RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL

(max. 10 pages excluding References)

Summary Details
1. Title of research project proposal: (Project Number/Project Title max. 20 words)

Integrated multi-functional urban water systems

2. Proposed Project Commencement Date: (month/year): July 2012
Project Duration (years): 5 years
3. Project Abstract: (Objectives, Outputs and Outcomes)
This research project will deliver hybrid systems capable of treating multiple water sources
(such as stormwater, partially treated wastewater, or polluted groundwater) within urban
landscapes and therefore provide ecosystems services to the city. It will focus on further
development and optimization of stormwater biofiltration (raingardens, bioretentions) and
wetland systems, which are the key Water Sensitive Urban Design WSUD technology for
efficient waterway protection, and water recycling of multiple water sources in urban areas. The
two main outputs/outcomes are envisaged:

The new WSUD technology for treatment of multiply water sources within urban
landscapes and micro-climate improvements;

Adoption guidelines of new technologies, which includes guides on design, operation and
maintenance.

4. Number and name of CRC research program

Program A Society

Program B Water Sensitive Urbanism

Program C Future Technologies

Program D Adoption Pathways

5. ANZSRC Field of Research (FoR) classification

090509 Water Resources Engineering
6. Keywords: (max 6)
Water Resources Management

Treatment

Low Energy

Green Infrastructure

Wetlands

Biofilters

7. Project Leader(s)
Name: Prof Ana Deletic
Institution: Monash University
Department: Civil Engineering

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Research Proposal
8. Objectives and background
Objectives
The key objectives of the project are:
1. To understand and optimize wetland systems for treatment of urban stormwater to support
protection of waterways, with Coastal Plains of WA as a case study;
2. To optimize stormwater biofilters for treatment of (partially-treated) wastewater and/or
polluted groundwater;
3. To develop hybrid biofilters that can treat wastewater and/or polluted groundwater during dry
weather and capture and treat stormwater during wet weather and deliver improvements;
4. To develop adoption guidelines for this new generation of WSUD systems.
Background
The urban water systems should be able to deliver traditional water services (supply, sewage
and drainage) while protecting waterways, ameliorating urban heat islands and improving the
aesthetics and livability of urban landscapes. The systems that can collect and treat stormwater,
widely known as Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) stormwater systems, exemplify multifunctional technologies that harvest water for peoples use (e.g. Mitchell et al, 2007), protect
waterways from polluted and elevated urban discharges (Li et al, 2009), beautify urban
landscapes and improve micro-climate by enhancing evapotranspiration (Endreny T., 2008).
Stormwater biofilters (known also as raingardens or bioretentions) (Figure 1) and constructed
wetlands are currently regarded as one of the most promising WSUD technologies. For
example, biofilters are highly efficient in reducing runoff peaks and volumes (Hatt et al, 2009)
and removing solids, nutrients and metals from stormwater (e.g. Blecken et al, 2009a, and
2009b, Bratieres et al, 2008, Hatt et al, 2008), while having a relatively small footprint. The
systems are undergoing further development for effective removal of pathogens (e.g. Li et al,
submitted, Zinger, 2010) and micro-pollutants (Feng et al, in press), with an aim to make them
an effective stormwater harvesting treatment technology. Biofilters come in a range of scales:
from bio-pots of only couple of m2 that could be easily retrofitted even in dense urban areas or
make an integral part of house gardens, to several thousand m2 regional biofilters that treat
runoff from large developments. The systems are designed as landscaping features that
improve the aesthetics of our cities (Figure 1 right).

Kfar Sava Biofilter Pilot

Figure 1: Concepts of (a) biofilters and (b) the first hybrid biofilter built in Kfar-Sava, Israel
Constructed wetland systems are well documented WSUD elements able to assimilate
stormwater nutrients and other contaminants (Carleton et al., 2000; 2001). However the
performance of these systems for this purpose is known to vary depending on the nature of the
design, the hydrological regime as well as soil conditions and vegetation characteristics. While

