhere,wheretheMotownandjazzmusiciansplayed.
WestoppedonthedesolatecornerofHazelwoodand12thStreet.Ilivedin
thatfirsthouserighttherethatsboardedup,Taylorsaid.Hepointedoutat
thestreet,gesturingtowardbusinessesandneighborslonggone.Righthere
wasadrugstoreandproduce.Therewasablackwomanrightherethatowned
adrapery-cleaningbusiness.Negroesusedtohavedraperies!Herewasthe
wigshopandthebeautysalonforthestreetgirls.Churchladieswerentgoing
inthere.Ilivedrighthere,andthisisaverypowerfulplaceforme.Inblack
citiesaroundthecountry,JimCrowwithitshousingsegregationandjob
discriminationimposedboundaries.Andwithinthoseboundariesanorder
tookroot.Thisworldwastheproductofoppressionbutitwasaworld
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belovedbythepeoplewholivedthere.Itisamatterofsomeironythatthe
timeperiodandthecommunitiesTaylorwasdescribingwithfondnostalgia
arethesameonesthatsoalarmedDanielPatrickMoynihanin1965.Taylor
wasnotblindtotheproblemsmanyofthemoutlinedinMoynihansreport
buthedescribedthemasembeddedwithinalargersocialfabric,givingthem
akindofhumanitythatMoynihansalarmismstrippedaway.
Thiswasthegoodtime,thegoodlife,Taylorsaid.Andwhentheriothit,
thisiswhereitjumpedoff.
Likesomanyurbanriotsduringthelong,hotsummersofthe1960s,
Detroitsbeganwithlawenforcement.OnJuly23,1967,theDetroitpolice
raidedanafter-hourswateringholeontheWestSide.Forseveraldays,the
citysblackcommunitiesburned.Asinothercities,theriotdemarcatedthe
endofthegoodlife.Infactthegoodlife,totheextentiteverexisted,had
begundecayinglongbefore.AsThomasJ.Sugrue,ahistorianatNewYork
University,observesinhisbookTheOriginsoftheUrbanCrisis:Raceand
InequalityinPostwarDetroit,Between1947and1963,Detroitlost134,000
manufacturingjobs,whileitspopulationofworking-agedmenandwomen
actuallyincreased.Fromtheendofthe1940stothebeginningofthe
1960s,Detroitsufferedfourmajorrecessions.Automakersbeganmovingto
otherpartsofthecountry,andeventuallytootherpartsoftheworld. Theloss
ofjobsmeantalossofbuyingpower,affectingdrugstores,grocerystores,
restaurants,anddepartmentstores.[21] Bythe
[21] One of my great irritants is
how so much of our discussions
on race and racism proceed from

late1950s,Sugruewrites,Detroitsindustrial
landscapehadbecomealmostunrecognizable.

the notion that American history

begins in the 1960s. The
discussions around Detroit is the
obvious example. There is a
popular narrative which holds that
Detroit was a glorious city and the
riots ruined it. Thomas J. Sugrues

BlackresidentsofDetroithadtocopenotjust
withthesamestructuralproblemsaswhite
residentsbutalsowithpervasiveracism.Withina
precariouseconomy,blackpeoplegenerally

The Origins Of the Urban Crisis

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does a great job at dialing back

this idea and pointing to the long
arc of the citys decline.

workedthelowest-payingjobs.Theycamehome
fromthosejobstothecityspoorest
neighborhoods,wheremostofthemusedtheir

substandardwagestopayinflatedpricesforinferiorhousing.Attemptsto
escapeintowhiteneighborhoodswerefrustratedbyrestrictivecovenants,
racistreal-estateagents,blockassociations,andresidentswhosetactics
included,asSugruewrites,harassment,massdemonstrations,picketing,
effigyburning,windowbreaking,arson,vandalism,andphysicalattacks.
Someblackswerericherthanothers.Somewerebettereducatedthanothers.
Butallwereconstricted,notbyatangleofpathologies,butbyatangleof
structuralperils.

