Maintaining Short Circuit Strength in Transformers

Thomas A. Prevost
EHV-Weidmann Industries, Inc.

Abstract
One of the most important aspects of transformer design and manufacturing is assuring that the
transformer can withstand short circuit events in service. Design reviews and in some cases short circuit
type tests on the units themselves give the transformer purchaser assurance that the unit meets short circuit
withstand performance criteria when shipped. This paper deals with those factors which affect the short
circuit performance of transformers after shipment, throughout the life of the equipment.

Introduction
The transformer is a static device which is a critical component in the supply of energy via a
utilitys transmission and distribution grid. The transformer is exposed to atypical events throughout its
service life which it must have the capability to withstand in order to remain in service. One of the largest
causes of transformer failures is through faults or short circuits. A short circuit can result in severe radial
and axial forces which can damage the insulation integrity. Axial forces which result from short circuits
are controlled by the proper pre-loading of the transformer coils during manufacture. The windings are preloaded to a pressure which is at least as high as the maximum calculated axial short circuit force.(1) As long
as the transformer clamping system maintains pre-load pressure, the windings will remain tight during a
short circuit event and should therefore not sustain any damage, due to movement of the conductors.
In most transformers designed today, a rigid clamping system is utilized to compress the windings
to the specified pre-load value. Any change in the thickness of the materials in the winding and associated
end insulation will change the pressure on the winding. The thickness of the conductor material will not
change except for the thermal expansion and contraction during load cycles. The cellulose insulation
material, being organic, will change in thickness and elasticity over time resulting from the effect of
moisture, temperature, and aging. In order to maintain the short circuit integrity of a transformer it is
critical that the pre-load pressure on the windings be maintained. This paper discusses the various
parameters which affect the pressure on transformer windings over the life of a transformer in service.
Understanding these parameters will guide the transformer owner in deciding if taking maintenance steps
such as retightening of the windings should be taken.

Transformer Manufacturer
At the transformer factory a transformer is designed and manufactured to be capable of
withstanding the calculated highest short circuit force. The windings are dried and oil impregnated and then
loaded to a pressure which meets or exceeds the calculated short circuit force. In the United States the
standards do not dictate that all transformers be short circuit tested. However the standards do state that the
manufacturer is required to demonstrate that their design is capable of withstanding short circuit currents as
defined in IEEE/ANSI C57.12.00.

In most transformers designed today, a rigid clamping system is utilized to compress the windings
to the specified pre-load value. Because any reduction in the thickness of the materials in the winding and
associated end insulation will reduce the pressure on the winding the transformer manufacturer dries and
stabilizes the insulation during manufacturing.
An ideal insulating spacer material in the coil stack would have purely elastic behavior. Although
this is not practically attainable, it can be approached by the use of machined high density pressboard
which has been pre-stressed and stabilized in the transformer manufacturing process.(2) The manufacturing
process should include the following procedures in order to assure that the windings maintain the proper
pre-load forces:

Drying of the winding must be carried out under pressure

The windings must be sized and stabilized
The windings must be re-tightened after oil impregnation.

Figure 1 demonstrates the change in thickness of transformerboard spacers during coil processing.

Variation of Spacer Thickness During Processing

112
Spacer Stack Height (mm)

110
108
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
As-Is ( 6% m/c, 1
N/mm^2)

Compressed ( 6 %
m/c, 10 N/mm^2)

Vacuum Dried (10

N/mm^2)

Oil Impregnated (10

N/mm^2)

Effect of coil processing on the thickness of a 100 mm stack of Transformerboard spacer material.
Material was vacuum dried for 7 days at 0.5mbar under a load of 10 N/mm2
FIGURE 1

The pressure on the spacers was maintained through the use of springs. This test suggested that
there was additional shrinkage of the insulation material due simply to the oil impregnation process. This
phenomenon has been reported previously in literature. (2) A test series was performed to verify this
phenomenon.