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general design guidelines exist, a challenge is how to design and optimise wetlands systems in
sandy Coastal Plain environments, where high groundwater tables dominate hydrological and
biogeochemical aspects of wetland function. In particular, several examples of constructed
wetlands have emerged in Perth in WA, but much of the design guidelines are based on
information from different geomorphological conditions, and further understanding of the
process and pathways of nutrient and contaminant assimilation and how they respond to
extremes in flow variability are required to enable managers further optimize wetland design and
operation (Lund et al 2001). For example, it is known that event driven systems exhibit variable
ability to assimilate nutrients (Kadlec, 2010), and where wetlands intercept shallow water tables
then often their ability to assimilate nutrients can be compromised as nutrient rich groundwater
fuels eutrophication processes. Furthermore, while constructed wetlands are useful WSUD
elements for engineers of new developments, existing urban landscapes are characterised by
natural wetland systems that are expressions of the local groundwater table, and strategies for
optimising their ability to process stormwater loads can also result in water quality improvement
of downstream waterways and increased amenity.
Constructed Biofilters are currently designed to exclusively treat stormwater, making them
ineffective during dry weather periods. In fact, biofilters built in very dry climates (such as Perth
or Adelaide) may require irrigation during prolonged dry weather periods to sustain plants, as
well as to work efficiently (it has been shown that prolonged dry periods reduce their removal
rate, e.g. Blecken et al, 2009b). At the same time, Class A wastewater that contains high level
of nutrients (over 8 mg/L of total nitrogen (TN) and over 3 mg/L of total phosphorous (TP), that
are all well over levels found in typical untreated stormwater with TN=2.5 mg/L and TP=0.35
mg/L, Francy et al, 2010) has been promoted for irrigation of open urban spaces. In situations
where groundwater is close to surface (such as in Perth) or irrigated areas are close to
waterways, this may cause pollution of natural systems. Polluted groundwater with high levels of
nitrate is unfortunately a reality in some urban areas, where nitrate can be over 30 mg/l and
phosphorous over 0.5 mg/l (e.g. Wrigley et al 1991; Bolgar and Stevens 1999). This is often a
legacy of intensive past farming or wide-spread use of septic tanks (Middle, 1996). It is therefore
only practical to extend biofiltration use for treatment of wastewater and/or groundwater during
dry weather spells. The hybrid biofiltration systems that could treat stormwater during wet
periods and then polish wastewater and/or treat polluted groundwater during dry periods would
be far more efficient than the current systems. Such hybrids would be particularly sustainable
for dry climates (such as Perth conditions) and will provide treatment of multiple water sources
while achieving multiple benefits of waterway protection.
9. Research plan (methods, timelines and outputs do not include annual workplans)
Research Questions
Question 1: How to optimise assimilation pathways in wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain of
Western Australia to effectively treat stormwater
The first aim is to quantify nutrient assimilation pathways in groundwater dominated wetland
systems versus constructed systems perched above the water table, and understand how each
of these systems responds to different patterns of hydro-climatological variability (eg., extended
dry periods followed by hydrological pulses). While nutrient processing under quasi steady state
conditions is reasonably well understood, a disproportionate amount of the nutrient processing
will occur during hydrological pulses since they drive periods of intense biogeochemical activity.
To understand how assimilation pathways respond in groundwater or non-groundwater
dominated systems consideration of the soil and vegetation controls on wetland water balance
and biogeochemical cycling processes during the pulses and between pulses must be
understood. A second aim is to develop suitable ecosystem metrics, such as wetland
metabolism able to gauge wetland response and to support decision making. Wetland
metabolism summarises the intensity and nature of carbon cycling, and through understanding
stoichiometric links between carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, here we propose to explore the
hypothesis that carbon metabolism (as measured by rates of change in fluxes of dissolved
oxygen and pCO2) is connected to rates of nutrient attenuation.