Peril is generational for black people in Americaand

incarceration is our mechanism for maintaining that
peril.
Thefiresof1967convenientlyobscuredthoseperils.Butthestructural
problems,alongwiththewaveofdeindustrialization,werewhatgifted
AmericawiththemodernNegroproblem.Bythe1970s,thegovernment
institutionchargedwithmediatingtheseproblemswas,inthemain,the
criminal-justicesystem.AswedrovearoundDetroit,Shakurdescribedthe
worldinwhichtheblackmenheknewcameofageinthe1970sand80s.
Outofevery10men,probablysevenoftheirfathershavebeeninprison.
Possiblytwooftheirmothershavebeenkilled.Themajorityoftheirfathers
andmothershaventgraduatedfromhighschool.Shakursoundedalotlike
Moynihanexceptheunderstoodthatthefamilywasinteractingwith
somethinglarger.Whenyougrowupandyouseennothingbutdrugs,you
seennothingbutprostitution,thatbecomesnormal,hesaid.Sowhenyou
talkaboutCarlTaylor,whowenttocollegeandgraduateschooland
becameaprofessorCarlbecomesabnormal,becausehessofarfrommy
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world.IvenevertalkedwithadoctoruntilhebesewingmeupafterIgot
shot.Inevertalkedwithalawyeruntilhewassendingmetoprison.Inever
talkedwithajudgeuntilheconvictedme.
TheblacksincarceratedinthiscountryarenotlikethemajorityofAmericans.
Theydonotmerelyhailfrompoorcommunitiestheyhailfromcommunities
thathavebeenimperiledacrossboththedeepandimmediatepast,and
continuetobeimperiledtoday.Perilisgenerationalforblackpeoplein
Americaandincarcerationisourcurrentmechanismforensuringthatthe
perilcontinues.Incarcerationpushesyououtofthejobmarket.Incarceration
disqualifiesyoufromfeedingyourfamilywithfoodstamps.Incarceration
allowsforhousingdiscriminationbasedonacriminal-backgroundcheck.
Incarcerationincreasesyourriskofhomelessness.Incarcerationincreases
yourchancesofbeingincarceratedagain.Theprisonboomhelpsus
understandhowracialinequalityinAmericawassustained,despitegreat
optimismforthesocialprogressofAfricanAmericans,BruceWestern,the
Harvardsociologist,writes.Theprisonboomisnotthemaincauseof
inequalitybetweenblacksandwhitesinAmerica,butitdidforecloseupward
mobilityanddeflatehopesforracialequality.

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This was the good time, the good life, says Carl S. Taylor, a sociologist at Michigan State University,
talking about 1960s Detriot before riots and mass incarceration eviscerated the black community.
August 8, 2015. (Greg Kahn)

Ifgenerationalperilisthepitinwhichallblackpeopleareborn,incarceration
isthetrapdoorclosingoverhead.AfricanAmericansinourdataaredistinct
frombothLatinosandwhites,RobertSampsontoldme.Evenwhenwe
controlformaritalstatusandfamilyhistoryofcriminality,westillseethese
strongdifferences.ThecompoundeddeprivationthatAfricanAmericans
experienceisachallengeevenindependentofallthecharacteristicswethink
areprotective.
CharacteristicssuchastheoneDanielPatrickMoynihanfocusedonfamily.

VIII.
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THE NEGRO POOR HAVING BECOME MORE OPENLY VIOLENT

Moynihanisinthemidstofarenaissance.Fiftyyearsafterthepublicationof
TheNegroFamily:TheCaseforNationalAction,acoterieofsociologists,
historians,andwritersaredeclaringitprophecy.Intheirversionofhistory,a
courageousandblamelessMoynihanmadeonemistake:Hetoldthetruth.
ForhissinslovingtheblackfamilyenoughtobehonestMoynihanwas
crucifiedbyanintolerantcabalofobstinateleftistsandBlackPower
demagogues.LiberalsbrutallydenouncedMoynihanasaracist,the
columnistNicholasKristofwroteinTheNewYorkTimesthispastspring.In
theeyesofhisnewacolytes,Moynihanhasbeenvindicatedbytherising
percentageoffemale-headedhouseholdsandtheintractableproblemsof
Americasinnercities.Intimidatedbythevitriolicattacksandacrimonious
debateovertheblackfamily,asthesociologistWilliamJuliusWilsonhasput
it,liberalscholarssteeredclearofthecontroversy.Conservativesstepped
intothebreach,eagerlytakingupMoynihanschargetoexaminethefamily,
butstrippingitofanystructuralcontext,anddoomingthedreamofa
benevolentwelfarestate.
AraftofsociologicalresearchhasindeedborneoutMoynihansskepticism
aboutblackprogress,aswellashiswarningsaboutthekindofconcentrated
povertythatflowedfromsegregation. Moynihansobservationaboutthe
insufficiencyofcivil-rightslegislationhasbeenprovedlargelycorrect.[22]
Moreover,Moynihansconcernaboutthe
[22] This seems like the right place
to thank Peter-Christian Aigner,
who is working on a biography of
Moynihan. While Peter doesnt yet
have a book for me to cite, his
insights on Moynihan were crucial
in guiding me to sources and
thinking about the context for The