Loss of Pressure Due to Oil Impregnation

Test models consisting of 5 radial spacers (made from milled T-IV Transformerboard), 2mm
thick) were separated by bundles of paper insulated conductors. (see Figure 2).

copper 12 x 3, R 1 mm
Kraft paper insulation 1 mm
pressboard spacer 2 mm

40

25

25

Spacers (2 mm thick) interspersed with paper insulated copper conductor disk segments.
Apparent pressed area: 625 mm2.
FIGURE 2

These models were vacuum dried for seven days at 110 Deg. C while under a constant pressure of 10
N/mm^2. The models were then oil impregnated in a hot or ambient state with ambient or hot oil according
to the values given in Table 1.
Model Deg. C Oil Deg. C
25
25
80
25
25
80
80
80

Pressure
No Change
Decrease
Increase
No Change

TABLE 1
The test series demonstrated that the decrease in pressure noted during the oil impregnation of insulation
was due to the thermal contraction of the cellulose caused by the introduction of cooler transformer oil.(3)

Change in Pressure Due to Temperature

It has been previously published that due to the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion (TEK) of
the various materials in a transformer coil and the end insulation that the pressure in transformer windings
will vary with temperature.(4) The coefficient of thermal expansion of the materials used in transformer
windings and the rigid clamping system are given in Table 2.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Steel
10 * 10-6/oK
Copper
17 * 10-6/oK
Pressboard
45 * 10-6/oK
TABLE 2
Because the pressboard has a TEK approximately three times of the copper conductors and the steel used to
establish the rigid clamping system the pressure of the windings will increase with temperature.
Utilizing the TEK values of the various materials used in transformer windings and end insulation together
with the modulus of elasticity of milled transformerboard spacers we can calculate the change in pressure
of a typical 20 MVA , 550 BIL transformer. (4) (see Figure 3)
Clamping Pressure vs Temperature
6
5.5
5
Pressure (N/mm^2)

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-20

20

40

60

80

100

Tem perature (Deg. C)

FIGURE 3

The pre-load pressure on transformer windings will change due to temperature variation. For the
transformer manufacturer it is best to pre-load the transformer at 30C to 50C in order to assure that the
windings have a proper pre-load force over the operating range of the transformer. This is particularly
important in climates where the ambient temperature can be quite low in order to avoid loss of correct preload pressure.
For transformers in service we can see from this relationship that the capability for a transformer
to withstand a short circuit can be different based on the temperature at which the short circuit occurred. If
the transformer is heavily loaded, thus running at a higher temperature the clamping pressure will be higher
thus giving the transformer a better chance of withstanding the short circuit forces without any dangerous
movement of the internal parts of the winding.

Change in Pressure Due to Moisture

Transformer insulation components, by the nature of the cellulose fibres they are made of, have a
tendency to change thickness. This effect is caused mainly by the presence of water in the system and the
variation of the temperature. Therefore, in the case of rigid clamping distances, the clamping force will
vary according to the tendency of the cellulose to expand and shrink. Previously published results of testing
have verified that the static clamping pressure will change substantially with the change in moisture content
of the cellulose pressboard. (4) (See Figure 4)
p re s s u re
(N /m m )

fo rc e (k N )
m o is tu r e (% )

7
6
5

4
3

4
3
2

2
1

1
0

0
0

10

20

30

m o d e l- 1 ( s p a c e r s )

40
tim e (h )

50

60

70

m o d e l- 2 ( s p a c e r s a n d c o n d u c to r s e g m e n ts )
m o is tu re

Clamping force and moisture content versus time for non-oiled models. After 24 hours at 23C
and 50% relative humidity, the specimens were dried under vacuum. The N/mm2-scale relates to
the apparent pressure area of 625 mm2.
FIGURE 4