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Through model development, this integrated understanding can support assessment of design
options to optimise attenuation pathways such as soil amendments (eg. mine residue byproducts for PO4 stripping), water level management (for example to enhance denitrification and
vegetation response), and hydrodynamic design options.
Question 2: How can we enhance the uptake of nutrients in biofiltration systems, so that they
can treat high TN and TP levels found in wastewater and groundwater?
The key hypothesis is that the submerged zone (SZ), which is placed at the bottom layer of
current stormwater biofilters, could be optimized for quick digestion of high concentrations of
nitrate (de-nitrification is currently the limiting step). This could be achieved by experimenting
with different types of carbon additives in the SZ (electron-donors), as well as by making the SZ
deeper. Phosphorus removal could be enhanced by selection of appropriate media types (e.g.
engineered soils) and plant species (Read et al, 2010 and 2008). The new SZ design, optimized
for TN removal, should not leach organic matter or reduce phosphorus removal (by leaching
PO4). The systems may also require additional layers of engineered media (at the very bottom)
to remove organics that could leach from the SZ.
Question 3: What is the optimal design of biofilters for treatment of waters of different pollution
strengths and flow rates within one single system?
It is very likely that biofilter designs optimized for solo treatment of one water type (e.g. only for
wastewater, groundwater or stormwater) will differ considerably. However, by selecting the
design features that are important for treatment of one water type, but are not detrimental for
treatment of the other, could be the way to construct effective hybrids. The hypothesis is also
that the treatment will depend on flow rate, so each hybrid design will be developed considering
the hydraulic loading rates of the source in question.
Question 4: How can we operate and maintain the hybrid systems to work effectively for
different water types?
It is anticipated that wastewater and highly polluted groundwater should be treated in pulses,
alternating between application and resting periods. It is crucial to optimize this regime for each
developed hybrid design (this should include specification of application/resting periods and
application flow rates). The problems related to plant growth (weeding, competition between
species, etc), clogging (both physical and biological), and break-through of pollutants (longevity
of systems) have to be resolved. The key hypothesis is that the right design of filter media and
species selection, with appropriate maintenance, can make systems effective for a long time.
Methods
The listed research questions will be answered by conducted a series of activities as discussed
below:
Activity 1: Wetlands for treatment of stormwater from the Coastal Plains of Western Australia
In this activity we will conduct a cross system comparison of wetland systems in Perth covering
a natural groundwater dominated system and a constructed system disconnected from the
water table. The work will be conducted over 3.5 years by a PhD student and consist of the
following tasks:
Task 1.1: In both systems wetland soil and water nutrient monitoring will be complemented with
process rate experiments (eg. denitrification, benthic metabolism etc) and water balance
characterisation during several dry and wet periods over a 2-3 yr period.
Task 1.2: Wetland metabolism will be calculated from in situ oxygen, pCO2 and CO2 flux
sensors, and links between carbon and nutrient delivery and subsequent rates of metabolism
and nutrient partitioning / attenuation will be made.

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Task 1.3: Development and application of a wetland eco-hydrological model able to simulate
vegetation response to water balance variability and associated changes in biogeochemical
cycles, and validated against above data.
Task 1.4: Numerical experiments to assess climate variability on wetland function, and
assessment of design options to support system optimisation
Activity 2: Optimization of stormwater biofilters for treatment of wastewater and polluted
groundwater
Task 2.1: This task will include large-scale column tests using SZ of three different depths and
testing several types of electron donors. In total, 5 replicates of 3 different electron donors will
be tested in advanced columns that can have variable SZ depth; the methods used by Blecken
et al, 2009a, 2009b will be employed (Figure 2). The designs will be tested for wastewater of
Class A strength (TN=8-15 mg/l and TP=0.5-5 mg/l), as well as polluted groundwater (Nitrate =
30-50 mg/l) for a number of flow rates and wetting/drying regimes.

Figure 2: Design of advanced testing columns (Blecken et al, 2009b)

It is very likely that new designs are not effective in removal of TP and organics (TOC, etc) thus
new design features will be engineered to solve the problems. The systems may also require
additional layers of engineered media (at the very bottom) to remove organics that could leach
from the SZ. The study will be done in small diameter columns using novel materials (building
upon the preliminary work of the authors, Bratieres et al, 2010, and Li at el, 2010).
Activity 3: Development of hybrid biofilters that can treat polluted groundwater and/or
wastewater during dry weather and capture/treat stormwater during wet weather.
In the first instance we will select the design features that are important for treatment of one
water type, but are not detrimental for treatment of the other. The treatment will very likely
depend on flow rate, so each hybrid design will be developed considering the hydraulic loading
rates of the source in question. Column tests will be set-up to answer these questions following
procedures published in Hatt et al, 2008. We will build up to 5 replicates of new designs and
optimise them under laboratory conditions for variable (i) hydraulic loadings, (ii) pollution levels,
and (iii) wetting and drying regimes. The systems will also be tested for pathogens and
micropollutants to examine how the selected design will perform for water recycling and
stormwater harvesting. This work will be done in collaboration with Project C1.
Activity 4: Testing of hybrid systems in field conditions.
The hybrid system will be implemented in the field and tested to verify the laboratory findings.
This will ideally be done as part of a demonstration site (as per Program D), however if this is
not possible we will retrofit the Monash Car Park biofilter (the details of the system can be found
in Hatt et al 2009). There is a residential block of houses in the vicinity of this biofilter and
therefore the system can be used for treatment of grey water produced in this block. The