decliningratesoftwo-parenthouseholdswould
havestrucktheaverageblackresidentofHarlem
in1965aswellplaced.Nationalistleaderslike
MalcolmXdrewmuchoftheirappealthrough
theircallsforshoringuptheblackfamily.

Negro Family: The Case for

National Action.

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The Other Half of the Moynihan Report

ButifMoynihanspastcriticsexhibitedanignoranceofhisoeuvreandhis
intent,hiscurrentdefendersexhibitanavetindefenseoftheirhero.The
NegroFamilyisaflawedworkinpartbecauseitisafundamentallysexist
documentthatpromotestheimportancenotjustoffamilybutofpatriarchy,
arguingthatblackmenshouldbeempoweredattheexpenseofblackwomen.
Menmusthavejobs,MoynihanwrotetoPresidentJohnsonin1965.We
mustnotrestuntileveryable-bodiedNegromaleisworking.Evenifwehave
todisplacesomefemales. Moynihanwasevidentlyunconcernedthathe
mightbearguingforproppingupanorderinwhichwomenwereboundto
menbyapaycheck[23] ,inwhichfamilystill
[23] More on this count: In 1967,
Time magazine put Moynihan on
the cover, dubbing him an
urbanologist. Discussing what
hed do about the problem among

meanttherightofahusbandtorapehiswifeand
intramaritalviolencewasstilltreatedasapurely
domesticandnonlegalmatter.

blacks in cities, Moynihan said,

When these Negro G.I.s come
back from Viet Nam, I would meet
them with a real estate agent, a
girl who looks like Diahann Carroll,
and a list of jobs. Id try to get half
of them into the grade schools,
teaching kids whove never had
anyone but women telling them
what to do. Everything about this
quote is wrong.

Moynihansdefendersalsooverlookhisrecord
afterheenteredtheNixonWhiteHousein1969.
Perhapsstillsmartingfromhistreatmentinthe
Johnsonadministration,MoynihanfedNixons
antipathiesagainstelites,collegestudents,and
blacksandstokedthepresidentsfearsabout
crime.InamemotoNixon,heassertedthata
greatdealofthecrimeintheblackcommunity

wasreallyamanifestationofanti-whiteracism:Hatredrevengeagainst
whitesisnowanacceptableexcusefordoingwhatmighthavebeendone
anyway.Likehisforebearswhodcriminalizedblacks,Moynihanclaimed
thateducationhaddonelittletomollifythehatred.Itwouldbedifficultto
overestimatethedegreetowhichyoungwelleducatedblacksdetestwhite
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America.
WhereasJohnson,guidedbyMoynihan,haddeclaredthatwhiteAmerica
mustacceptresponsibilityfortheproblemsoftheblackcommunity,
MoynihanwroteNixonthattheNegrolowerclasswouldappeartobe
unusuallyself-damaging.Hecontinued:

TheNegropoorhavingbecomemoreopenlyviolentespeciallyin
theformoftheriotingofthemid1960stheyhavegiventhe
blackmiddleclassanincomparableweaponwithwhichtothreaten
whiteAmerica.Thishasbeenformanyanaltogetherintoxicating
experience.Dothisorthecitieswillburn.Whatbuilding
contractsandpolicegraftweretothe19th-centuryurbanIrish,the
welfaredepartment,HeadStart,andBlackStudiesprogramswill
betothecominggenerationofNegroes.Theyareofcoursevery
wiseinthisrespect.