Decrease of the Clamping Pressure Due to Daily Load Cycles

Because we know that the clamping pressure on the windings will change with temperature we
investigated the effect that this pressure cycling would have on the maintenance of the pre-load pressure
itself.(3) Daily load cycles are typical for substation transformers. These load cycles will cause the
temperature of the windings to cycle as well which in turn leads to a corresponding cycle of the clamping
pressure. A test series was performed to investigate the effect of this cycle on the clamping pressure.
In his test series we utilized radial spacer and paper wrapped conductor models as shown in Figure 2. One
set of models was processed by vacuum drying at 110o C with a constant pressure of 5 N/mm2 while the
second set was processed by vacuum drying at 110o C but without pressure. The models were then preloaded to a pressure of 2.5 N/mm2 and then subjected to a daily cycle of heating to 100 C and overnight
cooling to 30 C. This cycle was repeated for ten days. By limiting the test to ten days we avoided thermal
ageing of the pressboard spacer material. This was confirmed by DP tests.
The results of this test series can be seen in Figures 5 and 6.
11

100C

Pre ssure (N/m m ) an d te m pera tu re (C/10 )

10

Air temperature
7

Board temperature

60C

Pressure

20C

design pressure 2.5 N/mm2

0
0

10

Time (days)

Model was predried under constant pressure of 5 N/mm2

The daily loading cycle shows an oscillation of the pre-load pressure from 2 to 4 N/mm2
FIGURE 5

11

100C

Pre ssure (N/m m ) an d te m pera tu re (C/10 )

10

Air temperature

Board temperature
6

60C

Pressure

design pressure 2.5 N/mm2

20C

0
0

10

Time (days)

Model was predried with no pressure.

The loss of pressure during the first load cycle is significant.
FIGURE 6

Decrease of the Pre-Load Pressure Due to Insulation Ageing

Over the life of a transformer the cellulose insulation will be subjected to thermal cycles which
will cause aging of the cellulose material. As cellulose ages its polymer structure degrades into smaller
chains which result in the loss of mechanical strength. One measure of the degradation is the average
degree of polymerization. We have found that the aging of cellulose material has a pronounced effect on
the thickness of cellulose insulation material under pressure. The effect of aging is more pronounced due to
the dual effect of material decomposition due to degradation of the cellulose polymer (de-polymerization)
but also to the settling of the material due to pressure.
In a recent aging test, 100 mm high stacks of 3 mm thick pieces (25 x 25 mm) of high density precompressed pressboard were placed under a constant load (spring load) of 10 N/mm2, at temperatures of
135oC and 150oC for 36 weeks = 250 days of aging. The aging vessels were operated in an open expansion
system in which the oil in the expansion vessel is continuously in contact with dry air via a silica gel dryer.
The design of the aging vessel and the materials within the vessel was done to simulate the conditions seen
in a transformer. Relative surface areas of the vessel surface, core steel, copper, cellulose insulation and oil
were calculated to simulate those in a 200 MVA transformer. The pre-compressed transformerboard
spacers were dried and oil impregnated under a pre-load pressure of 10 N/mm2 prior to being loaded into
the aging vessels.

The temperature of the aging vessels was cycled daily to simulate the load cycle that a typical
transformer might see. The temperature cycle for a 24 hour period composed of the constant temperature
(135C or 150C) for 19 hours, followed by a 2 hour cooling phase and then by a 3 hour heating phase.
The loss of effective aging time based on the Montsinger half value of 8 K was about 4 hours per
temperature cycle per day.(5)
The pressboard shows increasing shrinkage caused by loss of substance (CO2, CO, H2O) during
the aging of the cellulose and decrease in mechanical strength (due to decomposition of cellulose
molecules). The effect of aging on the thickness of pre-compressed cellulose board as a result of this
experiment is shown in (Figure 7). The extent of aging as measured by the DP is shown below. The
insulation material would be considered as being at its end of life if one assumes a DP value of 200 to be
the end of life.(6)

Aging of Pressboard Under Compression

Spacer Stack Height (mm)

102
100
98
96

135 Deg. C

94

150 Deg. C

92
90
88
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Aging Tim e (Days)

Effect of aging on the thickness of a stack of Transformerboard. Samples were aged

in an open expansion system via silica gel dryer with daily temperature cycling.
FIGURE 7

DP

Initial values

135oC

150oC

1190

164

152

The Degree of Polymerization was measured at the end of this aging study.

What Does this Mean to My Transformers in Service?

