Module 2 : Limits and Continuity of Functions

Lecture 4 : Limit at a point

Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
The sequential concept of limit of a function.

The

definition of the limit of a function.

Limit and Continuity of Functions

Recall that, our aim is to understand a function

by analyzing various properties of

. For

example, one would like to analyze:

Does the 'graph' of

have any 'breaks' ?

In this lecture we shall analyze the most important and fundamental concept: limit of a function, and shall
see how it helps us to answer the above question.

4.1

Limit of a function concept :

Let us start with the following problem:
How to predict a suitable value of a function at a point, which may or may not be in its domain, by
analyzing its values at points in the domain which are near the given point?
Let

. Let

may or may not be an element of

answer is the following : Can we predict some 'suitable' value

at points close to
(may be not at

in

? To answer this, let us assume that

for

. The question we want to

at

by looking at the values of

is defined at all points sufficiently near

), for otherwise we have no data on the basis of which we can predict.

For example, this is true when A is an open interval or

where

is an open interval.

Next, we should clarify as to what do we mean by saying that a real number

at

is a 'suitable value' for

One way of interpreting this is to demand that the values

comes 'closer' to

comes closer to the number

as the point

. This immediately raises the following question: How do we interpret this

mathematically ? A natural way of doing this is to say that this closeness is achieved iteratively, i.e., we
can come close to any point
via sequences.

So if we approach

by any sequence of points in

at

sequences of values of

, say

with

, then we would like

to converge to the same value, namely

case we can predict the value

for

at the point

, i.e.,

. In that

Let us look at some examples.

4.1 .1Example :
i) Consider a function

Clearly,

defined as :

is defined at all points near

. Though

is defined at

a suitable value for

at

approach the point

by a sequence, i.e., consider any sequence

such that

also, our aim is to predict

by analyzing its values at points near

for all

and

. Then,

. For example, let us

of points in the domain of

. Since

, it follows, from

the limit theorems of sequences (see section 3.2.1), that

that the natural value that

should take at

. Hence, we can say

is 3 .

Click here to see an interactive visualization: Applet 2.1

(ii)

Let

the

greatest

integer

function.

Clearly,

for

and

for

Thus, if we take a sequence

then clearly,

. On other hand, if we take sequence

, as

. Thus, we cannot predict a single value for

and

, as

, then again
at

, but
.

Click here to see an interactive visualization: Applet 2.2

This motivates the following definition.

4.1 Definition :
.2
Let

be an open interval of

. We say that

with the property that

there is a real number

, for every sequence

has limit at
with

.
Such

is unique (see exercise 3), whenever it exists and is denoted by

In view of the algebra of limits for sequences (see section 3.2), we have the following theorems.
4.1 .3Theorem (Algebra of limits):
Suppose

and

exist. Then the following hold:

(i)

(ii)

.
.

(iii) For any real number

(iv) If

PROOF
4.1 .3

Theorem (Algebra of limits):

Suppose

and

exist. Then the following hold:

(i)
(ii)

.
.

(iii) For any real number

(iv) If

Proof:
Follows from the Limit Theorems for sequences. We leave the details as an exercise.

4.1
.4

Sandwich Theorem :
Suppose

are functions such that

for some r > 0.

If

Proof

if

4.1 .4 Sandwich Theorem :

Suppose

for some r > 0.

If

Proof:
Follows from the Sandwich Theorem for sequences.
Next we look at another way of describing the statement that a function has a limit at point. To
predict the value of
a function at a point we have to analyze the values
of the function as approaches . In
our
definition above, we used the concept of sequences
. One can directly use the notion of
distance for
at
this. Suppose we want to analyse whether a number is the natural value expected of
or not?
At a point near ,
is the error one will be making for being not equal to value
expected. If
is the value expected, then one would like to make this error small, smaller than any given value.
Let us say that
for all points sufficiently close to . Let us look at an
this error is less than a given value
example.

Next, we look at another way of describing the statement that a function has a limit at point. To predict
the value of a function
at a point
we have to analyze the values
of the function as
approaches

. In our defintion above, we used the concept of sequences

. One can directly use

the notion of distance for this. Suppose we want to analyze whether a number
expected of

at

or not? At a point

near

is the natural value

is the error one will be making for

being not equal to the value expected.

If is the value expected, then one would like to make this error small, smaller than any given value. Let
us say that this error is less than a given value

for all points sufficiently close to

. Let us look at an

example.

Limit and Continuity of Functions

Recall that, our aim is to understand a function

by analyzing various properties of

. For

example, one would like to analyze:

Does the 'graph' of

have any 'breaks' ?

In this lecture we shall analyze the most important and fundamental concept: limit of a function, and shall
see how it helps us to answer the above question.

4.1 Limit of a function concept :

Let us start with the following problem:
How to predict a suitable value of a function at a point, which may or may not be in its domain, by
analyzing its values at points in the domain which are near the given point?
Let

. Let

may or may not be an element of

answer is the following : Can we predict some 'suitable' value

at points close to
(may be not at

in

? To answer this, let us assume that

for

at

. The question we want to

by looking at the values of

is defined at all points sufficiently near

), for otherwise we have no data on the basis of which we can predict.