Inthissamememo[24] ,Moynihanominously
[24] Nicholas Lemann quotes this
deeply unfortunate memo in his
book The Promised Land: The

Great Migration and How It

Changed America.

citedaratherpronouncedrevivalin
impeccablyrespectablecirclesofthe
propositionthatthereisadifferenceingenetic
potentialbetweenthetworaces.Moynihan

claimedthathedidnotbelieveinageneticdifferenceinintelligence,butsaid
heconsideredthematteranopenquestion.
Crimereallydidbegintoriseduringtheearly1970s.Butbythispoint,
Moynihanhadchanged.AccordingtotheMoynihanoftheNixonera,
middle-classblackswerenothardworkingAmericansattemptingtoget
aheadtheyweremobstersdemandingprotectionmoneyinexchangeforthe
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safetyofAmericascities.Andtheunusuallyself-damagingblackpoor
werehaplesstools,theknifeatthethroatofblamelesswhiteAmerica.In
castingAfricanAmericansasbeyondthepurviewofpoliteandcivilized
society,inreferringtothemasaraceofcriminals,Moynihanjoinedthelong
traditionofblackcriminalization.Insodoing,heunderminedhisownstated
aimsinwritingTheNegroFamilyinthefirstplace.Onedoesnotbuilda
safetynetforaraceofpredators.Onebuildsacage.
WhatevertheslingsandarrowsMoynihansufferedinthe1960s,hisvision
dominatesliberalpoliticaldiscoursetoday.OnehearsMoynihaninBarack
Obamasculturalcritiqueofblackfathersandblackfamilies.Strainsof
MoynihansthinkingranthroughBillClintonspresidency.Wecannot
repairtheAmericancommunityandrestoretheAmericanfamilyuntilwe
providethestructure,thevalues,thediscipline,andtherewardthatwork
gives,PresidentClintontoldagroupofblackchurchleadersinMemphisin
1993.Hearguedforapolicyinitiativeonthreefrontsjobs,family,and
crimebutthecountryscommitmenttoeachofthesepropositionsproved
unequal.IncarcerationsoaredduringClintonstwoterms.Theresverylittle
evidencethatitbroughtdowncrimeandabundantevidencethatithindered
employmentforblackmen,andacceleratedthekindoffamilybreakdown
thatClintonandMoynihanbothlamented.Intheireffortstostrengthenthe
blackfamily,ClintonandMoynihanandObama,tooaspiredtocombine
governmentsocialprogramswithculturalcritiquesofghettopathology(the
both/andnotion,asObamahastermedit),andtheybelievedthat
Americanswerecapableoftakingincritiquesofblackcultureandwhite
racismatonce.Butthisunderestimatedtheweightofthecountryshistory.

It would be difficult to overestimate the degree to

which young well educated blacks detest white
America. Daniel Patrick Moynihan to Richard
Nixon, 1970
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ForAfricanAmericans,unfreedomisthehistoricalnorm.Enslavementlasted
fornearly250years.The150yearsthatfollowedhaveencompasseddebt
peonage,convictlease-labor,andmassincarcerationaperiodthat
overlappedwithJimCrow.Thisprovidesatellinggeographiccomparison.
UnderJimCrow,blacksintheSouthlivedinapolicestate.Ratesof
incarcerationwerenotthathightheydidntneedtobe,becausestatesocial
controlofblackswasnearlytotal.Then,asAfricanAmericansmigrated
north,apolicestategrewuparoundthemthere,too.Inthecitiesofthe
North,Europeanimmigrantsstruggleforthecredentialofwhitenessgave
themthemotivetooppressblacks,writesChristopherMuller,asociologistat
Columbiawhostudiesincarceration:AcentralwayEuropeanimmigrants
advancedpoliticallyintheyearsprecedingthefirstGreatMigrationwasby
securingpatronagepositionsinmunicipalservicessuchaslawenforcement.
By1900,theblackincarcerationrateintheNorthwasabout600per
100,000slightlylowerthanthenationalincarcerationratetoday.
Thatearly-20th-centuryratesofblackimprisonmentwerelowerintheSouth
thanintheNorthrevealshowthecarceralstatefunctionsasasystemof
control.JimCrowappliedthecontrolintheSouth.Massincarcerationdidit
intheNorth.Afterthecivil-rightsmovementtriumphedinthe1960sand
toppledJimCrowlaws,theSouthadoptedthetacticsoftheNorth,andits
ratesofimprisonmentsurgedfarpasttheNorths.Massincarceration
becamethenationalmodelofsocialcontrol.Indeed,whiletheGrayWastes
haveexpandedtheirpopulation,theirmostsignificantcharacteristicremains
unchanged: In1900,theblack-whiteincarcerationdisparityintheNorth
wasseventoone[25] roughlythesamedisparity
[25] The historical numbers on
mass incarceration come from

thatexiststodayonanationalscale.