The ability of a transformer to withstand short circuits while in service is greatly affected by the
maintenance of the pre-load pressure on the windings. The studies, which have been reviewed earlier in this
paper, demonstrate that after a transformer is shipped from the factory there are processes that take place
which will change that pressure. It has been shown (see Figure 6) that it is crucial that the spacer material in
transformer windings be pre-stabilized by the manufacturer by drying the spacer material under pressure.
Manufacturers have various techniques to accomplish this pre-stabilization. It is important to understand
these processes with the intent that the pre-load pressure of the transformer windings be maintained through
the first load cycles once a transformer is placed in service.
The moisture content of the insulation will have an effect on the winding pressure as well. As a transformer
ages a by-product of the aging process is moisture. This increase in moisture will have an effect of
increasing the static clamping pressure on the windings. Conversely any drying of the insulation will
decrease the static clamping pressure.
As the transformer insulation material ages the static clamping pressure will decrease. This is an important
phenomenon to understand for transformer operators who load transformers beyond their nameplate
ratings. Excessive loading beyond nameplate will accelerate the ageing rate of the insulation in the
windings. This will result in a decrease in the pre-load pressure and render the transformer susceptible to
damage during short circuits.
The clamping pressure on the transformer windings will vary with the change in temperature. The
temperature of the windings will vary due to transformer loading. A transformer which has a high
temperature as a result of being heavily loaded will have a better chance of withstanding a short circuit
event than if it was lightly loaded or just placed in service.
To assure that transformer windings maintain sufficient pre-load pressure, particularly in larger units, the
windings may require inspection and tightening in the field. The unit should be processed prior to
inspection to assure that the pressure remaining on the windings represents that of operating conditions. If
tightening is found to be necessary, it is important that the pressure is applied uniformly over the windings,
and in humid conditions, as quickly as possible after reprocessing to avoid uptake of moisture.

Conclusion
For a transformer to be capable of withstanding short-circuit events while in service it is critical that an
adequate clamping pressure be maintained on the windings. The manufacturer applies this pressure on the
windings before leaving the factory. It is important that the winding insulation is pre-stabilized during the
manufacturing process to prevent excessive pressure loss during the first load cycle once a transformer is
placed in service.
As a transformer ages two opposing phenomena occur in regards to the clamping pressure on the windings.
The aging process of the cellulose produces water which will increase the moisture content of the winding
insulation. This will tend to increase the clamping pressure. The aging of the winding insulation results in a
decrease in the thickness of the spacers over time which will decrease the pressure. It is unknown which

factor is prominent with respect to the clamping pressure. However, should a transformer, which has been
heavily loaded, be processed in the field for removal of moisture in the insulation it must be assumed that
the clamping pressure has diminished. For this reason the transformer owner should consider retightening
the transformer windings following field processing.
A transformer should be processed to remove moisture in the insulation before the windings are retightened
in the field. If the windings are tightened before field processing the insulation could have a high moisture
content. Field processing following tightening will result in shrinkage of the insulation material and the
clamping pressure applied during the retightening process will be reduced.

References
1.

K. Karsai, D. Keranyi, L. Kiss Large Power Transformers, Studies in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering. Elservier 1987 pp. 570-571.

2.

H.P. Moser, Transformerboard , H. Weidmann AG, 1979, pp. 71-77.

3.

C. Krause, W. Goetz, B. Heinrich, The Impact of Drying and Oil Impregnation Conditions and of
Temperature Cycles on the Clamping Force of Power Transformer Windings 2002 IEEE
International Symposium on Electrical Insulation.

4.

T. Prevost, C. Krause, D. Woodcock, The Effects on Winding Clamping Pressure Due to

Changes in Moisture, Temperature and Insulation Age Sixty-Seventh Annual International
Conference of Doble Clients March 27-31, 2000

5.

J. Fabre, A. Pichon, "Deteriorating Processes and Products of Paper in Oil. Application to

Transformers", CIGRE Session, Paper No. 137, 1960.

6.

ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.91-1995 Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers

10