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method for the system validation will also be developed by refining the validation methods
developed under Projects C1a and C1.
Activity 5: Development of models that can assess performance of hybrid biofilters.
Starting from the mathematical algorithms that we have already developed for stormwater
biofilters (Lintern et al, submitteda), we will develop a comprehensive mathematical model of
hybrid system performance. This will include modelling of both hydraulics (that will be based on
current model by Daly et al, 2012, Lintern et al 2012), and water treatment (Lintern et al, 2011,
Lintern et al, submittedb). The data used in the laboratory studies will be used also for the
model development, while the data gathered in the field will allow robust model testing and
verification
Activity 6: Development of operational and maintenance regimes for hybrid biofilters.
It is crucial to optimize this regime for each developed hybrid design (this should include
specification of application/resting periods and application flow rates) through a set of controlled
laboratory studies using the same column tests as in Activity 3. For the selected designs, the
pollution break-through tests will be performed using the Monash rig specifically developed for
testing the longevity of stormwater filters following the procedure by Schang et al, 2010. Field
testing of hydraulic conductivity over time will be done starting from the large scale field study
we have done on 37 biofilters across Australia (Le Coustumer et al, 2009)
Activity 7: Development of adoption guidelines that include design, maintenance, and validation
specifications for muli-functional WSUD systems.
All the knowledge gathered under the above 5 activities will be used to produce comprehensive
industry guidelines for the new WSUD technologies, including wetlands and hybrid biofilters. We
will follow the scope of FAWB adoption guidelines for stormwater biofilters (FAWB, 2009) that
have been downloaded by stakeholders over 2000 times.
Timetable of activities
Year 1

Activities
Activity 1: Wetlands for treatment of stormwater from
Costal Plains of Western Australia
T1:1: Site monitoring and experiments
T1.2: Metabolism and nutrient attenuation
T1.3: Wetland model validation
T1.4: Model scenarios and optimisation
Activity 2: Optimization of stormwater biofilters for
treatment of wastewater and polluted groundwater;
T2.1: Optimization of SZ for effective nitrogen
removal from wastewater and groundwater
T2.2: Designs for removal of Phosphorus and
reduction of any leaching from SZ
Activity 3: Development of hybrid biofilters
Activity 4: Field testing
Activity 5: Biofilter model development
Activity 6: Development of operational and
maintenance regimes
Activity 7: Development of adoption guidelines

2012/13

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

2013/14

2014/15

2015/16

2016/17

10. Project Deliverables and Milestones (list quarterly, half-year or annual milestones as
appropriate)

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Project Deliverables

Milestone dates

3.4.1

Project planning and initiation

30 June 2014

Choice of WA study wetland systems and agreed monitoring

program

31 Dec 2012

WA wetland monitoring program, initial experimental assessments

and sensor deployments - phase one

31 Dec 2013

Wetland eco-hydrological model prototype

31June 2014

WA wetland monitoring program, initial experimental assessments

and sensor deployments - phase two

31 Dec 2014

Wetland design scenarios

31 June 2015

3.4.2

Commence biofilter optimisation of submerged zone (SZ) for

effective nitrogen removal from wastewater and groundwater

30 June 2014

3.4.3

Commence design for removal of phosphorous and reduction of

leaching from SZ

30 June 2015

3.4.4

Complete biofilter optimisation for effective nitrogen removal

31st Dec 2015

3.4.5

Development of hybrid biofilters

31st Dec 2016

3.4.6

Phase one technology 'stage gate' review

31st Dec 2016

3.4.7

Field testing/ demonstration of phase one hybrid biofilters

31st July 2017

3.4.8

Specification of operational and maintenance regimes for hybrid

biofilters

31st July 2017

3.4.9

Development of adoption guidelines for hybrid biofilters

31st July 2017

31st July 2017

3.4.10 Modelling algorithms for assessing system performance

11. Resources (include anticipated annual cash and inkind budget over the duration of the project)
Cash Budget (apply 1.8 multiplier to staff appointments to cover on-cost and infrastructure costs)
Item
e.g. Post-doctoral
laboratory costs etc.