Christopher Mullers 2012 article,

Northward Migration and the
Rise of Racial Disparity in

IX.

American Incarceration, 1880

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1950.

NOW COMES THE PROPOSITION THAT THE

NEGRO IS ENTITLED TO DAMAGES.

InhisinauguralyearasthegovernorofTexas,1995,GeorgeW.Bush
presidedoveragovernmentthatopenedanewprisonnearlyeveryweek.
UnderBush,thestatesprisonbudgetrosefrom$1.4billionto$2.4billion,
andthetotalnumberofprisonbedswentfromabout118,000tomorethan
166,000.AlmostadecadelaterBush,bythenthepresidentoftheUnited
States,decidedthathe,andtherestofthecountry,hadmadeamistake.
Thisyear,some600,000inmateswillbereleasedfromprisonbackinto
society,Bushsaidduringhis2004StateoftheUnionaddress.Weknow
fromlongexperiencethatiftheycantfindwork,orahome,orhelp,theyare
muchmorelikelytocommitcrimeandreturntoprison.
Asweenterthe2016presidential-electioncycle,candidatesonbothsidesof
thepartisandivideareechoingBushscall.FromtheDemocraticSocialist
BernieSanders(Tomymind,itmakeseminentlymoresensetoinvestin
jobsandeducation,ratherthanjailsandincarceration)tomainstream
progressiveslikeHillaryClinton(Withoutthemassincarcerationthatwe
currentlypractice,millionsfewerpeoplewouldbelivinginpoverty)torightwingTeaPartycandidateslikeTedCruz(Harshmandatoryminimum
sentencesfornonviolentdrugcrimeshavecontributedtoprison
overpopulationandarebothunfairandineffective),thereisnowbroad
agreementthatthesprawlingcarceralstatemustbedismantled.Longtime
criminal-justice-reformactivistswhostruggledthroughthetough-on-crime
90sareheartenedtoseethelikesofKochIndustries,aconglomerateowned
bypatronsofthelibertarianright,teamingupwiththeCenterforAmerican
Progress,aliberalthinktank,inserviceofdecarceration.
ButthetaskisHerculean.Thechangesneededtoachieveanincarceration
rateinlinewiththerestofthedevelopedworldarestaggering.In1972,the
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U.S.incarcerationratewas161per100,000slightlyhigherthanthe
EnglishandWelshincarcerationratetoday(148per100,000).Toreturnto
that1972level,Americawouldhavetocutitsprisonandjailpopulationby
some80percent.Thepopularnotionthatthiscanlargelybeaccomplishedby
releasingnonviolentdrugoffendersisfalseasof2012,54percentofall
inmatesinstateprisonshadbeensentencedforviolentoffenses.Themythis
thatwehavealotofpeopleinprisonandabunchofgoodguys,andwecan
easilyseethedifferencebetweenthegoodguysandthebadguys,says
MarieGottschalk,apoliticalscientistattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaand
theauthoroftherecentbookCaught:ThePrisonStateandtheLockdownof
AmericanPolitics.Herpointisthatitsoftenhardtotellanonviolentoffender
fromaviolentoffender.Isamarijuanadealerwhobrandishesaswitchbladea
violentcriminal?Howaboutthegetawaydriverinanarmedrobbery?And
whatifsomeonenowservingtimeforaminordrugoffensehasaprior
convictionforaggravatedassault?One2004studyfoundthattheproportion
ofunambiguouslylow-leveldrugoffenderscouldbelessthan6percentin
stateprisonsandlessthan2percentinfederalones.

One does not build a safety net for a race of predators.