For example, this is true when A is an open interval or

where

is an open interval.

Next, we should clarify as to what do we mean by saying that a real number

at

is a 'suitable value' for

One way of interpreting this is to demand that the values

comes closer to the number

as the point

comes 'closer' to . This immediately raises the following question: How do we interpret this
mathematically ? A natural way of doing this is to say that this closeness is achieved iteratively, i.e., we
can come close to any point
via sequences.

4.1
.5

Example:
Consider the function

with

Natural value expected of

at 1, by looking at values near 1, is 3

and not 5 .

For example, the error

whenever the point x is close to 1 by distance

. In other words,

.
In fact, if we want

close to

by a distance (error) at most

(any positive real number),

then
,
i.e., given any

we can choose

whenever x is close to 1 by distance

such that

is close to 3 by distance

This motivates our next definition.

4.1 Definition :
.6
Let

be an open interval of
limit of

as x tends to

. A real number
if the following hold: given any real number

is called an

, there exists some

such that
.
Such a

, whenever it exists, is unique (see excercise 3 ) and is denoted by

Click here to see an interactive visualization: Applet 2.3

Let us look at some examples.

4.1 Examples :
.7
(i) Let

if

and

. Then,

. Indeed,
.

We find an upper bound for

when x is close to 2 , say

, that is

. Then,
.
Thus, given any

, we may take

and then,
.

(ii)

. We claim that

Let

Suppose,

does not exist.

exists and the limit is

. Then, for

such that

.
,

In particular, for

.
That is,
for every
This

is

not

possible,

for

example,

.
we

can

choose

positive

integer

such

that

.
Hence,

does not exist.

Click here to see an interactive visualization : Applet 2.4

Before proceeding further, we show that the existence of limit is equivalent to the existence of the
limit.

4.1 .8

Theorem :

but

For a function
every

, the

sequence

limit exists at a point

if and only if

with

for

, i.e., for

all

we

have

Proof:
Assume that

and

for all

such that

. Next, for this

. Then, for

. Let

choose

. Choose
such that

implies

. Hence,

.
Conversely, suppose that the
there is some
that for every
In particular, for each

Then

limit of
with

limit of

does not exist. Then, there exists an

there is some

for all

Hence the

at

at

such

with

, but

exists and is equal to

. This is a contradiction.
.

4.1
.9 Note :
depends on the values of

(i)

at points near c . The function

may or may not be defined at

c.
Even if
to
(ii)

is defined at c ,

may or may not exist. Even if

exist, it need not be equal

To find

, one has to make a guess and then prove it.

Let us note that,

means that for a given

, there exists

such that for all

implies
Equivalently,

there exists

such that

implies

and

implies

This motivates our next definition.

4.1 Definitions :
.10
Let
(i)

be an open interval,

We say
every

. Let

has left-hand limit at a point

, there is some

, if there is a real number

such that
.

with the property that for

We write this as

(ii)

, and call

We say a function

has right-hand limit

to be the left-hand limit of

at

at a point x =c if there is a real number

with the property

that
for every

there is some

such that
.
, and call

We write this as

4.1
.11

to be the right-hand limit of

Theorem :
and

be such that

exists and is equal to

is contained in

if and only if

limit of a function at a point exists and is equal to

limits exist and are equal to .

(i)

for some

as well as

.Then
. That is the

if and only if both, the left- hand and the right hand

Examples :
If

Thus,
(ii)

The above remarks tell us the following :

Let

4.1
.12

at

, the greatest integer function, then

does not exist.

Let

Then,

Thus,

does not exist.

4.1 .13 Example :

Let

. To analyze

, consider

.
Then,

and
.

However, if we consider
and for every

Hence,

Thus,

though both

and

converge

to

but

and converge to different limits.

Hence, limit does not exist, by the previous theorem.
4.1 .14 Note :
Theorems similar to that of theorem 2.1.3 hold for left-hand and right-hand limits.

4.1.15Examples :
Let

(i) Since

, we get

(ii) Since

, we get

(iii) Since

Using the above properties and changing

, it is easy to show that

please refer website for quiz

Practice Exercises : Limits of Functions
1. For the following functions
whenever

, given

, find some

such that

, where

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

2.

Do the following limits exist? If so, find them.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

3.
4.
(i)

Show that limit of a function is unique whenever it exists.

Let

be such that
.

. Prove or disprove the following statements:

(ii)

, if g is bounded on

(iii)

, if

5.

Let

for some

exists.

be such that for some

. Does this imply that

exists? Analyze the converse.

6.

Let

are real numbers with

where

and that

7.

Let

8.

Let

if

and

for all

and
for all

, where

while

. If

. Prove that if
.

Recap

In this section you have learnt the following

The sequential definition of limit of a function at a point.

The

definition of limit of a function at a point.

The equivalence of the two definitions.

. Show that

if

and

, show that

, then there is some

such that