Fellow,

PhD

PhD Scholarship (UWA)

Operational
(UWA)

Budget

of

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

2012/13

2013/14

2014/15

2015/16

2016/17

$29,000

$30,000

$30,000

$15,000

$15,000

$5,000

scholarship,

PhD scholar

Post-doc in Engineering over 3 years

@ 1 FTE (Level B)

$153,526 $161,202 $169,262

Technical Help over 2 years @ 0.1 FTE

$12,240

$12,852

Equipment and lab set up

45,000

35,000

Operating costs

$70,000

$67,500

$19,500

Travel

$10,000

$20,000

$7,000

Total

$44,000

$45,000

$325,766

$296,554

$195,762

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In-kind contributions (include personnel, equipment, laboratory analyses etc.)

Item
e.g. Name of personnel & Institution, other inkind
expenditures

Prof Ana Deletic (MU)

Year 1
(FTE)
5%

Year 2
(FTE)

Year 4
(FTE)

Year 5
(FTE)

20%

20%

20%

Dr David McCarthy (MU)

5%

5%

5%

Dr Perran Cook (MU)

10%

10%

10%

Dr Belinda Hatt (MU)

15%

15%

15%

10%

5%

5%

Dr Matthew Hipsey (UWA)

10%

5%

Year 3
(FTE)

10%

12. Risk and Risk Management (identify risks to the successful completion of the project and risk
management measures adopted)
Risk

Management Measures

Delay in appointment of suitable PhD candidate

and commencement of WA wetland nutrient
monitoring

Current international applicant already applying for

UWA entry; if not successful commence monitoring
in conjunction with WA Dept of Water and/or
through undergraduate student projects

Damage to deployed instrumentation

Regular data download and maintenance

Insufficient
validation

data

for

detailed

wetland

model

Given limited funds for data collection, study sites

with historical monitoring data collection campaigns
will be identified; potential to piggy-back this study
on sites with active monitoring programs in place
by WA Dept of Water or Water Corporation

Delay in establishment of biofiltration testing

columns

We will grow plants in greenhouse right from the

start to make sure that they are established well to
shorten the required 6 month establishment period

Delay in field selection and implementation of

hybrid systems in field

We will do our best to build the pilot system as part

of selected Program D demonstration sites, but we
will retrofit the system into Monash car park Biofilter
if necessary (to assure that field testing happens)

Delay in model development

This will happen only if we do not gather enough

data from lab and field work. So the management
of the items from above will asure the management
of this risk as well

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Adoption Pathways
13. Linkages to other Projects (linkages to other research activities within the Program and across
other Programs within the CRC)

The linkages within the Program are identified as:

C1 - There is also strong link between Projects C1, C1b and this project. WSUD systems
(such as biofilters and wetlands) are the key technology developed under both C1 and C1a
projects. However while C1a is focused on development of WSUD for stormwater
harvesting, and therefore is focused on pathogen and micropollutant removal, C4 is
focused on nutrient removal of both polluted stormwater for Perth conditions and other
sources than stormwater (groundwater and treated wastewater). C1b is crucial since it
characterises stormwater that is than treated by systems developed by C1a

C2 effluent from wastewater recovery systems could be used as input to C4s

technologies (biofilters), so the link is important

C3 no link

C5 - in Activity 1 of C4 we will deploy continuous sensors for real-time data steams of WQ

that can be linked with C5

Links with other Programs are mainly through incorporation of the models developed under this
project within DAnCE4Water software package (developed in Program A)
Wetland vegetation response and hydrology and metabolism will link to micro-climate (CO2 and
vapour fluxes related to water balance and vegetation). This is a clear link with Project B3.
There is also strong link with Project B2a (waterway protection), and flooding projects (Project
5a and 5b).

14. Linkages to Adoption Pathways activities (outline possible adoption pathways activities to
disseminate and encourage industry adoption of project outputs.

Output 3.04 is utilised by consultants (engineering and design), decentralised water system
technology manufacturers and service providers, urban land developers, building contractors,
local and state planning authorise and water utilities. This will include the Project C4 work with
Program D team on the following:
U3.4.1

Initial field testing of prototype 'phase one' hybrid biofilters

U3.4.2

Initial field testing of prototype 'phase two' hybrid biofilters

U3.4.3
Commencement of adoption of validated hybrid biofilter technologies by small
number of 'early adopters'
The key activities will include:
Demonstration projects: we support the development of demonstration sites, as a need arises
for hybrid biofilters of wetlands for waterway protection in Coastal Plain cities of WA.
Capacity building: we develop short courses on WSUD design and deliver them as needed
across the partner cities.