One builds a cage.
Decarcerationraisesadifficultquestion:Whatdowemeanbyviolentcrime,
andhowshoulditbepunished?Andwhatisthemorallogicthatallows
foreverbanishingtheOdellNewtonsofAmericatotheGrayWastes?Atthe
moment,thatmorallogic,asevidencedbythefrequencywithwhichthe
UnitedStateslocksuppeopleforlife,remainspeculiarlyAmerican.Some50
outofevery100,000Americansareservingalifesentencewhichis,
Gottschalknotes,aratecomparabletotheincarcerationrateforall
prisoners,includingpretrialdetainees,inSwedenandotherScandinavian
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countries.Ifonepurposeofprisonistoprotectthepublic,thenhighratesof
lifeimprisonmentmakelittlesense,becauseoffenders,includingthose
convictedofviolentcrimes,tendtoageoutofcrime.Arguingforleniency
towardviolentcriminalsisnoteasypolitically.InmanyEuropeancountries,a
10-yearsentenceevenforaviolentcrimewouldseemharshtocitizens,but
GottschalkobservesthatthefactthatAmericanprisonsarefilledwithlifers
anddefactoliferswhowilllikelydieinprisonmakesthetypicalEuropean
sentenceseemlenienttoAmericanpoliticiansandtheirconstituents.Thus
theinitialimpedimenttoundoingmassincarcerationinAmericaisnotthat
wedonthavetheanswersforhowtotreatviolentcrimeitsthatourpolitics
seemallergictotheveryquestion.
TheGrayWastesareamoralabominationforreasonsbeyondthesheer
numberoftheirtenants.In1970thenationalcorrectionalsystemwasmuch
smallerthanitistoday,butevenso,blackswereincarceratedatseveraltimes
therateofwhites.Thereisnoreasontoassumethatasmallercorrectional
systeminevitablymeansamoreequitablecorrectionalsystem.Examining
Minnesotassystem,RichardS.Frase,aprofessorofcriminallawatthe
UniversityofMinnesota,foundastatewhoserelativelysanejusticepolicies
giveitoneofthelowestincarcerationratesinthecountryandyetwhose
economicdisparitiesgiveitoneoftheworstblack-whiteincarcerationratios
inthecountry.Changingcriminal-justicepolicydidverylittletochangethe
factthatblackscommittedcrimesatahigherratethanwhitesinMinnesota.
WhydidblacksinMinnesotacommitcrimesatahigherratethanwhites?
Becausethestatesbroadracialgulfincriminaloffendingmirroredanother
depressinggulf.TheblackfamilypovertyrateinMinnesotawasoversix
timeshigherthanthewhitepovertyrate,whereasfortheUnitedStatesasa
wholetheblackpovertyratewas3.4timeshigher, Frasewrites.[26]
[26] Frase published his findings in
his 2009 research paper, What
Explains Persistent Racial

ThelessonofMinnesotaisthatthechasmin
incarcerationratesisdeeplytiedtothe

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Disproportionality in Minnesotas
Prison and Jail Populations? I first

socioeconomicchasmbetweenblackandwhite

encountered this article in Marie

America.Thetwoareself-reinforcing

Gottschalks book Caught.

impoverishedblackpeoplearemorelikelytoend
upinprison,andthatexperiencebreeds

impoverishment.Anarrayoflaws,differingacrossthecountrybutall
emanatingfromourtendencytowardpunitivecriminaljusticelimitingor
banningfoodstampsfordrugfelons;prohibitingex-offendersfromobtaining
publichousingensurethis.Sodoestherampantdiscriminationagainstexoffendersandblackmeningeneral.This,too,isself-reinforcing.The
Americanpopulationmostdiscriminatedagainstisalsoitsmostincarcerated
andtheincarcerationofsomanyAfricanAmericans,themarkof
criminality,justifieseverythingtheyendureafter.
Massincarcerationis,ultimately,aproblemoftroublesomeentanglements.
Towarseriouslyagainstthedisparityinunfreedomrequiresawaragainsta
disparityinresources.Andtowaragainstadisparityinresourcesisto
confrontahistoryinwhichboththeplunderandthemassincarcerationof
blacksareacceptedcommonplaces.Ourcurrentdebateovercriminal-justice
reformpretendsthatitispossibletodisentangleourselveswithout
significantlydisturbingtheotheraspectsofourlives,thatonecanextractthe
threadofmassincarcerationfromthelargertapestryofracistAmerican
policy.
Moynihans 1964 Memo to Labor Secretary W. Willard Wirtz