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References
15. References
Blecken G, Zinger Y, Deletic A, Fletcher TD, Viklander M (2009a) Influence of intermittent
wetting and drying conditions on heavy metal removal by stormwater biofilters, Water
Research, 43(18), 4590-4598.
Blecken G, Zinger Y, Deletic A, Fletcher TD, Viklander M (2009b) Impact of a submerged zone
and a carbon source on heavy metal removal in stormwater biofilters, Ecological
Engineering, 35(5), 769-778.
Bolgar, A, and Stevens M., (1999). Contamination of Australian Groundwater Systems with
Nitrate. LWRRDC Occasional Paper 03/99.
Bratieres K, Fletcher TD, Deletic A, Zinger Y (2008) Nutrient and sediment removal by
stormwater biofilters: A large-scale design optimisation study, Water Research, 42(14),
3930-3940.
Carleton, J.N., Grizzard, T.J., Godrej, A.N., Post, H.E., Lampe, L. and Kenel, P.P., (2000).
Performance of a constructed wetlands in treating urban stormwater runoff. Water
Environment Research, 72, 295-304.
Carleton, J.N., Grizzard, T.J., Godrej, A.N., and Post, H.E., (2001). Factors affecting the
performance of stormwater treatment wetlands. Water Research, 35, 15521562.
Endreny T. (2008) Naturalizing urban watershed hydrology to mitigate urban heat-island effects,
Hydrological Processes 22, 461463 (2008) INVITED COMMENTARY
Hatt BE, Fletcher TD, Deletic A (2009) Hydrologic and pollutant removal performance of
biofiltration systems at the field scale, Journal of Hydrology, 365(3-4), 310-321
Hatt BE, Fletcher TD, Deletic A (2008) Hydraulic and pollutant removal performance of fine
media stormwater filters, Environmental Science and Technology, 42(7), 25352541.
Kadlec, R.H. (2010). Nitrate dynamics in event-driven wetlands. Ecological Engineering, 36 (4),
503-516.
Le Coustumer S, Fletcher TD, Deletic A, Barraud S, Lewis JF (2009) Hydraulic performance of
biofilter systems for stormwater management: Influences of design and operation, Journal
of Hydrology, 376(1-2), 16-23.
Li, H. W., L. J. Sharkey, et al. (2009). "Mitigation of Impervious Surface Hydrology Using
Bioretention in North Carolina and Maryland." Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 14(4): 407415
Li Y.L., D.T. McCarthy, and A. Deletic (2010) Treatment of pathogens in stormwater by
antimicrobial-modified filter media, 12th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto
Alegre/Brazil, 11-16 September 2011
Li Y., D.T. McCarthy, L. Alcasar, K. Bratieres, T.D. Fletcher, A. Deletic, (submitted) Biofilters for
removal of microorganisms from urban stormwater submitted to Water Research
Lund M.A., Lavery P.S. and Froend R.F. (2001). Removing filterable reactive phosphorus from
highly coloured stormwater using constructed wetlands. Water Sci Technol. 44, 85-92.
Middle (1996), Environmental requirements for the disposal of effluent from wastewater disposal
systems, Desalination 106 (1996) 323-329
Mitchell VG, Deletic A, Fletcher TD, Hatt B, McCarthy DT (2007) Achieving Multiple Benefits
from Urban Stormwater Harvesting, Water Science and Technology, 55(4) 135-144.
Read J, Fletcher DH, Wevill T, Deletic A (2010) Plant traits that enhance pollutant removal from
stormwater in biofiltration systems, International Journal of Phytoremediation, 12(1), 3453.
Read J, Wevill T, Fletcher DH, Deletic A (2008) Variation among plant species in pollutant
removal from stormwater in biofiltration systems, Water Research, 42(4-5), 893 902.
Schang C., D. T. McCarthy, K. Bratieres and A. Deleti (2010) Expected performances and
lifespan of the enviss stormwater treatment technologies: results of a breakthrough
analysis, 12th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto Alegre/Brazil, 11-16
September 2011
Zinger Y, Deletic A, T.D. Fletcher, P. Breen, T. Wong (2010) A Dual-mode Biofilter System:
Case study in Kfar Sava, Israel, 12th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto
Alegre/Brazil, 11-16 September 2011

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