DanielPatrickMoynihanknewbetter.His1965reportonTheNegro
Familywasexplosiveforwhatitclaimedaboutblackmothersandblack
fathersbutifithadcontainedallofMoynihansthinkingonthesubject,
includinghispolicyrecommendations,itlikelywouldhavebeenpolitically
nuclear.NowcomesthepropositionthattheNegroisentitledtodamagesas
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tounequalfavoredtreatmentinordertocompensateforpastunequal
treatmentofanoppositekind, Moynihanwrotein1964[27] .Hispointwas
simpleifimpolitic:Blacksweresufferingfromthe
[27] Moynihans thoughts on
unequal treatment can be found
in this April 20, 1964, outline of a
memo to Labor Secretary W.
Willard Wirtz.

effectsofcenturiesofilltreatmentatthehandsof
whitesociety.Endingthatilltreatmentwouldnot
beenough;thecountrywouldhavetomake
amendsforit.Itmaybethatwithoutunequal

treatmentintheimmediatefuturethereisnowayfor[AfricanAmericans]to
achieveanythinglikeequalstatusinthelongrun,Moynihanwrote.
Aswelookaheadtowhatpoliticiansarenowsayingwillbetheendofmass
incarceration,weareconfrontedwiththerealityofwhatMoynihanobserved
in1965,intensifiedandcompoundedbythepast50yearsofthecarceral
state.Whatofthedamageswroughtbymassincarceration?Whatofthe
blackmenwhosewagesremainedstagnantfordecadeslargelyduetoour
correctionalpolicy?Whatofthe20th-centurywarsondrugsrepeatedly
pursuedonracistgrounds,andtheirdevastatingeffectsonblack
communities?Thepost-civil-rightsconsensusaimsfortheterminationof
injury.Remedyisbeyondourfieldofvision.Whenoldwoundsfester,
quackeryisprescribedandhoaryoldfearsandinsidiousoldconceptsburble
tothesurfacematriarchy;super-predators;bio-underclass.This,too,
waspartofMoynihan,butitwasntallofhim.

To return to its 1972 incarceration rate, America

would have to cut its prison and jail population by
some 80 percent.
Aseriousreformationofourcarceralpolicyoneseekingasmallerprison
population,andaprisonpopulationthatlooksmorelikeAmericacannot
concernitselfmerelywithsentencingreform,cannotpretendasthoughthe
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past50yearsofcriminal-justicepolicydidnotdorealdamage.Andsoitis
notpossibletotrulyreformourjusticesystemwithoutreformingthe
institutionalstructures,thecommunities,andthepoliticsthatsurroundit.
RobertSampsonarguesforaffirmativeactionforneighborhoodsreform
thatwouldtargetinvestmentinbothpersistentlypoorneighborhoodsandthe
poorindividualslivinginthoseneighborhoods.Oneclassofpeoplesuffers
deprivationatlevelsaboveandbeyondtherestofthecountrythesame
groupthatsodisproportionatelyfillsourjailsandprisons.Topulltoo
energeticallyononethreadistotugattheentiretapestry.
Moynihanmayhaveleftanyrecommendationsastofavoredtreatmentfor
blacksoutofhisreport.Butthequestionhasnotdisappeared.Infact,itis
moreurgentthanever.Theeconomicandpoliticalmarginalizationofblack
peoplevirtuallyensuredthattheywouldbetheoneswhowouldbearthe
weightofwhatoneofPresidentNixonsownaidescalledhisbullshitcrime
policy,andthusbefedintothemawoftheGrayWastes.Andshouldcrime
ratesriseagain,thereisnoreasontobelievethatblackpeople,black
communities,blackfamilieswillnotbefedintothegreatmawagain.Indeed,
theexperienceofmassincarceration,thewarehousinganddeprivationof
wholeswathsofourcountry,thetransformationofthatdeprivationinto
wealthtransmittedthroughgovernmentjobsandprivateinvestment,the
pursuitoftheWaronDrugsonnakedlyracistgrounds,haveonlyintensified
theancientAmericandilemmaswhite-hotcoretheproblemofpast
unequaltreatment,thedifficultyofdamages,thequestionofreparations.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
TA-NEHISI COATES is a national correspondent at The Atlantic, where he writes about
culture, politics, and social issues. He is the author of The Beautiful Struggle and
Between the World and Me.
Twitter

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